MCS-034

Qst.1 A person deposits Rs. 35, 000/-in a bank in a saving bank account at a rate of 7% per annum. Let
Pn be the amount payable after n years, set up a recurrence relation to model the problem. Also using the
recurrence relation, find amount payable after 6 years.
Ans: Coming Soon
Qst.2 For each of the following recurrences find, its order and degree and also tell whether it is
homogeneous or non-homogeneous

Ans:
(i) Homogeneous of order 3 and Degree 1.
(ii) Homogeneous of No order and Degree 2.
(iii)Non- Homogenous No Order and Degree 1.
(iv) Homogeneous of No order and Degree 1.
(v) Homogeneous of Has No Order and Degree 4.
(vi) Non- Homogenous No Order and No Degree.
(vii)
Non- Homogenous has 2 Order and Degree 1.
Qst.3 Find generating function for each of the following sequences:
(i) ak = ( k + 1) for k = 0, 1, 2, 3,
(ii) (1, 5 k(k+1)/2, 25 k(k+1)(k+2)/6, 125k(k+1)(k+2) (k+3)/24, )
Qst.9 Define each of the following concepts from graph theory and give one suitable example for the
concept:
Ans:
(i) Complete graph: A complete graph is a graph in which any two vertices are adjacent, i.e., each vertex is
joined to every other vertex by an edge. We denote the complete graph on n vertices by Kn.
In Other Words, In the mathematical field of graph theory, a complete graph is a simple undirected
graph in which every pair of distinct vertices is connected by a unique edge. A complete digraph is a directed
graph in which every pair of distinct vertices is connected by a pair of unique edges (one in each direction). In
Fig., we have shown Kn for various n. K1 is just a single vertex; K2 consists of two vertices and an edge; K3 is
often called a triangle. The last two figures in Fig.7 show two ways of representing K4.

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Figure: Complete Graph
(ii) Path : Path is a walk in which all the vertax are distinct that is walk (w) is said to be path if no vertices is
duplicate in the sequence In other words , A path is a walk that does not include any vertex twice, except that its
first vertex might be the same as its last.
Example

Two paths from U to V

Path can be categorizes into two catagories:
Open Path
Closed Path
(iii) Cycle:For a graph (G) cycle can be define as a sequence of vertices and edges which must start and end
with same vertaixes with the following restriction Origin and Terminas must be same. No Intermediate vertices
can be duplicates
In other words, A cycle is a path that begins and ends on the same vertex.
Example,

(iv) Subgraph : A graph G is bipartite if and only if G does not contain any cycle of odd length as a
subgraph.In other Words , Let H be a graph with vertex set V(H) and edge set E(H), and similarly let G be a
graph with vertex set V(G) and edge set E(G). Then, we say that H is a subgraph of G if V(H) ( V(G) and E(H)
( E(G). In such a case, we also say that G is a supergraph of H.

Fig:G1 is a subgraph of G2 and G3

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In Fig. G1 is a subgraph of both G2 and G3 but G3 is not a subgraph of G2. Any graph isomorphic to a
subgraph of G is also referred to as a subgraph of G. If H is a subgraph of G then we write H ( G. When H ( G
but H = G, i.e., V(H) = V(G) or E(H) = E(G), then H is called a proper subgraph of G. Spanning subgraph (or
Spanning supergraph): A spanning subgraph (orspanning supergraph) of G is a subgraph (or supergraph) H with
V(H) = V(G), i.e. H and G have exactly the same vertex set.It follows easily from the definitions that any
simple graph on n vertices is a subgraph of the complete graph Kn. In Fig. 2.1, G1 is a proper spanning
subgraph
of G3.
(vi) Connected components of a graph : In graph theory, a connected component (or just component) of an
undirected graph is a subgraph in which any two vertices are connected to each other by paths, and which is
connected to no additional vertices in the supergraph. For example, the graph shown in the illustration on the
right has three connected components. A vertex with no incident edges is itself a connected component. A graph
that is itself connected has exactly one connected component, consisting of the whole graph.

A graph with three connected components.

(vii) Edge connectivity : The edge-connectivity, (G), of a connected graph G is the least number of edges
that need to be removed for G to become disconnected. For example, the edge-connectivity of any graph with a
bridge is 1. Let us consider another kind of example.Example 4: Find the edge-connectivity of the graph G
given in Fig.
Solution: First note that this graph does not have any bridges. Therefore its edge-connectivity is more than 1.
Now, if we remove the edges xz, zy, then the graph gets disconnected. Similarly, there are other sets of two
edges, namely, {xv, vu}and {uw, Connectedness wy}, the removal of which disconnects G. Therefore, the
edge connectivity of G is 2.
Note : In the context of computer networks, the edge-connectivity of a graph representing such a
network gives the number of link failures that can be tolerated before the network becomes disconnected.
(viii) Bipartite graph: A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertex-set can be split into two sets in such a way
that each edge of the graph joins a vertex in first set to a vertex in second set. A graph G is said to be bipartite
if V (G) = X Y, where X and Y are non-empty sets such that X Y = and every edge in E (G) has one end
vertex in the set X and the other end vertex in the set Y. The sets X and Y form a partition of the set V (G),
and we often say that X Y is a bipartition of the graph G. We also denote such a graph by G(X,Y).
An alternative way of thinking of a bipartite graph is in terms of colouring its vertices with two colours,
say red and blue a graph is bipartite if we can colour each vertex red or blue in such a way that every edge
has a red end and a blue end.
Bipartite graphs are useful in studying various real-life problems, including neural networks. One model
that emulates the essential working of the network using graph theory is given in Fig.18. As you can see, this is

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MCS-034
a bipartite graph, so that the properties of bipartite graphs are useful for studying this model. The example of
bipartite Graph

(ix) Spanning tree of a graph: A spanning tree for a graph G is a subgraph of G which contains all the
vertices of G and is a tree. This concept is useful for finding, for example, the minimum number of roads to be
kept open to maintain connections in a given transport network. Now, the question is whether every graph has a
spanning tree. The following theorem, the proof of which is omitted, tells us about this.
Theorem: A graph G is connected if and only if it has a spanning tree. The theorem above tells us that in a
graph with k components, each component will Connectedness have a spanning tree. Because of this result
and because of the special structure of trees, in trying to prove a general result in graph theory, it is sometimes
convenient to try to prove the corresponding result for a tree. The general result would, then, follow. If G is a
connected graph, the spanning tree in G is a subgraph of G which includes every vertex of G and is also a tree.
Consider the following graph

The following are the three of its spanning trees

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(x) Vertex cut-set: In graph theory, a cut is a partition of the vertices of a graph into two disjoint subsets. Any
cut determines a cut-set, the set of edges that have one endpoint in each subset of the partition. These edges are
said to cross the cut. In a connected graph, each cut-set determines a unique cut, and in some cases cuts are
identified with their cut-sets rather than with their vertex partitions.
A cut

is a partition of

of a graph

into two subsets S and T. The cut-set of a cut

is the set
of edges that have one endpoint in S and the other
endpoint in T. If s and t are specified vertices of the graph G, then an st cut is a cut in which s belongs to the
set S and t belongs to the set T.
In an un-weighted undirected graph, the size or weight of a cut is the number of edges crossing the cut. In a
weighted graph, the value or weight is defined by the sum of the weights of the edges crossing the cut.
A bond is a cut-set that does not have any other cut-set as a proper subset.

A maximum cut.
A minimum cut.
(xi) Eulerian circuit : Eulerian circuit: A circuit in a graph is called Eulerian if each edge of thegraph occurs
exactly once in the circuit.

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MCS-034
(xii) Eulerian graph: In graph theory, a Eulerian trail (or Eulerian path) is a trail in a graph which visits
every edge exactly once. Similarly, an Eulerian circuit or Eulerian cycle is an Eulerian trail which starts and
ends on the same vertex. They were first discussed by Leonhard Euler while solving the famous Seven Bridges
of Knigsberg problem in 1736. Mathematically the problem can be stated like this:
Given the graph in the image, is it possible to construct a path (or a cycle, i.e. a path starting and ending
on the same vertex) which visits each edge exactly once? Euler proved that a necessary condition for the
existence of Eulerian circuits is that all vertices in the graph have an even degree, and stated without proof that
connected graphs with all vertices of even degree have an Eulerian circuit. The first complete proof of this latter
claim was published posthumously in 1873 by Carl Hierholzer.

The Knigsberg Bridges graph. This graph is not

Eulerian, therefore, a solution does not exist.

Every vertex of this graph has an even degree,

therefore this is an Eulerian graph. Following
the edges in alphabetical order gives an Eulerian
circuit/cycle.
(xiii) Hamiltonian graph: A graph is called Hamiltonian if it contains a Hamiltonian cycle. A cycle C in a
graph G is called a Hamiltonian cycle if it contains all the vertices of G. A graph is called Hamiltonian if it
contains a Hamiltonian cycle. A graph is called non-Hamiltonian if it is not Hamiltonian. A cycle passing
through all the vertices of a graph is called a Hamiltonian cycle. A graph containing a Hamiltonian cycle is
called a Hamiltonian graph. A path passing through all the vertices of a graph is called a Hamiltonian path and a
graph containing a Hamiltonian path is said to be traceable. Examples of Hamiltonian graphs are given in

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MCS-034
(xiv) Open trail: A trail is open if the initial and end vertices of the trail are distinct. A trail is a walk in which
all the edges are distinct. A closed trail is sometimes called a tour or circuit, but these usages are not universal,
and the latter is often reserved for a regular subgraph of degree two.

A directed tour. This is not a simple cycle, since the blue vertices are used twice. Traditionally, a path referred
to what is now usually known as an open walk. Nowadays, when stated without any qualification, a path is
usually understood to be simple, meaning that no vertices (and thus no edges) are repeated. (The term chain has
also sometimes been used to mean a path in the modern sense.) In the example labeled simple graph, (5, 2, 1) is
a path of length 2. The closed equivalent to this type of walk, a walk that starts and ends at the same vertex but
otherwise has no repeated vertices or edges, is called a cycle or closed path. Like path, this term traditionally
referred to any closed walk, but now is usually understood to be simple by definition. In the example labeled
simple graph, (1, 5, 2, 1) is a cycle of length 3. (A cycle, unlike a path, is not allowed to have length 0.) Paths
and cycles of n vertices are often denoted by Pn and Cn, respectively. (Some authors use as subscript the length
instead of the number of vertices, however.)
(xv) Edge traceable graph: A connected graph is edge traceable if it has an open trail. A graph G is edge
traceable if G contains an open trail that contains all the edges of G. For instance, the graph in Fig.8. is edge
traceable because it contains the open trail {v5, v1, v2, v5, v4, v3, v2, v4}. This contains all the seven edges of
the graph and the end vertices are distinct.
In view of the definition of an edge traceable graph, citizens of Knigsberg will have to check whether the
graph in Fig.3(b) is edge traceable. As an immediate consequence of Theorem 1 , we get the following
characterisation of edge traceable graphs.

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