If you ask me, Bangsa Malaysia refers to the citizens of Malaysia

being treated in equal terms irregardless of sex, race, religion and

political ideology. I concur with Najib on this but I disagree with Najib
that the notion of Bangsa Malaysia should only be limited to the
state of the mind. There is a big difference between thinking of an
idea and executing an idea. We may think ourselves as Bangsa
Malaysia but if we are treated as second class citizens, then the
notion of Bangsa Malaysia is defeated. We do not want to be look
like fools for not practicing what we preach to others.
Bangsa Malaysia has nothing to do with race, religion or beliefs. I
can be hardcore Malay, Chinese or Indian and practicing Islam or
Buddhism or Hinduism on a micro level but on a macro level, I am
still a Bangsa Malaysia granted with equal rights and benefits.
Bangsa Malaysia means equal treatment irregardless of the fact that
you are a 4th generation Malaysian Indian or 2nd generation of an
Indonesian immigrant.
Bangsa Malaysia means working together for the benefit of the
nation without any influence of individual interest, religion or race.
For those still clinging on to the outdated ideas and arguments,
please get real the more divided we are as a nation, the easier for
the other countries to roll and kick us on all aspect Singapore
already started to do so. The sooner we adapt the Bangsa
Malaysia ideology, the better our nation will be.
The question of nation-building has always been a central issue in Malaysian politics. Despite its
relatively stable politics and constant economic development, the project of nation-building remained
a basic national agenda yet to be fully resolved. The notion of 'Bangsa Malaysia' that was officially
introduced by Dr Mahathir in 1991, as part of the package in his Vision 2020 project, was aimed to
resolve the 'unfinished business' in the project of nation-building. Vision 2020 is a grand national
project span for a period of one generation designed to turn Malaysia into a fully developed state in its
'own mould' by the year 2020. This paper attempts to examine the notion of 'Bangsa Malaysia' as it is
envisages by Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad. The paper argues that since there exist a potent interplay
between the forces of ethnicity and nationalism that has resulted in the creation of a competing notion
of nation-of-intent among the various ethnic groups in Malaysia, the idea of 'Bangsa Malaysia,
therefore,' could be seen as an attempt to mediate this contestation. The question is, does the
meaning of the concept clear to all Malaysians? To what extent would the notion of 'Bangsa Malaysia'
be able to reconcile the competing ethnic ideologies of a nation? Can it be a successful venture, or
perhaps add to further complicates the politics of nation-building in Malaysia? It is hoped that this

humble contribution would be able to highlight some of the important ideas of Tun Dr. Mahathir's
thoughts in regard to the question of ethnic relations and nation-building in Malaysia.
It

The advantages enjoyed by the residents of the Federation of Malaya

through Member System implementation are:

1. Self Government
Member system is an important foundation to train people towards self
government. Therefore, Member System was useful to expose local residents to learn
to administer and lead the government.
The purpose of the system is set up to train the local population as well as the other
leading Malaya. The idea to establish this Member System has been voiced by Dato
'Onn Ja'afar in discussions with Sir Henry in Kuala Lumpur.
To build an independent and sovereign state is a matter not easy to do. Since before
independence, the British has been training to run the country for local residents so that
they are able to self-government. Construction of a national and independent nation
involves negotiations and cooperation between leaders of the past with the parties to
determine the direction of our country. I think this is important because it helped our
past leaders to make solid preparations towards independence.

2. Racial Unity
The system consists of members of the coalition leaders of the various communities to
start the process of unity in the Federation of Malaya. It appointed members of different
ethnic groups. All races could discuss to make the best decisions in the administration.
It also established a genuine pact solution for uniting the various races in the country
that were previously separated by the 'divide and rule' by British colonialists. The unity
forged in these different parties, mainly UMNO, MCA and MIC, lead to the resounding
victory in their first ever election

Reference
William Anthony, Malaysian Studies, PNI Neuron, 2012, Puchong, Selangor.

Early Malay nationalism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism

MEMBER SYSTEM
xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/22180149/1135675204/name/MEMBER

Independence of Malaya and the Formation of Malaysia - Scribd

https://www.scribd.com/.../Independence-of-Malaya-and-the-Formation-

Major Effects Of Japanese

Occupation In Malaya History
Essay
Student ID : 033130027

Major Effects of Japanese Occupation in

Malaya.
Introduction
Japanese Army takes charge of Malaya during the Second World War. The Japanese
occupation caused uncertainty and chaos for the local residents. During the Japanese
occupation for 3 years, all the local people controlled by Japanese and much suffering be
in effect. All their strategies have impact on social, political and economic life of Malaya. The
people were suffering and depressed by the Japanese government policy. The following
paragraphs will be discussed of several major impacts.

Social Impact
The social impact of the Japanese occupation of Malaya, lead to a more distant relationship
between local races. Japanese military given a different treatment for Malays and Indians
and for Chinese they treated unfairly. Malay people have been appointed as Japanese
secret police especially " Kempeitai".
Whoever the anti-Japanese as Chinese people have been killed and tortured by the
Japanese.
Indian people were used as forced labor and send to the Thai-Burmese board to work as
construct. Food shortages and disease caused many deaths, until the railway is known as
the "Death Railway". Lack of food, especially rice, have been caused by various diseases.

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Among the many deadly diseases are malaria and beriberi. More serious disease problems
because a lack of medication especially went the drugs were seized by the Japaneses for
their need in Malaya. All the Japanese hospitality to the Malays has agreed the Chinese
people. Even the Japan has appointed Malays as Police and Army force. The reason of the
Malays police and army which they are used by the Japanese to resist giving it the
appearance consistently of the Chinese people. Japanese spies to add more anger the
Chinese. The result after the Japanese occupation racial clashes occurred between the
Malays and Chinese.
Other than that, goods from the juice of pineapple leaves, coconut sugar, industrious
occupation of Japan between the Malays and the spirit of self-reliance. Japan's occupation
realizes the importance of teaching the Malays, to raise awareness. Japan has adopted its
culture in the local community, especially the Malays. In this regard Japan has expanded the
Japanese language in Malaya. The medium of instruction in school was changed from
English to Japanese language. To promote the language, government has taken initiative to
organized short courses for Japanese language for the locals. The adoption of the
Japanese culture has been carried out the whole community like public holiday on the
festival season in Japan were declared. Japans government also banned to use Chinese
language in Chinese school in Malaya.
Japan also involved Malaya school system which they fully implemented to require singing
the Japan national anthem (Kamigayo) every morning and respecting the Japanese flag so
the people of Malaya will honor the emperor of Japan.

Economy Impact
The Malaya economic is badly affected during the Japanese occupation. The Malayan
economy dependent on the rubber exports but eventually all the rubber reduced production
due to the war and also because of the policy of "Scorched Earth" as implemented by the
British.
British is damaging all the rubber trees, factories, mines and mining machinery before left
from Malaya. The reason of the British is they dont want to keep it from falling into
Japanese hands. If the British didnt destroy infrastructures Japanese will export and import
to their country.
During the Japanese occupation, Malaya has consumer goods especially food. Malaya only
produces 40% of the population of rice the rest depends on the import from Thailand. After
several measures have been carried out on the order of the Japanese to increase rice
production in Malaya but not enough. The import from Thailand cannot be sustained. The
Malaya people rely on other crops, such as corn, bananas, cassava, etc.
Malaya banknotes up to $ 40 million, $ 2 million for the Japanese occupational distribution
of banknotes. The currency has no value. The deterioration of the Japanese economy
Malaya communications systems and other infrastructure damage are irreparable. Although
Japan has implemented a range of industries, such as shoe making factories, tires, etc., but
it is not a success.

Political Impact
After mastering the Malay, Japanese administrative restructure the organization as puts
Malaya under military management called Malaya military government (MMA) in
accordance with the state of war at the time. MMA's main goal is to restore public order, to
take advantage of the resources necessary to sustain the war economy and the needs of
the troops in Malaya, to ensure that there is sufficient.

The MMA Management help Japanese secret police and intelligence agencies were called
the Japanese Kempeitai. Under the direct control of the Strait (NNS) directly managed by
the Japanese Governor and the systems in other states also continued.
However, the real powers in the hands of the Japanese. In order to get the support of the
the Malays, Japan maintains Sultan institutions as administrator along with the Japanese. In
the early stages of the Japanese occupation of Malaya, Sumatra combined under one
administration based in Singapore (Shonan). However, this combination failed and
separated from Sumatra terms of administration in 1944.
Malaya economic impact, especially Malaya political consciousness and to improve the
patriotic spirit of the Malaya independence from Japan and British. Propaganda by the
Japanese, when they inculcate the spirit of nationalism for the Malaya, Chinese and Indians
to do the same in the conflict between them. Therefore, the gap between Malays, Chinese
and Indians, the ethnic tensions further complicate the process, national unity. The suffering
and Japanese propaganda "Asia for Asia" has raised awareness of the local population to
fight for freedom and independence politics. Japan is very satisfied with Indian people and
hopes their support to the success of Japanese plans to dominate India. Encourage Indians
to cooperate with Japan, the liberation of India from British.

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They asked the Indian National Army (MIA) was established by the Japanese in Malaya.

Also got the support of India, the Japanese government under the leadership of the exile in
India known as Azad Hind in Singapore owned by Subhas Chandra Bose.
Japanese policy towards the Indians was a problem in an effort to create a national
consciousness among Indians in Malaya. They were expelled, the treatment of prisoners by
the Japanese and another British dignity decline. The British failed to remind them that they
cannot rely on the British defense of Malaya. This scenario awareness of local people, their
own to defend their rights and interests, as well as their homeland. Japan is regarded as the
liberator of the liberation of Malaya is a colonial power country. What will happen, in fact
been replaced by the British colonial rule Japanese occupation of the brutal Japanese
occupation of the British rule.
During the Japanese occupation, this shows the growth of the Malayan Communist Party
(MCP). It began to get widespread support, especially from China, is regarded as Japan's
oppression of their protector.
They join the Malayan Anti-Japanese Union (GROW), which is established by the British.
The next CPM People's Anti-Japanese Army established the Malayan People's AntiJapanese Army (MPAJA). MPAJA get help, weapons, food, medicine, and training of the
Allies, in particular, is a team of 136.
Japanese occupation, CPM has become a powerful and well-organized political party.
Recalling CPM services to help the British against the Japanese, people think this is a
legitimate political party since 1945. Failed to achieve by the Constitution, prompting the
CPM armed rebellion since June 16, 1948 in furtherance of their goals capture of Malaya
and then set up the Malayan Communist Republic.
The Japanese occupation, led to the emergence of political consciousness of assembly and
association between the Malayan People after the Japanese occupation. Between political
parties that exist is UMNO, MCA, MIC, API, CAUTION, PKMM, Hizbul Muslims and others.
Is also available as a separate idea, because of the Japanese occupation. It has promised
to grant independence to Malaya under the ambit of "Indonesia Raya". To this end, the
people of Indonesia Peninsula (KRIS) Union were established in July 1945. The leaders of

the two countries, Dr. Yaacob Ibrahim Burhannudin and Indonesian leader Sukarno and
Hatta, held the talk in order to achieve the mutual independent.

Conclusion
Following an incendiary act, destroyed many Japanese cities, the Allies prepared for
expensive Japanese invasion. The end of the war in Europe, Nazi Germany signed the
Instrument of Surrender. Together with the United Kingdom and the Republic of the United
States known as the Japanese surrender, "the Potsdam Declaration of July 26, 1945, the
threat to Japan," a rapid and total destruction. The Japanese government ignored this
ultimatum, the United States deployed two nuclear weapons developed by the Manhattan
Project. The little boy of American pilots dropped city of Hiroshima, August 6, 1945, the fat
man in Nagasaki on August 9.
Seriously affected in the first two to four months of the bombings, the death of 90,000166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000-80,000 in Nagasaki, about half of the deaths occur
in the first day of each city. Estimates, the Hiroshima county health department people who
died the day of the explosion, 60% died from flash or flame burns, falling debris and 30%,
10%, for other reasons. In the next few months, a large number of dying of burns, radiation
sickness, and other injuries, exacerbating the effects of the disease. The estimated direct
and short-term causes of death in the United States, 15-20% died from radiation sickness,
20-30% burns and other injuries, exacerbated by 50-60% of the disease. In these two cities,
the majority of the dead were civilians, although the Hiroshima huge garrison.

Question 2: Elaborate on the factors

favoring the formation of Malaysia and the
consequent challenges.
Introduction

Malaysia has announced 16th September 1963 as a New Nation which includes Malaya,
Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. There are several factors that have lead to this major
formation and will be discussed hereafter.

The Communist Threat

Many parties interested in the joint in the Federation of Malaya and Singapore. The British
came with the fact that there are many similarities in the history, laws, economic and
financial aspects of this joint agreement.
The British and the Federation of Malaya certainly do not want to administrate Singapore
leaders of the communist ideology. If Singapore election is held within that formation period,
left-wing party has a chance of defeating the People Action Party (PAP) and take over the
administration. This was what the Federation of Malaya wanted to avoid, a communist
administration.

Ethnic Politics and Ethnic Balances

A merger of Malaya and Singapore, which will make their main indigenous population (sons
of the soil), Chinese to dominate the population of Malay in Malaya. This imbalance can be
corrected if the British territory of Borneo joins in the federation of Malaya.

Independence Factor
In Singapore to a large extent, an autonomous policy, Sabah and Sarawak, to give the infant
to maintain their own dictatorial powers in the British control. In Brunei, the Sultan
maintained his autocratic powers but was compelled to receive advice from a British
Resident. Tunku Abdul Rahman believes that with the Malaya formation with these colonies
will accelerate independence from the British.

Decline of British Power

British power continued to decline, as it has since the end of the Second World War steadily.
In this case, it is relatively easy to surrender their power, rather than trying to continue their
role as a colonial power in Malaysia.

Economic Cooperation and International

Relation in the region
The British began to take over as administrator in Malaya. Rubber and palm trees were
introduced for commercial use. The British found the source of labour, from China and India
rather than Malays to provide expertise. Although many of them return to their respective
countries, they agreed at the end of its term, some stay in Malaysia, and as a permanent
settlement. Over the time, Malaysia became the world's largest manufacturer of tin, rubber,
palm oil. These three (3) commodities and other raw materials to firmly establish Malaysia's
economic rhythm to the mid-20th century.
Tunku Abdul Rahman was keen to merge with Singapore because of economic purposes.
Singapore has a large number of industrial enterprises, large population; to complement its
position is more important. The country also comes with its own trading ports in this area.
One of the areas of Borneo, on the other hand, boast a wealth of natural resources such as
oil, natural gas and timber, and fertile agricultural production, pepper, rubber and more.
Tunku Abdul Rahman, the merger of these colonies will be much value for Malaya. Tunku
Abdul Rahman also seeks independent from colonization.

Consequent challenges
The idea to unite Malaysia with neighbouring countries was raised several times. In 1961,
Tunku Abdul Rahman suggested the merger of Malaya with Singapore, North Borneo
(Sabah), Sarawak, Brunei.
The main political reasons to curb the communist threat to boost and accelerate the
independence of Brunei, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

Tunkus proposal triggered different reactions from the people in the five countries.
Lee Kuan Yew welcomed the idea. However, there was a strong opposition from left-wing
leaders United Peoples Party (UPP), People Action Party (PAP). Lee Kuan Yew more
determined to merge initially people not so keen preferred Brunei to achieve own
independence before joining Malaysia.
Some agreed to the idea of merging, Sultan Omar Ali Sarifuddin was interested and thought
the idea was excellent. The idea of unity with the neighbouring countries of Malaysia made
a number of times.
In 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman proposed merger of Malaya and Singapore, North Borneo
(Sabah), Sarawak and Brunei. Mainly political reasons, in order to curb the threat of
communism. In order to facilitate and speed up the independence of Brunei, Singapore,
Sabah and Sarawak.
The Philippines and Indonesia strongly opposed to the development in this area, claimed
that Malaysia and Indonesia on behalf of "neo-colonialism" and the Philippines claimed
Sabah as their territory. Sukarno, and tried to oppose the formation of the Indonesian
government to postpone Malaysia Sarawak United People's Party leadership. As a result of
these factors, the formation of the eight members of the United Nations team had to redetermine whether Sabah and Sarawak truly wanted to join Malaysia. Malaysia was officially
established on September 16, 1963, from Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore. In 1963,
Malaysia's total population of about 10 million.

Conclusion
If we dont have the above motivating factor, maybe there will be no Malaysia today. Adding
to that we have few countries joined with us and with more population. The living
environment also has been different because of mix population of different races.

Once the Japanese had taken Malaya and Singapore from the British their attention turned
to consolidating their position. Of primary concern were the ethnic Chinese who were known
to financially support both Nationalist and Communist forces in China fighting the Japanese.
In December 1941 a list of key elements to eliminate within the Chinese population had
been drawn up. On 17 February 1942 Lieutenant-General Tomoyuki Yamashita,
commander of the25th Army, ordered anti-Japanese elements within the Chinese be
eliminated. The method employed had been used by the occupying divisions; the 5th, 18th,
and Imperial Guards in earlier actions in China, whereby suspects were executed without
trial. That same day 70 surviving soldiers of the Malay Regiment were taken out of the
prisoner of war holding area atFarrer Park, Singapore by the Japanese to the battlefield
at Pasir Panjang and shot.[21] Some Malay Regiment officers were beheaded by the
Japanese.[22]
Commencing in February in Singapore and then throughout Malaya a process of rounding
up and executing those Chinese perceived as being threats began. This was the start of
the Sook Ching massacres in which an estimated 50,000 or more ethnic Chinese were
killed, predominantly by the Kempeitai.[23]

Liberated Penangite Malay and Chinese women at the Andaman Islands, forcefully taken by the
Japanese to serve as comfort women.

Specific incidents include Kota Tinggi, Johore on 28 February 1942 (2,000 killed);Gelang
Patah, Johore on 4 March (300 killed); Benut, Johore on 6 March (number
unknown); Johore Baharu, Senai, Kulai, Sedenak, Pulai, Rengam, Kluang, Yong Peng,Batu
Pahat, Senggarang, Parit Bakau, and Muar between February and March) (estimated up to
25,000 Chinese were killed in Johore); Tanjong Kling, Malacca on 16 March (142
killed); Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan on 15 March (76 killed); Parit Tinggi, Negeri Sembilan
on 16 March (more than 100 killed, the entire village); [24] Joo Loong Loong (now known as
Titi) on 18 March) (990 killed, entire village eliminated by Major Yokokoji Kyomi and his
troops);[25] and Penang in April (several thousand killed by Major Higashigawa Yoshinura).
With increased guerilla activity more massacres occurred, including Sungei Lui, a village of
400 in Jempol District, Negeri Sembilan, that was wiped out on 31 July 1942 by troops
under a Corporal Hashimoto.
News of the Sook Ching massacres reached the west by February 1943, with Chinese
sources stating that 97,000 suspected anti-Japanese Chinese had been imprisoned or killed
by the Japanese in Singapore and Malaya. The same article also stated that the Japanese
had set up mutual guarantee units whereby a group of 30 Chinese families would guarantee
that none of their members would oppose the Japanese. If they did then the whole group
was executed.[26]
As is with the Changi Prison in Singapore, major civilian prisons throughout Malaya were
reconstituted by the Japanese for use as detention and execution grounds. Various schools,
including the Malay College at Kuala Kangsar,[27] were also repurposed as interrogation
facilities for the Japanese.
The Japanese were also accused of conducting medical experiments on Malayans, [28] and
were known to have taken Malay and Chinese girls and women as comfort women.

The Sook Ching (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin:Sqng,

meaning "purge through cleansing") was a systematic purge of perceived hostile
elements among the Chinese in Singapore by the Japanese military during
the Japanese occupation of Singapore and Malaya, after theBritish
colony surrendered on 15 February 1942 following the Battle of Singapore. The
massacre took place from 18 February to 4 March 1942 at various places in the
region. The operation was overseen by the Kempeitaisecret police and subsequently
extended to include the Chinese in Malaya as well.

LESSON 1

History of Malaysia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on the

History of Malaysia

Prehistoric Malaysia
Early kingdoms[show]
Rise of Muslim states[show]
Colonial era[show]
War and emergency[show]
Independence[show]
After Independence[show]

By topic[show]
Malaysia portal

Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country located on strategic sea-lane that exposes it to global trade
and foreign culture. Hinduism from India andBuddhism from China dominated early regional history,
reaching their peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence
extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneofrom the 7th to the 14th
centuries.
Although Muslims had passed through the Malay Peninsula as early as the 10th century, it was not
until the 14th and 15th centuries that Islam first firmly established itself. The adoption of Islam by the
15th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the Sultanate
of Malacca. Islam had a profound influence on the Malay people, but has also been influenced by
them. The Portuguese were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay
Peninsula and Southeast Asia, capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However,
it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at Jesselton, Kuching, Penang andSingapore,
ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty
of 1824 defined the boundaries betweenBritish Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies (which
became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian
workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and
Borneo.[1]
Japanese invasion during World War II ended British domination in Malaysia. The subsequent
occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak from 1942 to 1945 unleashed nationalism. In the
Peninsula, the Malayan Communist Party took up arms against the British. A tough military response
was needed to end the insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multiracial Federation of Malaya on 31 August 1957. On 31 August 1963, the British territories in North
Borneo and Singapore were granted independence and formed Malaysia with the Peninsular states
on 16 September 1963. Approximately two years later, the Malaysian parliament passed a bill
to separate Singapore from the Federation.[2] A confrontation with Indonesia occurred in the early1960s. Race riots in 1969 led to the imposition of emergency rule, and a curtailment of political life
and civil liberties which has never been fully reversed. Since 1970 the "National Front coalition"

headed by United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) has governed Malaysia. Economic growth
dramatically increasedliving standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity helped minimise
political discontent.[citation needed]

Contents
[hide]

1Prehistory

2Early kingdoms

3Arrival of Islam

4Struggles for hegemony

5British influence
o

5.1Federated and Unfederated Malay States

5.219th-century Borneo

6Race relations

7War and emergency

8Towards Malaysia

9Challenges of independence
o

9.1Foreign objection

9.2Racial strife

10The crisis of 1969

11Modern Malaysia
o

11.1Mahathir administration

11.2Badawi administration

11.3Najib administration

12See also

13References
o

13.1Literature
14External links

Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Prehistoric Malaysia

The discovery of a skull which estimates say is around 40,000 years old on Niah Caves in Sarawak,
has been identified as the earliest evidence for human settlement in Malaysian Borneo.[3]
Stone hand-axes from early hominoids, probably Homo erectus, have been unearthed in Lenggong.
They date back 1.83 million years, the oldest evidence ofhominid habitation in Southeast Asia.[4] The
earliest evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia is the 40,000-year-old skull excavated
from the Niah Caves in Borneo in 1958.[3] A study of Asian genetics points to the idea that the original
humans in East Asia came from Southeast Asia.[5] The oldest complete skeleton found in Malaysia is
11,000-year-old Perak Man unearthed in 1991.[6] The indigenous groups on the peninsula can be
divided into three ethnicities, theNegritos, the Senoi, and the proto-Malays.[7] The first inhabitants of

the Malay Peninsula were most probably Negritos.[8] These Mesolithic hunters were probably the
ancestors of the Semang, an ethnic Negrito group who have a long history in the Malay Peninsula. [9]
The Senoi appear to be a composite group, with approximately half of the maternalmitochondrial
DNA lineages tracing back to the ancestors of the Semang and about half to later ancestral
migrations from Indochina. Scholars suggest they are descendants of early Austroasiatic-speaking
agriculturalists, who brought both their language and their technology to the southern part of the
peninsula approximately 4,000 years ago. They united and coalesced with the indigenous
population.[10]
The Proto Malays have a more diverse origin[11] and had settled in Malaysia by 1000 BC.[12] Although
they show some connections with other inhabitants in Maritime Southeast Asia, some also have an
ancestry in Indochina around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum about 20,000 years ago.
Anthropologists support the notion that the Proto-Malays originated from what is today Yunnan,
China.[13] This was followed by an early-Holocene dispersal through the Malay Peninsula into
the Malay Archipelago.[14] Around 300 BC, they were pushed inland by the Deutero-Malays, an Iron
Age or Bronze Age people descended partly from the Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam. The first
group in the peninsula to use metal tools, the Deutero-Malays were the direct ancestors of
today's Malaysian Malays, and brought with them advanced farming techniques. [9] The Malays
remained politically fragmented throughout the Malay archipelago, although a common culture and
social structure was shared.[15]

Early kingdoms[edit]

The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant,
Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay
peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta,
India.
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small early
states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture. [16]Indian influence in the region
dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by
the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th century.[17]
The Malay Peninsula was known to ancient Tamils as Suvarnadvipa or the "Golden Peninsula". It
was shown on Ptolemy's map as the "Golden Khersonese". He referred to the Straits of Melaka
as Sinus Sabaricus.[18] Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.
[19]

Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in Borneo dating from the 1st century following

the southward expansion of the Han Dynasty.[20] In the early centuries of the first millennium, the
people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of Hinduism andBuddhism, religions
which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.
[21]

The Sanskrit writing system was used as early as the 4th century.[22]

There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century, as many as 30, mainly based on
the Eastern side of the Malay peninsula.[16] Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based
in what is now Malaysia is the ancient empire of Langkasuka, located in the northern Malay
Peninsula and based somewhere in Kedah.[16] It was closely tied to Funan in Cambodia, which also
ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. According to the Sejarah Melayu ("Malay
Annals"), the Khmer prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom of Gangga Negara (modernday Beruas, Perak) in the 700s. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in
the south called Guantoli, which is thought to have been in the Straits of Malacca. In the 7th century,
a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of Srivijaya.
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the Malay peninsula was under the
Buddhist Srivijaya empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a river mouth in
eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang.[23] For over six centuries the Maharajahs of
Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was
based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) swearing allegiance to the
central lord for mutual profit.[24]
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign
of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya
cities.[25] In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire,

the Tamil emperor who is now thought to have laid Kota Gelanggi to waste. Kedahknown
as Kedaram, Cheh-Cha (according to I-Ching) or Kataha, in ancient Pallava or Sanskritwas in the
direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the Cholas from 1025. A second invasion was led
by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.[26] The
senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow
other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of Srivijaya, which had exerted
influence over Kedah, Pattani and as far as Ligor. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola
overlordship was established over the Sri Vijaya province kedah in the late 11th century.[27] The
expedition of the CholaEmperors had such a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval
period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay
chronicle Sejarah Melaya.[28][29][30] Even today the Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia as
many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja
ofPerak called Raja Chulan.[31][32]

Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th9th century bronze

Pattinapalai, a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from Kedaram heaped in the
broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, Kaumudhimahotsva, refers to Kedah
as Kataha-nagari. The Agnipurana also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its
boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe isGunung Jerai. Stories from
the Katasaritasagaram describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhist kingdom of Ligor took
control of Kedah shortly after. Its king Chandrabhanuused it as a base to attack Sri Lanka in the 11th
century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in Tamil
Nadu and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, Mahavamsa.
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even Cholas kingdom tried to exert control
over the smaller Malay states.[16] The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the

relationship between the capital and its vassals broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to
request assistance from China, and wars with Indian states are also suspected. In the 11th century,
the centre of power shifted to Melayu, a port possibly located further up the Sumatran coast at near
the Jambi River.[24] The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the spread of
Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such asAceh, broke away from Srivijayas control.
By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their
rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Java-based Majapahit empire came into possession of the
peninsula.[23]

Arrival of Islam[edit]
Islam came to the Malay Archipelago via Arabs and Indian traders in the 13th century, ending the
age of Hinduism and Buddhism.[33] It arrived in the region gradually, and became the religion of the
elite before it spread to the commoners. The Islam in Malaysia was influenced by previous religions
and was originally not orthodox.[16]
The port of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula was founded in 1402
by Parameswara, a Srivijaya prince fleeing Temasek (now Singapore),[16] who was claimed in
the Sejarah Melayu to be a descendant of Alexander the Great. Parameswara in particular sailed to
Temasek to escape persecution. There he came under the protection of Temagi, a Malay chief from
Patani who was appointed by the king of Siam as regent of Temasek. Within a few days,
Parameswara killed Temagi and appointed himself regent. Some five years later he had to leave
Temasek, due to threats from Siam. During this period, a Javanese fleet from Majapahit attacked
Temasek.

The earliest record of a local law influenced by Islamic teaching and written in Jawi. The stone
monument is found in Terengganu.

Parameswara headed north to found a new settlement. At Muar, Parameswara considered siting his
new kingdom at either Biawak Busuk or at Kota Buruk. Finding that the Muar location was not
suitable, he continued his journey northwards. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong
(former name of present-day Sungai Ujong) before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the
Bertam River (former name of the Melaka River), and founded what would become the Malacca
Sultanate. Over time this developed into modern-dayMalacca Town. According to the Malay Annals,
here Parameswara saw a mouse deeroutwitting a dog resting under a Malacca tree. Taking this as a
good omen, he decided to establish a kingdom called Malacca. He built and improved facilities for
trade. The Malacca Sultanate is commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula. [34]
At the time of Melaka's founding, the emperor of Ming Dynasty China was sending out fleets of ships
to expand trade. Admiral Zheng He called at Malacca and brought Parameswara with him on his
return to China, a recognition of his position as legitimate ruler of Malacca. In exchange for regular
tribute, the Chinese emperor offered Melaka protection from the constant threat of a Siamese attack.
The Chinese and Indians who settled in the Malay Peninsula before and during this period are the
ancestors of today's Baba-Nyonya andChetti community. According to one theory, Parameswara
became a Muslim when he married a Princess of Pasai and he took the fashionable Persian title
"Shah", calling himself Iskandar Shah.[35] Chinese chronicles mention that in 1414, the son of the first
ruler of Malacca visited the Ming emperor to inform them that his father had died. Parameswara's
son was then officially recognised as the second ruler of Melaka by the Chinese Emperor and styled
Raja Sri Rama Vikrama, Raja of Parameswara of Temasek and Malacca and he was known to his
Muslim subjects as Sultan Sri Iskandar Zulkarnain Shah or Sultan Megat Iskandar Shah. He ruled
Malacca from 1414 to 1424.[36] Through the influence of Indian Muslims and, to a lesser extent, Hui
people from China, Islam became increasingly common during the 15th century.
After an initial period paying tribute to the Ayutthaya,[16] the kingdom rapidly assumed the place
previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position
dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly
important when the Mongol conquests closed the overland route between China and the west.

The extent of the Malaccan Empirein the 15th century becaming the main point for the spreading
of Islam in theMalay Archipelago.
Within a few years of its establishment, Malacca officially adopted Islam. Parameswara became a
Muslim, and due to the fact Malacca was under a Muslim Prince the conversion of Malays to Islam
accelerated in the 15th century.[23] The political power of the Malacca Sultanate helped Islams rapid
spread through the archipelago. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time,
attracting trade from around the region.[23] By the start of the 16th century, with the Malacca Sultanate
in the Malay peninsula and parts of Sumatra,[37] the Demak Sultanate in Java,[38] and other kingdoms
around the Malay archipelago increasingly converting to Islam, [39] it had become the dominant
religion among Malays, and reached as far as the modern-day Philippines, leaving Bali as an
isolated outpost of Hinduism today.
Malacca's reign lasted little more than a century, but during this time became the established centre
of Malay culture. Most future Malay states originated from this period. [33] Malacca became a cultural
centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and
imported Indian, Chinese and Islamic elements. Malacca's fashions in literature, art, music, dance
and dress, and the ornate titles of its royal court, came to be seen as the standard for all ethnic
Malays. The court of Malacca also gave great prestige to the Malay language, which had originally
evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Malacca at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to
be the official language of all the Malaysian states, although local languages survived in many
places. After the fall of Malacca, the Sultanate of Brunei became the major centre of Islam. [40][41]

Struggles for hegemony[edit]

The closing of the overland route from Asia to Europe by the Ottoman Empire and the claim towards
trade monopoly withIndia and southeast Asia by Arab traders, led European powers to look for a
maritime route. In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque led an expedition to Malaya which seized Malacca
with the intent of using it as a base for activities in southeast Asia.[16] This was the first colonial claim
on what is now Malaysia.[23] The son of the last Sultan of Malacca, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah
II fled to the southern tip of the peninsula, where he founded a state that which became
the Sultanate of Johor.[16] Another son created the Perak Sultanate to the north. By the late 16th
century, the tin mines of northern Malaya had been discovered by European traders, and Perak grew
wealthy on the proceeds of tin exports.[24] Portuguese influence was strong, as they aggressively
tried to convert the population of Malacca to Catholicism. [16] In 1571, the Spanish
captured Manila and established a colony in the Philippines, reducing the Sultanate of Brunei's
power.[41]

The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of theDutchPortuguese War in 1606 to
gain control of Malacca.
After the fall of Malacca to Portugal, the Johor Sultanate and the Sultanate of Aceh on northern
Sumatra moved to fill the power vacuum left behind.[16] The three powers struggled to dominate the
Malay peninsula and the surrounding islands.[24]Johor founded in the wake of Malacca's conquest
grew powerful enough to rival the Portuguese, although it was never able to recapture the city.
Instead it expanded in other directions, building in 130 years one of the largest Malay states. [16] In
this time the numerous attempts to recapture Malacca led to a strong backlash from the Portuguese,
whose raids even reached Johor's capital of Johor Lama in 1587.[16]
In 1607, the Sultanate of Aceh rose as the powerful and wealthiest state in theMalay archipelago.
Under Iskandar Muda's reign, the sultanate's control was extended over a number of Malay states. A
notable conquest was Perak, a tin-producing state on the Peninsula. [24] In Iskandar Muda's
disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed
to destroy all the ships of his formidable fleet and 19,000 troops according to a Portuguese account.
[42]

Aceh forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same

year and took many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultan's son-in-law, Iskandar Thani, the former prince
of Pahang later became Iskandar Muda's successor. The conflict over control of the straits went on
until 1641, when the Dutch (allied to Johor) gained control of Malacca.
In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or
VOC) was established. During this time the Dutch were at war with Spain, which absorbed the
Portuguese Empire due to the Iberian Union. The Dutch expanded across the archipelago, forming
an alliance with Johor and using this to push the Portuguese out of Malacca in 1641. [16] Backed by
the Dutch, Johor established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was
able to play off Johor against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence. [43] The Dutch did
not interfere in local matters in Malacca, but at the same time diverted most trade to its colonies
on Java.[16]
The weakness of the small coastal Malay states led to the immigration of the Bugis, escaping from
Dutch colonisation ofSulawesi, who established numerous settlements on the peninsula which they
used to interfere with Dutch trade.[16] They seized control of Johor following the assassination of the
last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in 1699.[citation needed] Bugis expanded their power in the states
of Johor, Kedah, Perak, and Selangor.[16] The Minangkabau from central Sumatra migrated into
Malaya, and eventually established their own state in Negeri Sembilan. The fall of Johor left a power
vacuumon the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of Ayutthaya kingdom,
who made the five northern Malay statesKedah, Kelantan, Patani, Perlis, and Terengganu their
vassals. Johors eclipse also left Perak as the unrivalled leader of the Malay states.
The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fastgrowing tea trade between China and United Kingdom increased the demand for high-quality
Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in
Europe, while Kelantan and Pahang had gold mines. The growth of tin and gold miningand
associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world initially
Arabs and Indians, later Chinese.

British influence[edit]
Main articles: British Malaya and British Borneo

Statue of Francis Light in the Fort Cornwallis of Penang, marking the first step of British expansion in
the Malay Archipelago.
English traders had been present in Malay waters since the 17th century. However, with the arrival of
the British, European power became dominant in Malaysia.[44]Before the mid-19th-century British
interests in the region were predominantly economic, with little interest in territorial control. Already
the most powerful coloniser in India, the British were looking towards southeast Asia for new
resources.[16] The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the East India Companys
desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent
acquisition was Penang, leased from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786.[45]This was followed soon after by
the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as Province Wellesley).
In 1795, during the Napoleonic Wars, the British with the consent of the Netherlands occupied Dutch
Melaka to forestall possible French encroachment in the area. [23]
When Malacca was handed back to the Dutch in 1815, the British governor,Stamford Raffles, looked
for an alternative base, and in 1819 he acquired Singapore from the Sultan of Johor.[46] The
exchange of the British colony ofBencoolen for Malacca with the Dutch left the British as the sole
colonial power on the peninsula.[16] The territories of the British were set up as free ports, attempting
to break the monopoly held by other colonial powers at the time, and making them large bases of
trade. They allowed Britain to control all trade through the straits of Malacca. [16] British influence was
increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful
counterweight.[citation needed] During the 19th century the Malay Sultans aligned themselves with the
British Empire, due to the benefits of associations with the British and the belief in superior British
civilisation.[24]

In 1824, British hegemony in Malaya (before the name Malaysia) was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, which divided the Malay archipelago between Britain and the Netherlands. The Dutch
evacuated Melaka[23] and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule
over the rest of the East Indies. By 1826 the British controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the
island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements,
administered first under the East India Company until 1867, when they were transferred to

[16]

the Colonial Office in London.[24]

Federated and Unfederated Malay States[edit]

[show]

Leaders of 19th and 20th century rebellions

againstBritish rulers in Pre-Malaysian states
Initially, the British followed a policy of non-intervention in relations between the Malay states. [24]
[47]

The commercial importance of tinmining in the Malay states to merchants in the Straits

Settlements led to infighting between the aristocracy on the peninsula. The destabilisation of these
states damaged the commerce in the area, causing British intervention. The wealth of Peraks tin
mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay
state to agree to the supervision of a British resident.[16] British gunboat diplomacy was employed to
bring about a peaceful resolution to civil disturbances caused by Chinese and Malay gangsters
employed in a political fight between Ngah Ibrahim and Raja Muda Abdullah. ThePangkor Treaty of
1874 paved the way for the expansion of British influence in Malaya. The British concluded treaties
with some Malay states, installing residents who advised the Sultans and soon became the
effective rulers of their states.[48]These advisors held power in everything except to do with Malay
religion and customs.[16]
Johor alone resisted, by modernising and giving British and Chinese investors legal protection. By
the turn of the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known
together as the Federated Malay States, had British advisors.[16] In 1909 the Siamese kingdom was
compelled to cede Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu, which already had British advisors, over
to the British.[16] Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor and Queen Victoria were personal acquaintances who
recognised each other as equals. It was not until 1914 that Sultan Abu Bakar's successor, Sultan
Ibrahim, accepted a British adviser.[49] The four previously Thai states and Johor were known as

the Unfederated Malay States. The states under the most direct British control developed rapidly,
becoming the largest suppliers in the world of first tin, then rubber.[16]
By 1910, the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were
a Crown colony, ruled by a governor under the supervision of the Colonial Office in London. Their
population was about half Chinese, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The
first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang, were
termed the Federated Malay States: while technically independent, they were placed under a
Resident-General in 1895, making them British colonies in all but name. The Unfederated Malay
States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu) had a slightly larger degree of
independence, although they were unable to resist the wishes of their British residents for long.
Johor, as Britain's closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave
the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British
first.[47]

19th-century Borneo[edit]

British flag hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan on 24 December 1846.
During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast ofBorneo, where Dutch
rule had never been established. Development on the Peninsula and Borneo were generally
separate until the 19th century.[50] The eastern part of this region (now Sabah) was under the nominal
control of the Sultan of Sulu, who later became a vassal of the Spanish East Indies. The rest was the
territory of the Sultanate of Brunei. In 1841, British adventurer James Brooke helped the Sultan of
Brunei suppress a revolt, and in return received the title of raja and the right to govern the Sarawak
River District. In 1846, his title was recognised as hereditary, and the "White Rajahs" began ruling
Sarawak as a recognised independent state. The Brookes expanded Sarawak at the expense of
Brunei.[16]
In 1881, the British North Borneo Company was granted control of the territory ofBritish North
Borneo, appointing a governor and legislature. It was ruled from the office in London. Its status was

similar to that of a British Protectorate, and like Sarawak it expanded at the expense of Brunei.
[16]

Until the Philippine independence on 1946, seven British-controlled islands in the north-eastern

part of Borneo named Turtle Islands and Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi were ceded to the Philippine
government by the Crown colonygovernment of North Borneo.[51] The Philippines then under
its irredentism motive since the administration of PresidentDiosdado Macapagal laying claim to
eastern Sabah in a basis the territory was part of the present-defunct Sultanate of Sulus territory. In
1888, what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in 1891 another Anglo-Dutch
treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo.

Evolution of Malaysia

Race relations[edit]
Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as primarily an economic concern,
and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for British shareholders. Malayas obvious attractions
were its tin and gold mines, but British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation
cropstapioca, gambier, pepper, and coffee. But in 1877 the rubber plant was introduced
from Brazil, and rubber soon became Malayas staple export, stimulated by booming demand from

European industry. Rubber was later joined by palm oil as an export earner. All these industries
required a large and disciplined labour force, and the British did not regard the Malays as reliable
workers. The solution was the importation of plantation workers from India, mainly Tamil-speakers
from South India. The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from
southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang, and Ipoh were majority Chinese, as wasKuala
Lumpur, founded as a tin-mining centre in 1857. By 1891, when Malayas first census was taken,
Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities.
The Chinese mostly arrived poor; yet, their belief in industriousness and frugality, their emphasis in
their children's education and their maintenance of Confucian family hierarchy, as well as their
voluntary connection with tightly knit networks of mutual aid societies (run by "Hui-Guan" , or
non-profit organisations with nominal geographic affiliations from different parts of China) all
contributed to their prosperity. In the 1890s Yap Ah Loy, who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala
Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malayas
banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses,
usually in partnership with London firms, soon had a stranglehold on the economy. Since the Malay
Sultans tended to spend well beyond their means, they were soon indebted to Chinese bankers, and
this gave the Chinese political as well as economic leverage. At first the Chinese immigrants were
mostly men, and many intended to return home when they had made their fortunes. Many did go
home, but many more stayed. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of SinoMalayans or babapeople, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent
communities and building schools and temples.
The Indians were initially less successful, since unlike the Chinese they came mainly as indentured
labourers to work in the rubber plantations, and had few of the economic opportunities that the
Chinese had. They were also a less united community, since they were divided between Hindus and
Muslims and along lines of language and caste. An Indian commercial and professional
class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and
uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas.
Traditional Malay society had great difficulty coping with both the loss of political sovereignty to the
British and of economic power to the Chinese. By the early 20th century it seemed possible that the
Malays would become a minority in their own country. The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators
with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, particularly among the
increasing number of Malays with a western education, but the mass of rural Malays continued to
revere the Sultans and their prestige was thus an important prop for colonial rule. A small class of
Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a
revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly

Christianity. In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did. The northern
regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism,
as they have remained.
The one consolation to Malay pride was that the British allowed them a virtual monopoly of positions
in the police and localmilitary units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to
non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges,
importing teachers from China, the colonial government fostered education for Malays,
opening Malay College in 1905 and creating the Malay Administrative Service in 1910. (The college
was dubbed Bab ud-Darajat the Gateway to High Rank.) A Malay Teachers College followed in
1922, and a Malay Womens Training College in 1935. All this reflected the official British policy that
Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents. This view
was increasingly out of line with reality, and contained the seeds of much future trouble.
The Malay teacher's college had lectures and writings that nurtured Malay nationalism and anticolonialist sentiments. Due to this it is known as the birthplace of Malay nationalism.[52] In
1938, Ibrahim Yaacob, an alumnus of Sultan Idris College, established the Kesatuan Melayu
Muda (Young Malays Union or KMM) in Kuala Lumpur. It was the first nationalist political
organisation in British Malaya, advocating for the union of all Malays regardless of origin, and
fighting for Malay rights and against British Imperialism. A specific ideal the KMM held was Panji
Melayu Raya, which called for the unification of British Malaya and Dutch East Indies.[52]
In the years before World War II, the British were concerned with finding the balance between a
centralised state and maintaining the power of the Sultans in Malaya.[24] There were no moves to
give Malaya a unitary government, and in fact in 1935 the position of Resident-General of the
Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. With their
usual tendency to racial stereotyping, the British regarded the Malays as amiable but
unsophisticated and rather lazy, incapable of self-government, although making good soldiers under
British officers. They regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerousand indeed during the 1920s
and 1930s, reflecting events in China, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang) and
the Communist Party of China built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular
disturbances in the Chinese towns. The British saw no way that Malayas disparate collection of
states and races could become a nation, let alone an independent one.

War and emergency[edit]

Tugu Negara, the Malaysian national monument is dedicated to those who fell during World War II
and the Malayan Emergency
Malaya saw little action during World War I, except for the sinking of the Russian cruiser
Zhemchug by the German cruiser Emden on 28 October 1914 during theBattle of Penang.
The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December 1941 found the British in Malaya completely
unprepared. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built
a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north.
Because of the demands of the war in Europe, there was virtually no British air capacity in the Far
East. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in French Indo-China with impunity,
and despite stubborn resistance from British, Australian, and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in
two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover, and nowater supply, was forced to
surrender in February 1942, doing irreparable damage to British prestige. British North Borneo and
Brunei were also occupied.
The Japanese had a racial policy just as the British did. They regarded the Malays as a colonial
people liberated from British imperialist rule, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism, which
gained them some degree of collaboration from the Malay civil service and intellectuals. (Most of the
Sultans also collaborated with the Japanese, although they maintained later that they had done so
unwillingly.)[citation needed] The Malay nationalist Kesatuan Melayu Muda, advocates ofMelayu Raya,
collaborated with the Japanese, based on the understanding that Japan would unite the Dutch East
Indies, Malaya and Borneo and grant them independence. [53] The occupiers regarded the Chinese,
however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called sook
ching (purification through suffering), up to 80,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed.
Chinese businesses were expropriated and Chinese schools either closed or burned down. Not
surprisingly the Chinese, led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), became the backbone of
the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), which with British assistance became the most
effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries.
Although the Japanese argued that they supported Malay nationalism, they offended Malay
nationalism by allowing their ally Thailand to re-annex the four northern states, Kedah, Perlis,

Kelantan, and Terengganu that had been surrendered to the British in 1909. The loss of Malayas
export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the
Japanese increasingly unpopular.
During occupation, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.[54] The Malayans were thus on
the whole glad to see the British back in 1945, but things could not remain as they were before the
war, and a stronger desire for independence grew.[55] Britain was bankrupt and the
new Labour government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East as soon as possible. Colonial
self-rule and eventual independence were now British policy. The tide of colonial nationalism
sweeping through Asia soon reached Malaya. But most Malays were more concerned with defending
themselves against the MCP which was mostly made up of Chinese, than with demanding
independence from the British; indeed, their immediate concern was that the British not leave and
abandon the Malays to the armed Communists of the MPAJA, which was the largest armed force in
the country.

Japanese troops moving through Kuala Lumpur during their advance through Malaya
In 1944, the British drew up plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and
Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Malacca (but not Singapore), into a single Crown
colony, with a view towards independence. The Bornean territories and Singapore were left out as it
was thought this would make union more difficult to achieve. [24] There was however strong opposition
from theMalays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to
the ethnic Chinese and other minorities.[56] The British had decided on equality between races as
they perceived the Chinese and Indians as more loyal to the British during the war than the Malays.
[24]

The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of

the resistance.
In 1946, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led
by Dato Onn bin Jaafar, the Chief Minister of Johor.[24] UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but
only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with implacable Malay opposition, the
British dropped the plan for equal citizenship. The Malayan Union was thus established in 1946, and

was dissolved in 1948 and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of
the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.
Meanwhile, the Communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been
disbanded in December 1945, and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJAs
arms were carefully stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full
equality for all races. This meant it recruited very few Malays. The Partys strength was in the
Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools, where the
teachers, mostly born in China, saw the Communist Party of China as the leader of Chinas national
revival. In March 1947, reflecting the international Communist movements turn to left as the Cold
War set in, the MCP leader Lai Tek was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerrilla
leader Chin Peng, who turned the party increasingly to direct action. These rebels, under the
leadership of the MCP, launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. In
July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck
back, declaring a State of Emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The
Party retreated to the jungle and formed theMalayan Peoples Liberation Army, with about 13,000
men under arms, all Chinese.
The Malayan Emergency as it was known, lasted from 1948 to 1960, and involved a long antiinsurgency campaign byCommonwealth troops in Malaya. The British strategy, which proved
ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic
and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into New
Villages in white areas free of MCP influence. The effective mobilisation of the Malays against the
MCP was also an important part of the British strategy. From 1949 the MCP campaign lost
momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating
the British High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney, in October 1951, this turn to terrorist tactics
alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party. The arrival of Lt.-Gen SirGerald Templer as British
commander in 1952 was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer invented the
techniques of counter-insurgency warfare in Malaya and applied them ruthlessly. Although the
insurgency was defeated Commonwealth troops remained with the backdrop of the Cold War.
[57]

Against this backdrop, independence for the Federation within the Commonwealth was granted

on 31 August 1957,[58] with Tunku Abdul Rahman as the first prime minister.[23]

Towards Malaysia[edit]

Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate

Independence Day on 31 August each year
Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the Malayan Chinese
Association (MCA) in 1949 as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader Tan Cheng
Lock favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of
equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan
formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) Abdul Rahman, the Chief Minister of Kedah and
from 1951 successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Since the British had announced in 1949
that Malaya would soon become independent whether the Malayans liked it or not, both leaders
were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable
independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance, which was later joined by the Malayan Indian
Congress (MIC), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese
areas between 1952 and 1955.[59]
The introduction of elected local government was another important step in defeating the
Communists. After Joseph Stalins death in 1953, there was a split in the MCP leadership over the
wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the
time Templer left Malaya in 1954 the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group
that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years.
During 1955 and 1956 UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for
a principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that Malayas head of
state would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language,
and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect
this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, particularly since they continued to dominate the
civil service, the army and the police, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate
representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the
majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control

the education system was deferred until after independence. This came on 31 August 1957,
when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya.
This left the unfinished business of the other British-ruled territories in the region. After the Japanese
surrender the Brooke family and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak
and North Borneo respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies. They were much less
economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships were too weak to demand
independence. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in 1955, and in 1959
the young socialist leader Lee Kuan Yew became Prime Minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained as
a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between 1959 and 1962 the British government orchestrated
complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government.
On 24 April 1961 Lee Kuan Yew proposed the idea of forming Malaysia during a meeting to Tunku
Abdul Rahman, after which Tunku invited Lee to prepare a paper elaborating on this idea. On 9 May,
Lee sent the final version of the paper to Tunku and then deputy Malayan Prime Minister Abdul
Razak. There were doubts about the practicality of the idea but Lee assured the Malayan
government of continued Malay political dominance in the new federation. Razak supported the idea
of the new federation and worked to convince Tunku to back it. [60] On 27 May 1961, Abdul Rahman
proposed the idea of forming "Malaysia", which would consist of Brunei, Malaya, North
Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, all except Malaya still under British rule. [61][62][63] It was states that
this would allow the central government to better control and combat communist activities, especially
in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore became independent, it would become a base for
Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. The proposed inclusion of British territories
besides Singapore was intended to keep the ethnic composition of the new nation similar to that of
Malaya, with the Malay and indigenous populations of the other territories cancelling out the Chinese
majority in Singapore.[64]
Although Lee Kuan Yew supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front
resisted, arguing that this was a ploy for the British to continue controlling the region. Most political
parties in Sarawak were also against the merger, and in North Borneo, where there were no political
parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the Sultan of Brunei
supported the merger, the Parti Rakyat Brunei opposed it as well. At the Commonwealth Prime
Ministers Conference in 1961, Abdul Rahman explained his proposal further to its opponents. In
October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be
obtained from the communities involved in the merger.

Members of the Cobbold Commission were formed to conduct a study in the British
Borneo territories ofSarawak and Sabah to see whether the two were interested in the idea to form
the Federation of Malaysia with Malaya and Singapore.
The Cobbold Commission, named after its head, Lord Cobbold, conducted a study in
the Borneo territories and approved a merger with North Borneo and Sarawak; however, it was
found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. North Borneo drew up a list of points,
referred to as the 20-point agreement, proposing terms for its inclusion in the new federation.
Sarawak prepared a similar memorandum, known as the 18-point agreement. Some of the points in
these agreements were incorporated into the eventual constitution, some were instead accepted
orally. These memoranda are often cited by those who believe that Sarawak's and North Borneo's
rights have been eroded over time. A referendumwas conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and
70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government. [65][66] The Sultanate
of Bruneiwithdrew from the planned merger due to opposition from certain segments of its population
as well as arguments over the payment of oil royalties and the status of the sultan in the planned
merger.[47][59][67][68] Additionally, the Bruneian Parti Rakyat Brunei staged an armed revolt, which, though
it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. [69]
After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed
the Landsdowne Commission to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was
essentially the same as the 1957 constitution, albeit with some rewording; for instance, giving
recognition to the special position of the natives of the Borneo States. North Borneo, Sarawak and
Singapore were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the states of Malaya. After negotiations
in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of
Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. The date was to coincide with the independence
day of Malaya and the British giving self-rule to Sarawak and North Borneo. However,
the Philippines and Indonesia strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming
Malaysia represented a form of "neocolonialism" and the Philippines claiming North Borneo as its
territory. The opposition from the Indonesian government led by Sukarno and attempts by
the Sarawak United People's Party delayed the formation of Malaysia.[70] Due to these factors, an

eight-member UN team was formed to re-ascertain whether North Borneo and Sarawak truly wanted
to join Malaysia.[71][72] Malaysia formally came into being on 16 September 1963, consisting of
Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore. In 1963 the total population of Malaysia was about
10 million.

Challenges of independence[edit]
At the time of independence Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the worlds
leading producers of three valuable commodities, rubber, tin, and palm oil, and also a significant iron
ore producer. These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in
industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other developing nations in the 1950s and
1960s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was
never a socialist party. The First and Second Malayan Plans (195660 and 196165 respectively)
stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure such as
roads and ports, which had been damaged and neglected during the war and the Emergency. The
government was keen to reduce Malayas dependence on commodity exports, which put the country
at the mercy of fluctuating prices. The government was also aware that demand for natural rubber
was bound to fall as the production and use of synthetic rubber expanded. Since a third of the Malay
workforce worked in the rubber industry it was important to develop alternative sources of
employment. Competition for Malayas rubber markets meant that the profitability of the rubber
industry increasingly depended on keeping wages low, which perpetuated rural Malay poverty.

Foreign objection[edit]
Indonesian President Sukarno, backed by the powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), chose
to regard Malaysia as a "neocolonialist" plot against his country, and backed a Communist
insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian
irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian
and Commonwealth of Nations forces.[24] This period of Konfrontasi, an economic, political, and
military confrontation lasted until the downfall of Sukarno in 1966.[23] The Philippines objected to the
formation of the federation, claiming North Borneo was part of Sulu, and thus the Philippines. [24] In
1966 the new president, Ferdinand Marcos, dropped the claim, although it has since been revived
and is still a point of contention marring Philippine-Malaysian relations. [73][unreliable source?][74]

Racial strife[edit]

The proclamation on the forming of the independent Federation of Malaysia by Lee Kuan Yew (top)
forSingapore, Donald Stephens (centre) for North Borneo and Stephen Kalong Ningkan (bottom)
for Sarawak. However, Singapore left the Federation less than two years after the merger due
to racial issues.
The Depression of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, had the effect of
ending Chinese emigration to Malaya. This stabilised the demographic situation and ended the
prospect of the Malays becoming a minority in their own country. At the time of independence in
1957, Malays comprised 55% of the population, Chinese 35% and Indians 10%. [citation needed] This
balance was altered by the inclusion of the majority-Chinese Singapore, upsetting many Malays.
[16]

The federation increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were

nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's People's Action Party (then seen as a radical socialist
party) to voters in Malaya, and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position
there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the 1964 federal elections, despite
an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see PAP-UMNO Relations). Racial tensions intensified

as PAP created an opposition alliance aiming for equality between races.[24] This provoked Tunku
Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia. While the Singaporean leaders
attempted to keep Singapore as a part of the Federation, the Malaysian Parliment voted 1260 on 9
August 1965 in favor of the expulsion of Singapore.[75]
The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic
power among the ethnic communities. The Malays felt unhappy with the wealth of the Chinese
community, even after the expulsion of Singapore. Malay political movements emerged based
around this.[16] However, since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested
mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence
Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related, since the Chinese advantage in education played
a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined
to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community's interests and
the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in 1959, in which
a more assertive leadership under Lim Chong Eu defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be
forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition.
The Education Act of 1961 put UMNO's victory on the education issue into legislative form.
Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and
state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities
could maintain their own Chinese and Tamil-language primary schools, all their students were
required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed "Malayan curriculum". Most importantly, the entry
exam to the University of Malaya (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in 1963) would be
conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This
had the effect of excluding many Chinese students. At the same time Malay schools were heavily
subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly
weakened its support in the Chinese community.
As in education, the UMNO government's unspoken agenda in the field of economic development
aimed to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan
Plans and the First Malaysian Plan (19661970) directed resources heavily into developments which
would benefit the rural Malay community, such as village schools, rural roads, clinics, and irrigation
projects. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production
and to increase their incomes. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many
Malays to buy farms or to upgrade ones they already owned. The state also provided a range of
incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering
systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to
"Malayanise" their management. All this certainly tended to reduce to gap between Chinese and

Malay standards of living, although some[which?] argued that this would have happened anyway as
Malaysia's trade and general prosperity increased.

The crisis of 1969[edit]

Main article: 13 May incident
The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and
Indian electorates. At the same time, the effects of the governments affirmative action policies of the
1950s and 1960s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays.
This was a dangerous combination, and led to the formation of a new party, the Malaysian Peoples
Movement (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in 1968. Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party,
bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders. [citation needed] At
the same time, an Islamist party, the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS) and a Chinese socialist party,
the Democratic Action Party (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the
MCA respectively.[16]
At the May 1969 federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48% of the vote,
although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to
Gerakan or DAP candidates. The victorious opposition celebrated by holding a motorcade on the
main streets of Kuala Lumpur with supporters holding up brooms as a signal of its intention to make
sweeping changes. Fear of what the changes might mean for them (as much of the country's
businesses were Chinese-owned), a Malay backlash resulted, leading rapidly to riots and intercommunal violence in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least
184 people were killed.[76][77] The government declared a state of emergency, and a National
Operations Council, headed by Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, took power from the
government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who, in September 1970, was forced to retire in favour of
Abdul Razak. It consisted of nine members, mostly Malay, and wielded full political and military
power.[16]
Using the Emergency-era Internal Security Act (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament
and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity.
The ISA gave the government power to intern any person indefinitely without trial. These powers
were widely used to silence the governments critics, and have never been repealed. The
Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian
monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national
language.

In 1971 Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the National Front (Barisan
Nasional), was formed in 1973 to replace the Alliance party.[16] The coalition consisted of UMNO, the
MCA, the MIC, Gerakan, PPP, and regional parties in Sabah and Sarawak. The PAS also joined the
Front but was expelled in 1977. The DAP was left outside as the only significant opposition party.
Abdul Razak held office until his death in 1976. He was succeeded by Datuk Hussein Onn, the son
of UMNOs founder Onn Jaafar, and then by Tun Mahathir Mohamad, who had been Education
Minister since 1981, and who held power for 22 years. During these years policies were put in place
which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysias economy and society, such as the
controversial New Economic Policy, which was intended to increase proportionally the share of the
economic "pie" of the bumiputras as compared to other ethnic groupswas launched by Prime
Minister Tun Abdul Razak. Malaysia has since maintained a delicate ethno-political balance, with a
system of government that has attempted to combine overall economic development with political
and economic policies that promote equitable participation of all races. [78]

Modern Malaysia[edit]
See also: Human rights in Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur, a blend of old and new.

In 1970 three quarters of Malaysians living below the poverty line were Malays, the majority of
Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy.
The governments response was the New Economic Policy of 1971, which was to be implemented
through a series of four five-year plans from 1971 to 1990. [citation needed] The plan had two objectives: the
elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race
and prosperity.[16] This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from
the Chinese to the Malays,[citation needed] who until then made up only 5% of the professional class.[16]
Poverty was tackled through an agricultural policy which resettled 250,000 Malays on newly cleared
farmland, more investment in rural infrastructure, and the creation of free trade zones in rural areas
to create new manufacturing jobs. Little was done to improve the living standards of the low-paid

workers in plantation agriculture, although this group steadily declined as a proportion of the
workforce. By 1990 the poorest parts of Malaysia were rural Sabah and Sarawak, which lagged
significantly behind the rest of the country. During the 1970s and 80s rural poverty did decline,
particularly in the Malayan Peninsula, but critics of the governments policy contend that this was
mainly due to the growth of overall national prosperity (due in large part to the discovery of important
oil and gas reserves) and migration of rural people to the cities rather than to state intervention.
These years saw rapid growth in Malaysian cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, which became a
magnet for immigration both from rural Malaya and from poorer neighbours such as
Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand and the Philippines. Urban poverty became a problem for the first
time, with shanty towns growing up around the cities.[citation needed]
The second arm of government policy, driven mainly by Mahathir first as Education Minister and then
as Prime Minister, was the transfer of economic power to the Malays. Mahathir greatly expanded the
number of secondary schools and universities throughout the country, and enforced the policy of
teaching in Malay rather than English. This had the effect of creating a large new Malay professional
class. It also created an unofficial barrier against Chinese access to higher education, since few
Chinese are sufficiently fluent in Malay to study at Malay-language universities. Chinese families
therefore sent their children to universities in Singapore, Australia, Britain or the United States by
2000, for example, 60,000 Malaysians held degrees from Australian universities. This had
the unintended consequence of exposing large numbers of Malaysians to life in Western countries,
creating a new source of discontent. Mahathir also greatly expanded educational opportunities for
Malay women by 2000 half of all university students were women.

Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur the tallest building in South-East Asia.

To find jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for
intervention in the economy. The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation
Ltd.), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd.), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia),
which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to
create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays. As a
result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5% in 1969 to 20.3% in 1990, and the
percentage of businesses of all kinds owned by Malays rose from 39 percent to 68 percent. This
latter figure was deceptive because many businesses that appeared to be Malay-owned were still
indirectly controlled by Chinese, but there is no doubt that the Malay share of the economy
considerably increased. The Chinese remained disproportionately powerful in Malaysian economic
life, but by 2000 the distinction between Chinese and Malay business was fading as many new
corporations, particularly in growth sectors such as information technology, were owned and
managed by people from both ethnic groups.
Malaysias rapid economic progress since 1970, which was only temporarily disrupted by the Asian
financial crisis of 1997, has not been matched by change inMalaysian politics. The repressive
measures passed in 1970 remain in place. Malaysia has had regular elections since 1974, and
although campaigning is reasonably free at election time, it is in effect aone-party state, with the
UMNO-controlled National Front usually winning nearly all the seats, while the DAP wins some
Chinese urban seats and the PAS some rural Malay ones. Since the DAP and the PAS have
diametrically opposed policies, they have been unable to form an effective opposition coalition.
There is almost no criticism of the government in the media and public protest remains severely
restricted. The ISA continues to be used to silence dissidents, and the members of the UMNO youth
movement are deployed to physically intimidate opponents.

Mahathir administration[edit]

Mahathir Mohamad was the leading force in making Malaysia into a major industrial power.
The restoration of democracy after the 1969 crisis caused disputes in the UMNO, a struggle of
power which increased after the death of Tun Abdul Razak. The ailing Datuk Hussein Bin Onn

replaced him, but the fight for control shifted to appointing the deputy prime minister. Mahathir
Mohamad was chosen, an advocate of Bumiputra who also tried to benefit the other ethnic
communities.[16]
Under the premiership of Mahathir Mohamad, Malaysia experienced economic growth from the
1980s, a 198586 property market depression,[79] and returned to growth through to the mid-1990s.
[80]

Mahathir increased privatisation and introduced the New Development Policy (NDP), designed to

increase economic wealth for all Malaysians, rather than just Malays.[16] The period saw a shift from
an agriculture-based economy to one based on manufacturing and industry in areas such as
computers and consumer electronics. It was during this period, too, that the physical landscape of
Malaysia changed with the emergence of numerous mega-projects. Notable amongst these projects
were the construction of the Petronas Twin Towers (at the time the tallest building in the world, and,
as of 2016, still the tallest twin building), Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), the North-South
Expressway, the Sepang International Circuit, the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), the Bakun
hydroelectric dam, and Putrajaya, the new federal administrative capital.
Under Mahathir Mohamads long Prime Ministership (19812003), Malaysias political
culture became increasingly centralised and authoritarian, due to Mahathir's belief that the
multiethnic Malaysia could only remain stable through controlled democracy. In 198687, he faced
leadership challenges among his own party. There were also attacks by the government on
several non-governmental organisations (NGO) which were critical of various government policies.
[81]

There were also issues such the questioning by MCA's Lee Kim Sai over the use of the

term pendatang (immigrants) that was seen as challenging Malay's bumiputra status,[82] as well as
rumours of forced conversion to or from Islam.[83] Mahathir initiated a crackdown on opposition
dissidents with the use of the Internal Security Act named Operation Lalang. The Internal Security
Act was invoked in October 1987 arresting 106 people, including opposition leaders. The head of the
judiciary and five members of the supreme court who had questioned his use of the ISA were also
arrested, and a clampdown on Malaysia's press occurred.[16]
This culminated in the dismissal and imprisonment on unsubstantiated charges of the Deputy Prime
Minister, Anwar Ibrahim, in 1997 after an internal dispute within the government. The complicity of
the judiciary in this piece of persecution was seen as a particularly clear sign of the decline of
Malaysian democracy. The Anwar affair led to the formation of a new party, the People's Justice
Party, or Keadilan, led by Anwars wife, Wan Azizah Wan Ismail. At the 1999 elections Keadilan
formed a coalition with the DAP and the PAS known as the Alternative Front (Barisan Alternatif). The
result of this was that the PAS won a number of Malay seats from UMNO, but many Chinese voters
disapproved of this unnatural alliance with the Islamist PAS, causing the DAP to lose many of its

seats to the MCA, including that of its veteran leader, Lim Kit Siang. Wan Azizah won her husbands
former constituency in Penang but otherwise Keadilan made little impact.
In the late 1990s, Malaysia was shaken by the Asian financial crisis, which damaged Malaysia's
assembly line-based economy. Mahathir combated it initially with IMF approved policies. However,
the devaluation of the Ringgit and the deepening recession caused him to create his own
programme, based on protecting Malaysia from foreign investors and reinvigorating the economy
through construction projects and the lowering of interest rates. The policies caused Malaysia's
economy to rebound by 2002, but brought disagreement between Mahathir and his deputy, Anwar
Ibrahim, who backed the IMF policies.[16] This led to the sacking of the Anwar, causing political
unrest.[84] Anwar was arrested and banned from politics on what are considered trumped up charges.
[16]

In 2003 Mahathir, Malaysia's longest serving prime minister, voluntarily retired in favour of his new

deputy, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.[16] In November 2007 two anti-government rallies occurred,
precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in the election system that heavily
favoured the ruling political party, National Front, which has been in power since Malaya achieved
independence.[85]

Badawi administration[edit]
Dato Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi freed Anwar,[16] which was seen as a portent of a mild
liberalisation.[citation needed] At the2004 election, the National Front led by Abdullah had a massive victory,
[16]

virtually wiping out the PAS and Keadilan, although the DAP recovered the seats it had lost in

1999. This victory was seen as the result mainly of Abdullah's personal popularity and the strong
recovery of Malaysias economy, which has lifted the living standards of most Malaysians to
almost first world standards, coupled with an ineffective opposition. The government's objective is for
Malaysia to become a fully developed country by 2020 as expressed in Wawasan 2020. It leaves
unanswered, however, the question of when and how Malaysia will acquire a first world political
system (a multi-party democracy, a free press, an independent judiciary and the restoration of civil
and political liberties) to go with its new economic maturity.
In November 2007, Malaysia was rocked by two anti-government rallies. The 2007 Bersih
Rally which was attended by 40,000 people was held in Kuala Lumpur on 10 November 2007, to
campaign for electoral reform. It was precipitated by allegations of corruption and discrepancies in
the Malaysian election system that heavily favour the ruling political party, Barisan Nasional, which
has been in power since Malaysia achieved its independence in 1957. [86] Another rally was held on
25 November 2007, in Kuala Lumpur led by HINDRAF. The rally organiser, the Hindu Rights Action
Force, had called the protest over alleged discriminatory policies favouring ethnic Malays. The crowd

was estimated to be between 5,000 and 30,000.[87] In both cases the government and police tried to
prevent the gatherings from taking place.
On 16 October 2008, HINDRAF was banned when the government labelled the organisation as "a
threat to national security".[88]

Najib administration[edit]
Main articles: Premiership of Najib Tun Razak and 1Malaysia
Najib Razak entered office as Prime Minister with a sharp focus on domestic economic issues and
political reform. On his first day as Prime Minister, Najib announced as his first actions the removal
of bans on two opposition newspapers, Suara Keadilan and Harakahdaily, run by the opposition
leader Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim-led People's Justice Party and the Pan Islamic Party, respectively,
and the release of 13 people held under the Internal Security Act. Among the released detainees
were two ethnic Indian activists who were arrested in December 2007 for leading an antigovernment campaign, three foreigners and eight suspected Islamic militants. Najib also pledged to
conduct a comprehensive review of the much-criticised law which allows for indefinite detention
without trial. In the speech, he emphasised his commitment to tackling poverty, restructuring
Malaysian society, expanding access to quality education for all, and promoting renewed "passion
for public service".[89] He also deferred and abandoned the digital television transition plan of all freeto-air broadcasters such as Radio Televisyen Malaysiacitation needed

Straits Settlements
Page 6 of 10

Britian was excited to have China as their business partner. However, to do this they
needed a business centre in Asia that is close to the Strait of Malacca.
For this purpose, in 1786, Sultan Abdullah, the son of Sultan Mohamed Jiwa offered
Penang to the British in exchange for protection from Siam.
Later, the Straits Settlements was formed. The Straits Settlements consisted of
Singapore, Malacca and Penang Island .These states were united in 1826
with PenangIsland as the first capital state with a Governor as head. On 1st April
1867, the administration of the Straits Settlements was transferred from Calcutta
India to the Colonial Office in London by the same act that declared the Straits
Settlements as British colonial territory.
Below is summary of the Straits Settlements.
States

Events

Penang

The English traders established the British East India Company in

1600 with the intention of improving trade in the region, especially wi
China.

The British looked for other trading zones in the Malay Archipelag

On August 11th, 1786, an agreement was established between

Francis Light and Sultan Abdullah to protect Kedah from Siamese thre

Penang Island came under the acquisition of the British

Singapore

On 6th February 1819, Stamford Raffles occupied Singapore, as it

was seen as a suitable new base for the British in the islands of the
Malay Archipelago.

This was achieved through manipulation by the British; who took

advantage of the rivalry between Sultan
Abdul Rahman and TengkuHussein.
Malacca

The Anglo Dutch Treaty 1824 a.k.a London Treaty deserves

(Anglo Dutch Treaty
attention because it resulted in the division of the Malay Archipelago
1824)
into two different geopolitical areas; Malaysia and Indonesia.

The Anglo Dutch Treaty was signed on 17 March 1824 with the ma
aim of ending all rivalry between the Dutch and the British in the East
due to:
1.
British occupation of Singapore
2.
British citizens killed in Ambon

In Europe, however, the British government were on good terms

with the Dutch. Furthermore, the Dutch were indebted to the British
because of the Napoleonic War.

A number of terms were agreed upon in the treaty;

1.
The Dutch handed over Malacca to the British in exchange
of Bencoolen
2.
The areas south of Singapore continue to belong to the Dutch, wh
the British controlled the North.
3.
The agreed decision to eliminate piracy,

Table of Contents

Straits Settlements
Page 6 of 10

Britian was excited to have China as their business partner. However, to do this they needed
a business centre in Asia that is close to the Strait of Malacca.
For this purpose, in 1786, Sultan Abdullah, the son of Sultan Mohamed Jiwa offered Penang to
the British in exchange for protection from Siam.
Later, the Straits Settlements was formed. The Straits Settlements consisted of
Singapore, Malacca and Penang Island .These states were united in 1826 with PenangIsland
as the first capital state with a Governor as head. On 1st April 1867, the administration of
the Straits Settlements was transferred from Calcutta India to the Colonial Office in London
by the same act that declared the Straits Settlements as British colonial territory.
Below is summary of the Straits Settlements.

States
Penang

Events

Singapore

Malacca
(Anglo Dutch Treaty
1824)

1.
2.

1.
2.
3.

The English traders established the British East India Company in

1600 with the intention of improving trade in the region, especially
with China.

The British looked for other trading zones in the Malay

Archipelago.

On August 11th, 1786, an agreement was established between

Francis Light and Sultan Abdullah to protect Kedah from Siamese
threat.

Penang Island came under the acquisition of the British

On 6th February 1819, Stamford Raffles occupied Singapore, as it

was seen as a suitable new base for the British in the islands of the
Malay Archipelago.

This was achieved through manipulation by the British; who took

advantage of the rivalry between Sultan
Abdul Rahman and TengkuHussein.

The Anglo Dutch Treaty 1824 a.k.a London Treaty deserves

attention because it resulted in the division of the Malay Archipelago
into two different geopolitical areas; Malaysia and Indonesia.

The Anglo Dutch Treaty was signed on 17 March 1824 with the
main aim of ending all rivalry between the Dutch and the British in the
East due to:
British occupation of Singapore
British citizens killed in Ambon

In Europe, however, the British government were on good terms

with the Dutch. Furthermore, the Dutch were indebted to the British
because of the Napoleonic War.

A number of terms were agreed upon in the treaty;

The Dutch handed over Malacca to the British in exchange
of Bencoolen
The areas south of Singapore continue to belong to the Dutch,
while the British controlled the North.
The agreed decision to eliminate piracy,

The impact of British rule

The British presence in the region reflected several patterns: direct colonial
rule in theStraits Settlements, relatively indirect control in some of the
peninsulas east-coast sultanates, and family or corporate control in Borneo.
Regardless of the political form, however, British rule brought profound
changes, transforming the various states socially and economically.
The Brookes and the North Borneo Company faced prolonged resistance
before they consolidated their control, while occasional local revolts

punctuated British rule in Malaya as well. In Sarawak in 1857, for example,

interior Chinese gold-mining communities nearly succeeded in toppling the
intrusive James Brooke ... (100 of 17,679 words)
LESSON 3
his week we will look at Federated and Unfederated Malay States.
Before 1873, the British government did not have any policy of intervention in the
affairs of the Malay states in Peninsula Malaya. However, even before then, there
had been several cases of indirect intervention. These included the dispute
between Raja Ali and the Temenggung Ibrahim of Johor over throne succession
in Johor.
This led to the intervention of Lord Kimberly, Secretary of the colonial office in the affairs
of the Malay States in September 1873. He officiated a policy of intervention in the
affairs of the Malay States. This intervention resulted in the implementation of
Federated Malay States.

ANCIENT MALAYA
The first people to live in Malaya were Stone Age hunter-gatherers. They
arrived as early as 8,000 BC. Later Stone Age farmers came to Malaya and
displaced them. (The hunter-gatherers continued to exist but they retreated
into remote areas). The farmers practiced slash and burn agriculture. They
cleared an area of rain forest by burning it then grew crops. After a few years
the land would be exhausted and the farmers would clear a new area.
However within a few years the old area would become covered in vegetation
and would become fertile again.
After 1,000 BC metal-using farmers came to Malaya. They made tools from
bronze and iron and they settled along the coast and along rivers. They lived
partly by fishing, partly by growing crops.
In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD centralized states arose in Malaya. The
greatest was Kedah in the North. The Malayans became highly civilized.
Malayan civilization was heavily influenced by India. (Malayans traded with
India from the 3rd century AD. After that contact with India was common).
Malayan laws and writing show Indian influence. The religions of Buddhism
and Hinduism were also introduced into Malaya at that time.

SRIVIJAYA
In the 7th and 8th centuries the state of Srivijaya of Sumatra rose to dominate
much of Malaya. It was a kingdom in Sumatra with its capital at Palembang.
Srivijaya controlled the coasts of Java, the Malay Peninsula and part of
Borneo. However the Srivijayans only really controlled the coast. Their
influence did not extend far inland.
The prosperity of Srivijaya was based on trade with both India and
China. Srivijaya controlled the Melaka Straits, which were the main passage
between the Indian Ocean and China Sea. As a result it grew rich and
powerful. Srivijaya was able to dominate the region until the 11th century.
Then its power declined and by the 13th century Srivijaya had lost control
completely.
MELAKA

Later Melaka rose to dominate Malaya. A man named Parameswara founded

it at the end of the 14th century. He became the ruler of Temasik on Singapore
Island. However the Thais overthrew him. Parameswara fled with some
followers and settled by a river called Bertram.
According to legend when he was hunting a mouse deer turned and kicked
one of his dogs. Parameswara took this as an omen and decided to found a
settlement there. Since he was standing under a Melaka tree at the time he
named it Melaka. Parameswara converted to Islam. (Islam first reached the
region during the 8th century. It made many converts between the 14th and
16th centuries). During the 15th century the new settlement prospered and
grew. The wealth and power of Melaka was based on trade with Arab,
Chinese and Indian ships sailing there.
The great wealth of the city-state of Melaka came to the notice of
the Portuguese. In 1511 they sent an expedition led by Alfonso de
Albuquerque to capture it. Melaka soon fell to the Portuguese artillery.
However the son of the Sultan of Melaka founded Johor.
JOHOR AND THE DUTCH

Johor grew to be one of several powerful trading states in what is now

Malaya. In the early 16th century Johor made several unsuccessful attempts
to recapture Melaka. However Johor remained hostile to Portuguese Melaka.
Then in the early 17th century they made an alliance with the Dutch against
their mutual enemy the Portuguese. The Dutch made two unsuccessful
attempts to capture Melaka in 1606 and 1608. They then turned their attention
to Java. Finally in 1641 the Dutch laid siege to Melaka again. Johor assisted
them. After a terrible siege, in which many people died, Melaka finally fell to
the Dutch.
Another rich and powerful state was Aceh, in Sumatra. However the Sultanate
of Aceh reached its peak in the early 17th century then began to decline.
Brunei was another powerful state. Already strong in the 15th century it grew
stronger in the 16th after the Portuguese captured Melaka. The power of
Brunei was at its peak in the early 16th century but it declined at the end of
the century.
In the early 17th century the Dutch drove out all other Europeans from the
area. For the rest of the 17th century they were friends with Johor and the two
powers dominated the region.
In 1673 the forces of the kingdom of Jambi sacked the capital of Johor, Batu
Sawar. However Johor eventually managed to inflict defeat on Jambi.
At the end of the 17th century Johor was still the most powerful state in
Malaya. However in 1699 Sultan Mahud was assassinated. That event
marked the beginning of the end of Johor power.
THE BUGIS
A new power arose in the 18th century. A people called the Bugis originally
came from Sulawesi. At the end of the 17th century they began to settle,
peacefully, in the territory of Johor. They were allowed to settle but they soon
became very powerful.
In 1717 a man named Raja Kecil claimed he was the son of the assassinated
Sultan Mahud. He and his followers seized the capital of Johor. The reigning

sultan, a man named Abdul Jalil, was overthrown. However he fled to the east
coast of the Malay Peninsula with his followers and set up a rival court there.
From then on both men claimed to be the ruler of Johor.
Abdul Jalil was murdered on the orders of his rival, Raja Kecil. The Bugis then
turned on Raja Kecil. They captured the capital and made Abdul Jalil's son
Sulaiman ruler. However Sulaiman was only a puppet ruler. From then on the
Bugis held the real power.
BRITISH COLONIALISM IN MALAYA
In the late 18th century the British East India Company traded with, and partly
controlled India. At that time they began looking for a base in Malaya. In 1786
the British under Francis Light occupied Penang and founded Georgetown. In
1800 they took Province Wellesley.
In 1819 Sir Stamford Raffles founded a British trading post at Singapore.
By the treaty of London, 1824, the British and Dutch divided the region
between them. The Dutch surrendered Melaka to the British. The Dutch were
given control of Sumatra and all the area below the Malay Peninsula.
The Straits Settlements, as they were called, (Penang, Province Wellesley,
Melaka and Singapore) grew rapidly partly due to an influx of Chinese and
Indian workers. By 1860 the population of Singapore was over 80,000.
However although the British East India Company controlled islands and parts
of the coast they did not control the interior of the Malay Peninsula.
Furthermore until 1867 the East India Company controlled the Straits
Settlements not the British Government. However in 1867 they were made a
crown colony.
British control of Sarawak began in 1841. In 1840 a man named James
Brooke helped the Sultan of Brunei to crush a rebellion. As a reward he was
given territory to rule and in 1841 he was granted the title of Raja of Sarawak.
Brooke's territory was enlarged in 1853.
Meanwhile Siam (modern day Thailand) invaded Kedah in 1821. They
deposed the Sultan. There were rebellions against Siamese rule in 1830-31

and in 1838-39. The Sultan was restored in 1841 but Kedah remained a
vassal state of Siam.
THE TREATY OF PANGKOR 1874
In 1853 the British government stopped charging duty on imports on tin. As a
result exports of tin from Malaya to Britain boomed. Steamships and the
opening of the Suez canal in 1869 further boosted exports of tin. Chinese
workers flocked to work in the tin mines of Malaya and on plantations.
However in 1871 the Sultan of Perak died and there was a quarrel over who
should succeed him. Furthermore Chinese secret societies fought over who
would control the tin mines. The turmoil disrupted supplies of tin to Britain. So
one man who claimed he was the rightful heir to the Sultan, Raja Abdulla,
made an agreement with the British. It was known as the Pangkor Agreement.
The British recognized Abdulla as Sultan of Perak. In return he agreed to
accept a British 'adviser' at his court who would 'advise' him on all matters
except those concerning Malayan religion and customs.
Until 1874 the British restricted themselves to trade and avoided becoming
involved in Malayan politics. The treaty of Pangkor marked the beginning of
British political control of Malaya.
BRITISH MALAYA
The British gradually increased their influence over Malaya. More states Selangor,
Pahang, Sungei, Ujong, Rembau, Negr Sembilan, Jelebu) were forced to accept
British 'protection'. In 1895 the 'protected' states were persuaded to form a
federation.
Meanwhile in 1888 Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo became British protectorates.
In the first years of the 20th century the British extended their influence over the Northern Malay
states (Kedah, Kelantan and Trengganu) were formally absorbed into British Malaya. In 1914
Johor also came under British rule.
In the early 20th century a new industry grew up in Malaya-rubber. The Malayan rubber industry
boomed. The Malayan tin industry also prospered and an oil industry began in Singapore.
During the 1920s the Malayan economy was prosperous but in the 1930s, during the
depression, exports fell.

In the early 20th century while the economy was booming many Chinese people came to live
and work in Malaya. However after 1930 immigration was restricted to try and help
unemployment.
THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION OF MALAYA
On December 8 1941 the Japanese invaded Malay Peninsula and they quickly overran it. The
last British troops withdrew across the straits into Singapore Island on 31 January 1942. The
Japanese invaded Singapore on 8 February 1942. The last British troops surrendered on 15
February 1942. This was a military disaster for the British. Meanwhile Japanese troops invaded
Borneo. They captured Kuching on 25 December 1941 and Jesselton (Kota Kinbalu) on 8
January 1942. During the Japanese occupation the Chinese were treated the most harshly.
Indians were treated less harshly.
MALAYA BECOMES INDEPENDENT
In 1944, when the Japanese faced defeat, the British government decided to join all the
Malayan states (except Singapore) into a single unified state called the Malayan Union.
(Singapore would be a separate crown colony). However there was so much opposition to this
plan it was scrapped. Instead on 1 February 1948 the Federation of Malaya was formed.
Meanwhile Malayan nationalism was growing. The first Malay organisation was the Kesatuan
Melayu Singapuru, or Singapore Malay Union, which was formed in 1926. Others quickly
followed it. In 1946 Malay organisations joined together to form the Pertuuhan Kebangsaan
Melayu Bersatu, the United Malays National Organisation.
The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was founded in 1930. In 1948 they began to attack
European estate managers. As a result the government introduced a state of emergency.
However communist activity declined after 1949 when the British parliament promised
independence. The insurgency continued for some years but it was less of a threat. Communist
activity flared up again in the mid-1970s then died down.
In 1955 the Reid Commission was formed to prepare a constitution for Malaya. Malaya became
independent on 31 August 1957. The first prime minister of Malaya was Tunku Abdul Rahan
(1903-1976). He held office from 1957 to 1970.
In 1963 Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah joined Malaya to form the Federation of Malaysia.
However in 1965 Singapore became a separate state.
THE STATE OF EMERGENCY
During the 1960s there was tension between Malays and non-Malays. It culminated in violence
after an election in May 1969. The opposition parties gained seats while the governing party lost
seats (although they held onto power). On 13 May 1969 the supporters of the opposition parties
held celebrations in the streets of Kuala Lumpur. Supporters of the governing party held a
counter-demonstration. The two sides came to blows. After two days of violence the government
declared a state of emergency and parliament was suspended.

MODERN MALAYSIA
Slowly calm returned and parliament was reconvened in 1971. The Malaysian government then
adopted a new economic policy. It was remarkably successful. During the 1970's, 1980's and
1990's Malaysia changed from being a poor, agricultural country to a rich, industrial one. The
standard of living of the Malaysian people rose dramatically. In 1991 the new economic policy
was replaced by a new development policy. Today Malaysia is a prosperous country. The
population of Malaysia is 30 million.