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U-tube
manometers were among the first pressure indicators. Originally, these tubes were made of
glass, and scales were added to them as needed. But manometers are large, cumbersome,
and not well suited for integration into automatic control loops. Therefore, manometers are
usually found in the laboratory or used as local indicators. Depending on the reference
pressure used, they could indicate absolute, gauge, and differential pressure.
Differential pressure transducers often are used in flow measurement where they can
measure the pressure differential across a venturi, orifice, or other type of primary element.
The detected pressure differential is related to flowing velocity and therefore to volumetric
flow. Many features of modern pressure transmitters have come from the differential
pressure transducer. In fact, one might consider the differential pressure transmitter the
model for all pressure transducers.
"Gauge" pressure is defined relative to atmospheric conditions. In those parts of the world
that continue to use English units, gauge pressure is indicated by adding a "g" to the units
descriptor. Therefore, the pressure unit "pounds per square inch gauge" is abbreviated psig.
When using SI units, it is proper to add "gauge" to the units used, such as "Pa gauge."
When pressure is to be measured in absolute units, the reference is full vacuum and the
abbreviation for "pounds per square inch absolute" is psia.
It is usually expressed as a percentage of either the full scale or of the actual reading of the
instrument. In case of percent-full-scale devices, error increases as the absolute value of
the measurement drops. Repeatability refers to the closeness of agreement among a
number of consecutive measurements of the same variable. Linearity is a measure of how
well the transducer output increases linearly with increasing pressure. Hysteresis error
describes the phenomenon whereby the same process pressure results in different output
signals depending upon whether the pressure is approached from a lower or higher
pressure.
From Mechanical to Electronic
The first pressure gauges used flexible elements as sensors. As pressure changed, the
flexible element moved, and this motion was used to rotate a pointer in front of a dial. In
these mechanical pressure sensors, a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, or a bellows element
detected the process pressure and caused a corresponding movement.
A Bourdon tube is C-shaped and has an oval cross-section with one end of the tube
connected to the process pressure (Figure 3-1A). The other end is sealed and connected to
the pointer or transmitter mechanism. To increase their sensitivity, Bourdon tube elements
can be extended into spirals or helical coils (Figures 3-1B and 3-1C). This increases their
effective angular length and therefore increases the movement at their tip, which in turn
increases the resolution of thetransducer.
Resonant Wire
The resonant-wire pressure transducer was introduced in the late 1970s. In this design
(Figure 3-7), a wire is gripped by a static member at one end, and by the sensing
diaphragm at the other. An oscillator circuit causes the wire to oscillate at its resonant
frequency. A change in process pressure changes the wire tension, which in turn changes
the resonant frequency of the wire. A digital counter circuit detects the shift. Because this
change in frequency can be detected quite precisely, this type of transducer can be used for
low differential pressure applications as well as to detect absolute and gauge pressures.
The most significant advantage of the resonant wire pressure transducer is that it
generates an inherently digital signal, and therefore can be sent directly to a stable crystal
clock in a microprocessor. Limitations include sensitivity to temperature variation, a
nonlinear output signal, and some sensitivity to shock and vibration. These limitations
typically are minimized by using a microprocessor to compensate for nonlinearities as well
as ambient and process temperature variations.
Resonant wire transducers can detect absolute pressures from 10 mm Hg, differential
pressures up to 750 in. water, and gauge pressures up to 6,000 psig (42 MPa). Typical
accuracy is 0.1% of calibrated span, with six-month drift of 0.1% and a temperature effect
of 0.2% per 1000 F.
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