Design for intuitive use: a study of mobile phones

A. Marsh, R. Setchi
School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK

Abstract

This paper explores the field of design for intuitive use by researching existing ideas and conducting an
experimental study to determine if mobile phones are currently viewed as intuitive to use. In the context of this study,
design for intuitive use is defined as the seamless alignment of cognitive expectation with interface actuality. The
experiment carried out compares mobile phones produced by two large manufacturers, to determine which areas of a
mobile phone facia are commonly viewed to be used for specific tasks and to investigate which image schemata are
used to perform generic interaction tasks. As indicated by the participants in the survey, the Nokia interface is
currently viewed as being very intuitive to use, and their system of interface design has shaped the consumers
expectations of interaction with mobile phones. The experiments conducted showed that the nearer the top of the
keypad a key is positioned, the more important, or regularly used it is expected to be. The most common image
schemata for interaction as indicated by the participants in the experiments are the vertical and depth schemata.

Keywords: Design for intuitive use, intuitive interactions, mobile phones, image schemata

1. Introduction The experiments conducted are designed to determine

The term ‘intuitive’ is referred to regularly in
design, technical fields and by users of products that
require cognitive interaction. Intuition is defined in [1]
as “the power of knowing or understanding something
immediately without reasoning or being taught.”
Therefore, a product can be intuitive if its functions are
clear and the methods needed to implement them take
little or no cognitive effort. It is apparent that such
products could bring a substantial competitive
advantage to their manufacturers.
Design for intuitive use is used to make a process
more efficient when there is more than one path that
can be taken to achieve the same result. A mobile
phone, for example, that responds to the owner’s
actions in the desired manner would not need an
instruction manual, would be quick to use and would
allow the customer to use the phone as a powerful tool.
This paper aims to explore existing ideas in the
field of design for intuitive use and determine some of
the factors that make a mobile phone intuitive to use.
preferred methods of interaction and investigate how
one interacts subconsciously with the physical
properties of a mobile phone.
The paper is organised as follows. Section 2
outlines current research in design for intuitive use.
Section 3 introduces the experimental procedures
employed and the main hypotheses tested. Section 4
contains results and a discussion of the findings.
Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. Background
2.1. Intuitive interaction
There is a universal agreement that intuition is a
type of cognitive processing that utilises knowledge
gained through prior experience [2], and intuitive use
of products involves utilising knowledge gained
through other experience(s) [3]. Furthermore, an
application is considered intuitively useable if the
users’ unconscious application of prior knowledge
leads to effective interaction [4].
Intuition is a term that should not be applied to the
product itself but instead to the link between interface
and user. As every user is different, so too will be the
level of intuition between the two. A computer mouse
seems intuitive to all computer users, but the first time
user may still need to be shown how to use it.
However, it would be very rare for that person to need
to be shown again. This would suggest that a mouse
becomes intuitive very quickly and this is perhaps the
ultimate aim of an intuitive interface.
It appears that intuition is learnt over time through
use of technologies, so that intuition as the dictionary
defines cannot exist in a designed interface. Instead, an
interface that can be easily learnt has the appearance of
being intuitive. Therefore, intuition is something
acquired by people whilst using technology, rather than
a standard of technology with which interaction is
effortless.
The methodological tools developed in the area
include the continuum of prior knowledge [5] and the
continuum of intuitive interaction [6].
The continuum of prior knowledge developed by
Hurtienne [5] shows that prior knowledge acquired
before interaction with the new product comes from a
variety of sources. These are classified into 5
categories: innate knowledge, embodied interaction,
culture, expertise, and use of tools. The higher up the
continuum, the smaller the potential number of users
possessing this knowledge; lower level knowledge is
used more frequently. These are the levels that are
more likely to be applied unconsciously and therefore
intuitively.
The continuum of intuitive interaction developed
by Blackler [5, 6] outlines three principles of creating
an intuitive interface:
1. Use familiar features from the same domain,
2. Transfer familiar things from other domains,
3. Increase redundancy and internal consistency of
function, appearance and location within the interface.
Furthermore, each principle is linked to a set of
terms. Principle 1, for example, is compared to
influencing the interface with body reflectors,
population stereotypes and features from existing
products in the same domain. Principle 2 relates to the
use of metaphors and familiar functions from other
domains. Principle 3 involves using visual and audible
feedback, and providing different ways of doing things
so that both novices and experts, and older and younger
users, can use the same interface easily and efficiently.
Keeping internal consistency allows users to apply the
same knowledge and metaphors throughout the
interface.
Similarly, Hurtienne [4] devises a number of
principles through which to design an intuitive
interface. These include: suitability for the task,
compatibility, consistency, gestalt laws (how the mind
groups similar elements to an entity, based upon shape,
colour, size and brightness of the elements), feedback,
self descriptiveness, and affordances.
2.2. Cognitive ergonomic: image schema and gestalt
laws
An image schema is a mental pattern that
recurrently provides a structured understanding of
various experiences. Image schemata can be used
literally, to describe objects or actions, or
metaphorically as a source domain to provide an
understanding of other experiences.
Johnson [7] describes image schema as “a dynamic
pattern which functions somewhat like the abstract
structure of an image and thereby connects up a vast
range of different experiences that manifest this same
recurring structure.” His list of schemata consists of
twenty seven individual schemata, including centre-
periphery, containment, cycle, path, force, link, part-
whole, scale, and verticality schemata.
Much study of image schema stems from research
in linguistic expressions. The words used to describe
especially metaphorical features, act as a gateway to
the structure the brain has composed to store the
information. It is important to note that the term
‘image’ in image schema is not an image that can be
drawn or be shaped in a three dimensional world. An
image schema does not have the rigidity or specificity
of a picture or structure, but consists of parts that can
be flexed and sculpted in an infinite number of ways,
sometimes interacting with other image schema, to
align with perceptions, ‘images’ and events.
Recently, Hurtienne and Israel [8] suggested the
application of image schemata and their metaphorical
extensions in the design of intuitively usable interfaces.
On creating an interface, its perceived structure should
try to fit in as closely as possible to the mind’s image
schemata. It would appear that the most relevant
schemata for an interface are the cycle schema, path
and end of path schema and verticality schema, whilst
the ergonomics of the interface (e.g. buttons, etc.) will
apply to link schema, force schema and scale schema
(especially with touch sensitive control).
Further studies indicate that the so called gestalt
laws can be applied to image schema [9]. Gestalt is a
German word meaning configuration or pattern.
Theorists reject the assumption that organization is the
product of learned relationships, but argue that
perception itself is a basic experience. The approach
focuses on the idea of the mind ‘grouping’ elements to
perceive objects. Generally there are five laws from
which others stem: proximity, similarity, closure,
symmetry and common fate. The gestalt laws are often
applied in product design. Buttons, for example,
grouped together are perceived as having similar
functions.
These theories indicate that to teach a mind how to
use something, it is the information presented to it that
will determine its success. Going further, the success of
this information resulting in the ‘correct’ cognitive
response lies in the similarity of the image schema
formed whilst receiving information and the image
schema used to implement interaction. Image schemata
are flexible structures for the mental organisation of
experiences and comprehension.
3. Experimental procedures and hypotheses
3.1 Questionnaire
The current style of phone sales from a high street
network store typically offers a free mobile phone
handset when a pay monthly tariff is purchased. These
tariffs typically last for 12 or 18 months and after this
time, a new tariff is sold, normally resulting in a new
handset. Therefore, the vast majority of the population
is expected to have owned their phone for a short
period of time and to have had a number of phones in
the past.
This style of selling results in the user making their
way through a high number of phones in a relatively
short period of time and also forces them to potentially
learn a new interface every year or so. The user may, to
make things easier, repeatedly choose the same phone
manufacturer to replace the old handset whilst new
technologies, appearances and styles are most probably
the main factors that would cause the user to choose a
new phone manufacturer. Users may have the ability to
be in contact with the new handsets from peers, so
when it is time to choose a new handset, the buyer may
have already done a little market research and have
made the decision for their new phone before walking
into the store. The factors discussed here will become
apparent, or disproved by the correlations between the
handset currently used and those that have been used
before.
The questionnaire published in [10] also contains a
set of questions designed to find out how mobile
phones are used. It is hypothesised that calls will rank
the highest score for use, and the camera will score
highly as well. It is not expected that internet and e-
mail will have high scores as these are still relatively
new technologies for the mobile phone and most
people will have a computer linked to far faster internet
at home. Games also, are expected to score low, simply
because the youthful users, less than 17 years of age,
have not been included in this survey due to ethical
reasons.
The awareness and ability sections of the
questionnaire will unveil how confident users feel
about their current phone. Phones with a high
awareness score may have an ‘open’ feel to their
interface, where most of these features will be on
display at the same time, increasing awareness, most
probably in the main menu field. A high score will
naturally appear if the user actually uses all the features
of their phone. In theory, the ability score should not
exceed the awareness score, as awareness must be
present before one can have the ability to use a feature.
There may however be some confusion here and
perhaps pride also, where the user may rank their
ability to use all the features they regularly use. The
ease of ‘learning’ one’s current phone is a direct score
for specific manufacturers and will be analysed as
such. If the hypothesis of most phones being owned for
1 or under years is true, then this question holds a great
significance as the early learning stages may still be
fresh in the user’s mind.
3.2 Experiments
The experiments involve a visual test with two
schematics of simplified button configurations; one
based on the Nokia system, and the other, based on the
Sony Ericsson system (Fig. 1), which also holds
similarities to the Motorola and Samsung systems
along with the iPod. The test is videoed with a digital
camera. The aim is to determine what keys, or areas of
the mobile phone facia are most commonly viewed to
be used for specific tasks and to investigate if there are
any consistencies with the methods required for
existing phones and these schematics.
Participants are informed about the scene in front
of them: “You have in front of you a simple schematic
of a phone facia. The visuals, key notation and screen
interface are entirely that of your choice. You are
currently at your ‘home’ screen with a locked keypad.”

Fig. 1. Nokia and Ericsson schematics used in the test.
The participants are then asked to perform the
following tasks, on each configuration one at a time,
using the schematics in any way they saw fit.
1. Unlock the key pad.
2. Press the ‘menu’ button;
3. Open the ‘text message’ folder and select ‘write
new message’.
4. Go back to the ‘home’ screen.
5. Key in the number 07856.
6. Delete the 6 and type a 2.
7. Delete all 5 numbers.
8. (Are you at the ‘home’ screen?)
9. Find your contacts.
10. Scroll down 5 names.
11. Scroll up 3 names.
12. Call this number.
13. Hang up.
14. Lock the key pad.
The results from this task are used to determine
any consistency in the areas used for locking and
unlocking the keypad, menu, select, back, number
keys, delete and scroll down, scroll up, call and hang
up.
It is hypothesised that there should be no problems
with typing of numbers due to the repeated constant
standards of these keys being placed at the base of the
keypad with the ordering of 1 top left and 9 bottom
right with *, 0 and # along the bottom row. The Nokia
schematic may cause more inconsistencies than the
Sony Ericsson schematic as the only variable in the
former is position, with identically sized and shaped
keys, thus removing most of the gestalt laws. The
results from this test may therefore indicate broad
similarities in desired positions of keys only.
Having the round shape in the top central position
of the Sony Ericsson schematic bares a far closer
resemblance to the items from which this schematic has
been derived, and may cause initial recollection of past
experiences with such items. If this is the case, it would
be expected that each test on this schematic will result
in similar patterns of interaction.
This schematic has a clear divide of the regular
shaped keys at the bottom from those above. This
factor leads to a hypothesis of the bottom keys being
used only for number typing whereas the top group will
be used for interface manipulation, without any cross
over. It will be interesting to see how many people use
the circular shape as a ‘wheel’, in a similar manner to
the iPod. None of the mobile phones widely available
on the current market use this system, but the iPod has
become such an iconic example of a portable electronic
device that some subjects must make this link.
4. Results and discussion
A total of 46 completed questionnaires were
returned and analysed. Only one of these participants
did not own a mobile phone. The average was 28 years
of age. There was a fair spread of age range; however
the greatest number of responses was from those in the
21-24 age range. On average, each user had owned 5.5
phones in their time. Text messaging had 33% of the
score for use of the mobile phone, and calls had 32%.
The final third was split between all other uses
displayed in the questionnaire. Nokia dominated the
past market share with 49%. Sony Ericsson and
Motorola shared the runner up spot, holding 15% of
past sales. However, of currently owned phones, Nokia
and Sony Ericsson share the top spot with 32% each
and Samsung took the third spot with 16% as Motorola
dropped to forth with 12%. Participants gave
themselves average scores of 3.4, 3.2 and 3.6 of a
possible 5, for phone awareness, ability to use all
features and ease of learning current phone
respectively.
74% of all questionnaires were completed by
persons less than 24 years of age. Therefore, the results
are primarily indicative of the perceptions of students
in this age range. This generation has grown up
surrounded by technology from a relatively young age,
with their ownership of their first mobile phone at an
average of 13 years of age. The student will have a
high social use of their mobile phone, the possibility of
higher peer pressures to keep up to date with styles and
technology, a fair amount of ‘free’ time, but less free
cash flow and are open and perhaps naive to special
marketing techniques, which are used to target the
student customer base. In contrast, results from a
working business person would differ greatly from the
student results with less free time, so probably more
calls than texts, higher specification, the ability for
more expensive handsets and business tariffs, perhaps
even paid for by the employer. The results gathered
from older generations can be used as a slight
comparison, but no claim is made that the perceptions
of these generations are properly represented.
Almost 60% of those asked said they still used
instruction manuals. This question was asked before
the mention of a mobile phone, but the results indicate
that either the user is not willing to trust their existing
ability with technology, or the majority of devices are
still too complicated to use on first experience. This
suggests that there is much scope for improvement in
the way technology presents the way it should be
interacted with, removing the need for instruction
manuals.
Mobile phones have been used by those asked for
an average of 6.8 years, with an average of 5.5 phones
being owned in this time. This positively correlates
with the result of 55% of the participants having owned
their current phone for less than 1 year and a total of
87% for 2 years or under. This result follows an
exponential decay profile, showing that future sales of
mobile phones have the opportunity to continue to soar
as they are currently doing so. If this influx of new
phones to the population continues, they will have an
even greater effect on shaping how one interacts with
technology than this study will show.
The average score of 3.4/5 (≈70%) for phone
feature awareness is a good score, but with the low use
scores for the newer features, this suggests that a
mobile phone is still essentially a speech and text
communicator between individuals. Over half of the
sample gave themselves, perhaps modestly, a score of
4/5 for their ability to use the features available. This
suggests that phones are generally well mastered by the
sample, however, all five participants to give a score of
1 for this question was less than 24 years of age, and
Experimental results (Nokia Experimental results (Sony
schematics) Ericsson schematics)
Fig. 3. Task “unlock the keypad”.
all owned a Nokia mobile phone. Nokia did however
score a remarkable 4.7/5 score for ease of ‘learning’
the current phone. Sony Ericsson had the only two 1/5
scores for ease of learning, but overall scored a second
place average of 3.4/5.
Eight subjects took part in the visual experiment.
On average, the experiment took a total of 10 to 15 min
for the participant to complete. All of them carried out
the tasks on both schematics. The Nokia schematic had
a success rate of 50% for the correct interaction being
carried out for the respective task. The Sony Ericsson
scheme achieved 61%. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the
results for tasks “unlock the keypad” and “press the
menu button”, where the colour scheme and the
numbers indicate how many participants have used the
same pattern. All results are published in [10].
It has been shown that the nearer the top of the
keypad a key is positioned, the more important, or
regular to use it should be. These buttons are currently
used to interact with the software of the phone, whilst
the number pad should be exclusively used for number
and text and positioned on 12, identically sized and
shaped keys in a 3x4 arrangement. Future mobile
phone design should keep this system to appear to be
intuitive to use. Unlocking and locking a keypad
should involve two keys, at opposite ends of the
keypad, adapted from the Nokia system and menu
should be located top left or top centre. This key
should also double up as the select key when in a menu
mode. There is no preferred side to locate a back
button, but it should not be placed in a central position.
The function of a delete key should be clearly marked
as there is no preferred choice of position for this
function. Scrolling should be given a top central
position, with a vertical alignment. Call should always
be on the left hand side and hang up on the right.
‘Correctly’ executed task ‘Correctly’ executed task
(Nokia schematics) (Sony Ericsson schematics)
Experimental results (Nokia Experimental results (Sony
schematics) Ericsson schematics)
Fig. 4. Task “press the menu button”.
5. Conclusions
This study confirmed that intuitive use involves
the seamless matching of cognitive expectation with
interface actuality.
The participants in the study have shown that
Nokia have set a very high standard of ‘intuitive use’
for the mobile phone, that other manufacturers are
trying to match. Even with an unmarked, limited gestalt
arrangement of keys, 50% of all interactions asked to
be carried out on the schema would have been
successful. Sony Ericsson, with a starkly different
scheme, where gestalt laws are far more eminent had
the higher score with a 61% successful interaction rate.
However, Sony Ericsson were only given a 3.4/5 score
for ease of learning whilst Nokia have clearly set the
standard with a 4.7/5 score. This early appreciation of
ease of use must have played a key factor in Nokia’s
early domination of the market, but now other
manufacturers have learnt this fact and are far closer
competitors to Nokia than just a few years ago.
The mobile phone, when used as a voice and text
message communicator, is generally a very successful
product in terms of being easy to use. The majority of
phones are based on one of a few classic styles and
there has been much pressure from the consumer for
these devices to be intuitive to use. However, phone
manufacturers have a delicate time ahead of them as
the era of the mobile phone in a pure sense is over.
New technologies are changing the function of the
mobile phone and currently these new functions appear
to be confusing to use on such a small device. This
justifies research into design for intuitive use in the
future as many different devices, along with their
respective styles of interaction, are fused together into
what is currently the mobile phone.
‘Correctly’ executed task ‘Correctly’ executed task
(Nokia schematics) (Sony Ericsson schematics)
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