TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

Introduction
Theintentionaltortsmakinguptrespasstothepersonplayanessentialrolein
protect[ing]anindividualspersonorpropertyrightsfromunwantedinterferencebyothers.1
While,trespassorytorts

haveawiderangeofpotentialapplicationsinavarietyofcircumstances
2
betweencivilians, theyarefrequentlyreliedonforredressincasesofunlawfulexerciseof
5
executive3andpolicepowers.4Ofparticularimportanceisthetortof
FalseImprisonment.

LuntzandHamblyelaboratedontheimportanceofthisremedialcivicmechanisminthecontext
ofjurisdictions6whichlackaconstitutionalorstatutorybillofrightsinstatingthat:

the tort of trespass has a particular significance in bringing issues of civil liberties
before the courts, where the contest is as to whether trespassory acts by a public
officeragainstacitizenspersonareauthorisedbylaw7

DespitecontinualiterationofitsimportancebyAustraliancourtsofthehighestauthority,8 the
tortof
FI
hasexperiencedsubstantialerosionorfailureintwocontemporarycontexts:

1. ThefailureinmanyAustraliancourtsofclaimsof
FI
byindigenousAustralianvictimsof
theStolenGeneration,and
2. Thegradualstatutoryexpansionofwhatconstituteslawfuldetention.

Thistextwillseektoexploretheefficacyof
FI
inlightofthe
CivilLiabilityAct2002(
NSW),9the
impactofexpandingpolicepowersandinrelationtothedecisionin
SouthAustraliav
LampardTrevorrow
anditsimpactonremediesforvictimsoftheStolenGeneration.

TEXTBOOK31

Kidnapping
:
ZankervVartzokas(
1988)34ACrimR11
BurtonvDavies&GeneralAccidentFire&Life
AssuranceCorporationLtd
[1953]StRQd26
Conductingpsychiatrictreatment
:
HartvHerron
(1984)
AustTortsReps80201
3
See:
RuddockvTaylor
(2005)222CLR612onclaimoffalseimprisonmentthroughrevocationofvisa
whichwasultimatelyunsuccessful.
4
See:
HoudavNSW
[2005]NSWSC1053
NSWvIbbett[
2006]HCA57
5
Henceforth:
FI
6
SuchasAustralia
7
LuntzHandHamblyD,Torts:CasesandCommentary(LexisNexisButtersworth,7thed,2013)718at
[13.5.1]
8

RuddockvTaylor
(2005)222CLR612perMcHughJat[120]andKirbyJat[137],[138]paraphrasingthe
wordsofDeaneJin
ReBoltonExparteBeane
(1987)162CLR514at528529
TrobridgevHardy
1955
94CLR147at152.8perFullagarJasreproducedinStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesof
TortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)5556
9
Henceforth:
CLA


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

IntroductiontoFI
Atcommonlaw,thetortof
FI
fallswithinthefamilyofintentionaltortsknownastrespasstothe
10
person andseekstoprovideremedytoindividualswhosepersonallibertyhasbeen
unlawfullyrestrained. 11Aclaimof
FI
isactionableperseinthatitdoesnotrequireanytangible
harmtobedoneonlythattheelementsaresatisfied.12

Tosuccessfullyprovethatadefendantsconductconstitutes
FI
,aplaintiffisrequiredtoprove
thattheconductconstitutedapositivevoluntarilyactdirectlycausingthetotaldeprivationof
libertyofaclaimant.13Inotherwords,
FI
isdividedinto3generalelements:14

1. PositiveVoluntaryAct 15
2. DirectlyCausing
3. TotalDeprivationofLiberty16

FI
isconsequentlysaidtobeatortofstrictliability,inthattheplaintiffisnotrequiredtoprove
thatthedefendantintendedtheoutcomeofthetrespassoryact,merelythatthedefendant
intendedtheactitself.17Theburdenofprovingtheseelementsrestsontheplaintifftoproveon
thebalanceofprobabilities.18 Ifaclaimof
FI
issaidtohavebeenprovenonthebalanceof
probabilities,theburdenofraisingtheissueofalawfuljustificationrestsonthedefendant.19

BoundariesofFI
Aswithanyapplicationoflaw,
FI
isntwithoutitsboundarycases.Thesecasesraisequestions
regardingtheextenttowhichindividualelementsapplyandarediscussedbelow.

10

StewartPandStuhmckeA,AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)45
Ibid55
12
StewartPandStuhmckeA,AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)32
13
Ibid56
Bulsey&AnorvStateofQueensland[
2015]QCA187perFraserJAat[72]citing
Marshallv
Watson
[1972]HCA27(1972)124CLR640
SymesvMahon[
1922]SAStRp57[1922]SASR447
14
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)56
15
Henceforth:
PVA
ItshouldbenotedthatalthoughthereisnoAustralianauthorityonnegligent
FI
.Thisis
discussedfurtherinthefollowingsections.
16
Henceforth:
TDL
17
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)33,
34
18
Ibid39McHughJin
DepartmentofHealthandCommunityServices(NT)vJWB&SMB(Marions
Case)
(1992)175CLR218andWindeyerJin
McHalevWatson(
1964)111CLR384
19
LawfuljustificationswillbediscussedinfurtherdetailbelowStewartPandStuhmckeA,Australian
PrinciplesofTortLaw,(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)123
11


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

Directness,CausationandNegligent
FI
Thisistobecontrastedwiththedecisionin
ColesMyerLtdvWebster
,20IppJAexploredthe
issueofwhetherdirectnesswassatisfiedwheretheconductofthedefendanteventuallyledto
the
FI
oftheplaintiffbypolice.21Referringtothevariousauthorities,thatthechainofcausation
isnotbrokeniftheconductofthedefendantcausedandprocuredthewrongfuldetentionofthe
plaintiff.22Itfollowsthatinclaimsof
FI,
thechainofcausationisonlybrokenwhenthe
interveningactisanactwhichrepresentseitherthevoluntaryactofanotherpersonorthatthe
resultantactionsofaplaintiffwerethecoerciveconsequenceoftheactionsofthedefendant.23

However,thisconstructionseemsproblematicfortheissueofwhetheraplaintiffcanmaintaina
claimof
FI
bythe
negligent
actoromissionofadefendant.JacobsJin
CaltexOil(Australia)
24
PtyLtdvTheDredgeWillemstad
notedinobiterthataplaintiffmayrecoverfinanciallossin
negligencewherethedefendantsnegligencehascausedtheplaintiff(ortheplaintiffsproperty)
tobeimmobilised. 25
WhilethereisnoAustralianauthorityregardingnegligenttrespasstothe
person,therehavebeennumerousmentionsinobiternotrefusingthepossibilityoffuture
cases.26 Thiswouldposesubstantiallegislativelimitationsonplaintiffsintherecoveryof
damagesforinjurycausedbynegligent
FI.27

TDL
Thegistofanactionin
FI
isthetotalrestrictionofapersonsfreedomofmovement.28However,
itiswellestablishedthatsucharestrictionneedntbephysical.Australiancourtshavetreated
instancesofnonphysicalorpsychological
TDLa
srequiringevidenceofthe
complete
29
30
submission
,
or
overbearingofthewill,
bytheplaintifftothewillofthedefendant.
Consequently,incasesclaimingwhatappearstobeentirelypsychological
TDL,
courtshave
heldthat
TDL
mayonlybeestablishedintheabsenceofthereasonablemeansofescape.31
20

(2009)AustTortsReps82033[2009]NSWCA299BC200909173
LuntzHandHamblyD,Torts:CasesandCommentary(LexisNexisButtersworth,7thed,2013)at649
[11.5.19c]quotingIppJAin
ColesMyerLtdvWebster(
2009)AustTortsReps82033[2009]NSWCA299
BC200909173
22
Ibid
23

McFadzeanvConstruction,Mining,ForestryandEnergyUnion
(2007)20VR250perWarrenCJ,Nettle
andRedlichJJAat2645Henceforth:
McFadzean
24

(1976)136CLR529Henceforth:
CaltexvWillemstad
25
CaltexvWillemstad
(1976)136CLR529citedinStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesof
TortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)56
26
SeediscussioninStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,
3rded,2012)62citing
CowellvCorrectiveServicesCommissionofNewSouthWales(
1988)13NSWLR
714and
WatsonvMarshallandCade
[1971]HCA33124CLR621
27
Seediscussionof
CLA
below
28
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)58
29

SymesvMahon
[1922]SASR447perMurrayCJat453
30

McFadzean
(2007)20VR250perWarrenCJ,NettleandRedlichJJAat2645
31

RvMacquarieandBudge
(1875)13SCR(NSW)264
BalmainNewFerryCoLtdvRobertson
(1906)4
CLR379
McFadzeanvConstruction,Forestry,MiningandEnergyUnion
(2007)20VR250
21


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

Australianauthoritieshaveheldthatareasonablemeansofescapeisdeterminedby
assessmentoftheriskattachedtothemeansofescapeleftopentotheplaintiff.32Australian
courtshaveheldthat
TDL
isestablishedwhendespitetheprotestandrequestoftheplaintiffto
alight,thedefendantcontinuestocommandthevehicleinsuchawaythatexitwould
reasonablycauseharm.33 However,ithasalsobeenheldthatthespecialknowledgeofthe
plaintiffmaybetakenintoaccountindetermining
TDL.34
Thisrequiresthatinproving
TDL
the
plaintiffmustshowthattheirstateofmindwassuchthattheiractionswereacoercive
consequenceofwhattheyreasonablyapprehended.

In
Bulsey&AnorvStateofQueensland,35
thismeantthatthecourtheldthat,althoughitwas
obvioustooneoftheappellantsthatthepolicewereexecutinganarrest,thehighhanded
mannerinwhichthearrestwasconductedwascalculatedtohavetheshockingandfrightening
effectmakingtheappellantaprisonerinherownhome.36Inotherwords,the
TDL
inthiscase
wasonlyestablishedinthemindoftheappellantbywayoftheexcessivemannerinwhichthe
policeexecutedthearrest.

ApplicationoftheCLA2002(
NSW)and
FI
Exclusionofintentionaltortstothepersonand
HoudavTheStateofNew
37
SouthWales
Thedetrimentalimpactoftheconsolidationofcommonlawtortremediesintothe
CLA2002
(NSW)andtheresultantimpactontheabilityofplaintiffstopursuefairandjustcompensation
iswelldocumented.38The
CLA2002(
NSW)wascreatedinlightofthesupposedpublicliability
crisiscausinganunsustainableincreaseininsurancepremiums.39Itattemptstoredressthis

BurtonvDaviesandGeneralAccidentFire&lifeAssuranceCorpLtd[
1953]StRQd26perTownleyJ
at30
33
Althoughitfocusedontheissueofimminentcontactforassault,see
ZankervVartzokas(
1988)34A
CrimR11
34
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)59
citing
BalmainNewFerryCoLtdvRobertson(
1906)4CLR379and
McFadzeanvConstruction,Forestry,
Mining,andEnergyUnion
(2007)20VR250
35
[2015]QCA187(6October2015)
36

BulseyandAnorvStateofQueensland
[2015]QCA187perFraserJAat[59],[60]
37

HoudavTheStateofNewSouthWales
[2005]NSWSC1053(25October2005)Henceforth:
Houda
38
ParaphrasingJohnNorth,
TortLaw:WhatsthePoint?A
ddressbyMrJohnNorth,PresidentoftheLaw
councilofAustralia,24June2005,attheInauguralAustralianCapitalTerritoryBranchConferenceofthe
AustralianLawyersAllianceAlsoseeIpp,HonDAThemetamorphosisofslipandfall(2007)29
AustBar
Rev
150asreproducedinStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederation
Press,3rded,2012)2425
39
DavidIpp,PeterCrane,DonSheldon,IanMacintosh,
ReviewoftheLawofNegligenceFinalReport
(September2002)
,CanprintCommunicationsPtyLtd,2002at(xi)Henceforth:
TheIppReport
32


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

issuebyimposingrestrictionsonthequantumofdamagesrecoverableforinjuriescausedby
negligence.40

The
CLA
additionallyintroducednovelandpowerfuldefencesavailabletopublicauthorities
conflictingwiththenotionthatGovernmentauthoritiesshouldbesubjecttotheruleoflawasan
ordinarycitizenthusplacinginordinatelyhighbarriersonplaintiffswhoseekfairandjust
compensation.41Furthermore,ithasbeennotedthatthishasthefurtherresultofdiminishing
theresponsibilityofwrongdoersaswellasreducingtheneedforindividualsandorganisations
toemploysafetyandriskmanagementpractices. 42Thisisaworryingpicturetopaintinlightof
civilremediessuchas
FI
whichservetoprovideremedyforexcessofexecutiveorpolice
powers.

Withthisbeingsaid,thedecisionin
Houda,
heldthattheoperationofthe
CLA2002(
NSW)left
43
actionsatcommonlawinintentionaltortslargelyuntouched. In
Houda,C
ooperAJ

heldthat
44
injuryinthecontextofs3B(1)(a) wastobedefinedintermsofeverydayusageandwas
exemptfromthedefinitionposedinlaterpartsoftheact.45Suchaconstructionextendedthe
rangeofcasestobeexcludedfromoperationunderthe
CLAb
yvirtueofs3B(1)(a)46tocases
inwhichtheinjurysufferedwasanonphysicalinjuryasmightbesufferedinacaseof
FI
in
47
whichnoothertrespasstothepersonisperpetrated
.

ExemplaryDamagesand
NSWvIbbett48
Awardofexemplarydamagesisdesignedtopunishdefendants,deterthemandothersfrom
similarbehaviour,andtoshowthecourtscondemnationofsuchbehaviourinupholdingtherule
oflaw.49

StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)40
Ibid25,40paraphrasingIpp,HonDAThemetamorphosisofslipandfall(2007)29
AustBarRev1
50
42
JohnNorth,
TortLaw:WhatsthePoint?A
ddressbyMrJohnNorth,PresidentoftheLawcouncilof
Australia,24June2005,attheInauguralAustralianCapitalTerritoryBranchConferenceoftheAustralian
LawyersAllianceAlsoseeIpp,HonDAThemetamorphosisofslipandfall(2007)29
AustBarRev1
50as
reproducedinStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,
2012)2425
43
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)40
citing
TheIppReport,
2002,[1.14]
44

CLA2002
(NSW)
45
CooperAJconsideredss3,11ofthe
CLA2002
(NSW)
46

CLA2002
(NSW)s3B(1)states:
[t]heprovisionsofthisActdonotapplytoorinrespectofcivilliability
(andawardofdamagesinthoseproceedings)ofapersoninrespectofan
intentionalactthatisdone
bythepersonwithintenttocauseinjury
ordeath
47

HoudavTheStateofNewSouthWales
[2005]NSWSC1053listingthenonphysicalinjuriesat[336]
andaffirmingtheirexemptionunderthe
CLA2002
(NSW)at[338][348]StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)4142
48

NSWvIbbett
[2005]NSWCA445(13December2005)
49
See
Ibbett
[2005]NSWCA445perSpigelmanCJat[38],[39]citing
GrayvMotorAccidentCommission
(1988)196CLR1at[15],[31],[32]and
LambvCotogno
[1987]HCA47(1987)164CLR1at10)
40
41


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

Themajorityin
Ibbett
heldthatexemplarydamageswerejustifiedwhereadefendantsconduct
eitherconsciouslyorbyinference 50displayedcontumelious,outrageousorhighhanded
disregardforaplaintiffsrights.51Withthisbeingsaid,theirhonourswerecarefulnottoopen
exemplarydamagestocasesinwhichtheconductissimplyreckless.Theystressedthatthe
qualityoftheconductwill,ineverycase,dependonthecircumstances[including]thenature
ofthepowerbeingexercisedbythetortfeasorandtheseriousnessoftheeffectontheplaintiff.
52

FI
haslongbeenregardedasacrucialsafeguardoftheinalienablerightofindividualstobefree
ofinterferencetotheirpersonandlibertybygovernmentsandotherpersons.53Thiswasiterated
byBastenJAinstatingthat[t]heconferralofspecialpoweronapoliceofficerissubjectto
jealouslyenforcedconditionsdesignedtoensurethatbasichumanrightsandfreedomsarenot
compromisedbeyondthatwhichisdemonstrablyjustifiableinthepublicinterest.54 Clearlytheir
honours,regardedthemechanismofexemplarydamagesasanessentialpartofremedying
graveinfringementsofcivillibertiesbythosewhopossessspecialstatutorypowersover
ordinarycitizens.

ItremainsanopenquestioninAustraliancourtswhetheraclaimof
FI
causedbythenegligent
actoromissionofadefendantwouldbesubjecttotheprovisionsofthe
CLA2002
(NSW),55
recallingthats21limitsawardsofexemplary,punitiveandaggravateddamagesinactionsfor
theawardofpersonalinjurydamages.56

EfficacyofFI
TheStolenGenerationand
StateofSouthAustraliavLampardTrevorrow57
58
Thedecisionin
LampardTrevorrow
representsaprinciplednarrowingofthedefinitionof
TDL.

59
In
LampardTrevorrow
,theFullCourtoftheSupremeCourtofSouthAustralia reversedthe
50

Giventhematerialcircumstances

Ibbett
[2005]NSWCA445perSpigelmanCJat[35],[38],[42],[45]perBastenJAat[221][224]
52
IbidperBastenJAat[235]
53

RuddockvTaylor
(2005)222CLR612perKirbyJat[137]
TrevorrowvSouthAustralia(No5)
(2007)98
SASR136perGrayJat[982]paraphrasingthewordsofFullagarJin
TrobridgevHardy
(1955)94CLR
147
ReBoltonExParteBeane
(1987)162CLR514at528529perDeaneJ
54
IbidperBastenJAat[235]
55
ThismatterisdiscussedandtosomeextentleftopenbyBastenJAin
NSWvIbbett[
2005]NSWCA445
[194][220]AlsoseeStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,
3rded,2012)56citingJacobsJin
CaltexOil(Australia)PtyLtdvTheDredgeWillemstad
(1976)136
CLR529perJacobsJ:supportingthepropositionthataplaintiffmayrecoverfinanciallossinnegligence
wherethedefendantsnegligencehascausedtheplaintiff(ortheplaintiffsproperty)tobeimmobilised
56

CLA2002
(NSW)s21(Limitationsofexemplary,punitiveandaggravateddamages)
57

StateofSouthAustraliavLampardTrevorrow
[2010]SASC56(22March2010)Henceforth:
LampardTrevorrow
58
Ibidat[307]
59
SouthAustraliaHenceforth:
SA
51


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

findingof
FI
onappeal60regardingtheclaimofBruceTrevorrow,avictimoftheStolen
Generation,andhisforcibleremovalfromthecustodyofhisparentsbytheAboriginal
ProtectionBoard.61

Theissueinrelationtotheclaimof
FI
beforethecourtin
LampardTrevorrow
waswhetherthe
62
elementof
TDL
hadbeenmetinthenecessarysense. Thejointdecisionofthecourtheldthat
theelementof
TDL
hadnotbeenestablishedinthenecessarysense,holdingthat[itwouldnt
be]realistictodescribethecareandprotectiongivenbythecarerofachildasarestraintonthe
child,intherelevantsenseoftheterm.63Thecourtcontinuedinstatingthatsuchanexpansion
oftheelementof
TDL
wouldexpand[thetortof
FI
]intopreviouslyuntouchedareasand
64
situations,withunpredictableconsequences.

Theconclusionreachedbythecourtin
LampardTrevorroww
asdeliveredwithexplicit
65
reluctanceinregardstoprecluding
FI
. However,thecourtsignificantlyupheldtheawardfor
66
damagesinnegligence. Furthermore,thedecisionin
LampardTrevorrow
,hasbeensaidto
havehadadetrimentalimpactonotherclaimsmadebyvictimsoftheStolenGeneration.67

Consideringthetreatmentofclaimsinnegligencebythe
CLA2002(
NSW)inregardstothe
68
limitationsdictatedbys21, theefficacyofaclaimin
FI
byamemberoftheStolenGeneration
inNSWmaybesubstantiallycurbedinprovidingfairandjustremedyfortheinfringementofa
plaintiffsrighttobefreeoftheexcessoftyrannyandtodetergovernmentandexecutivebodies
fromsuchbehaviour.

DefenceofStatutoryAuthorisation
Policepowersofarrestanddetentionhaveundergoneawelldocumentedandmuchcriticised
expansion69throughtheintroductionofthe
LawEnforcement(PowersandResponsibilities)Act
StewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederationPress,3rded,2012)64
Henceforth:
APB
.The
APBw
asastatutorybodycorporate,constitutedbythe
AboriginesAct1934
(SA)asexplainedin
LampardTrevorrow
[2010]SASC56at[3]
62

LampardTrevorrow
[2010]SASC56at[282][283]
63
Ibidat[307]
64
Ibidat[307]
65
Ibidat[306],[460]
66
Ibidat[423]
67
Suchasin
CubillovCommonwealth
(2011)112FCR455inwhichtheclaimof
FIf
ailedbasedon
limitationsregardingthetimeatwhichthecasewasactionedaswellasthedifficultyofprocuringthe
necessaryevidenceaftersuchaperiod.Thecourtheldthatsuchabiastowardtheplaintiffagainstthestate
couldntbetoleratedSeeStewartPandStuhmckeA,
AustralianPrinciplesofTortLaw,
(TheFederation
Press,3rded,2012)64
68

CLA2002
(NSW)s21(Limitationonawardofexemplary,punitiveandaggravateddamagesforpersonal
injuryarisingfromnegligence)
69
SeeMartin,G,Noworries?Yesworries!HowNSWiscreepingtowardsapolicestate(2010)35(3)
AlternativeLawJournal
163SentasVandMcMahonRChangestothepolicepowerofarrest(2014)25(3)
CurrentIssuesinCriminalJustice
785
60
61


TORTSESSAYAUTUMN2016Q1RESPONSE

2002
(NSW).70Theexpansionofpowersintroducedthrough
LEPRAh
avebeencharacterised
71
72
asintroducingproactivepolicing andnetwidening amountingtoanideologyofpolicing
targetingprecrime.Furthermore,NSWPremierMikeBairdrecentlyannouncedhis
intentiontoexpandpowersforpolicingofprecrimeaffordedthrough
LEPRA
toextendthe
maximumtimefordetentionandinvestigationwithoutawarrantincircumstancesofreasonable
suspicionthatapersonisinvolvedinaterroristplan.73

If,aswehaveseenabove,
FI
isconsideredtobeanimportantmethodofremedyingunlawful
detentionsandtheexcessoftyranny,suchanexpansionofpolicepowersrepresentsan
insidiousandunjustincursionofthecircumstancesinwhichclaimsof
FI
maybeactionable
.

Conclusion
FI
clearlyholdsanimportantplaceintheprovidingremedyanddeterrenceofthegrave
infringementofthemostelementaryandimportantofallcommonlawrights.74Throughthe
abilityofcourtstoawardexemplarydamagesinthecasesofexcessiveabuseofspecialpowers
affordedtoexecutiveofficersinadditiontotherecognitionthatthemoreabstractdamages
causedby
FI
,itprovidesanopportunityforsubstantialremedytoinjuredplaintiffsaswellasan
importantdeterrenttopotentialtortfeasors.

However,clearly
FI
isexperiencingaslowandgradualincursion.Throughtheexpansionof
policepowersthroughproactivepolicing,thedecisionofcourtstolimitapplicabilityinclaimsby
victimsoftheStolenGenerationandthepotentiallimitingofexemplarydamagesforfuture
casesof
negligentFI
,theefficacyof
FI
isbeingdiminished.

70

Henceforth:
LEPRA
SentasVandMcMahonRChangestothepolicepowerofarrest(2014)25(3)
CurrentIssuesinCriminal
Justice
785,787
72
Martin,G,Noworries?Yesworries!HowNSWiscreepingtowardsapolicestate(2010)35(3)
AlternativeLawJournal
163,164165
73
NichollsS,PremierunveilscounterterrorisminvestigativedetentionpowersforNSWpolice,
Sydney
MorningHerald
(4May2016)
74
ParaphrasingwordsofFullagarJin
TrobridgevHardy(1955)
94CLR147at158
71