CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

1.1

INTRODUCTION :
An Electrical Power Substation receives electric power from generating station via
transmission lines and delivers power via the outgoing transmission lines. Substations are
integral parts of a power system and form important links between the generating stations,
transmission systems, distribution systems and the load points. Various power substations
located in generating stations, transmission and distribution systems have similar layout and
similar electrical components. Electrical power substation basically consists of number of
incoming circuit connections and number of outgoing circuit connections connected to the bus
bars. Bus bars are conducting bars to which number of circuit connections is connected. Each
circuit has certain number of electrical components such as circuit breakers, Isolators, earth
switches, current transformers, voltage transformers etc.
In a Power Substation there are various indoor and outdoor switchgear and equipment.
Transformers are necessary in a substation for stepping up and stepping down of a.c voltage.
Besides the transformers, the several other equipment include bus bars, circuit breakers,
isolators, surge arresters, Substation Earthing System, Shunt reactors, Shunt Capacitors etc. .
Each equipment has certain functional requirement. The equipment are either indoor or outdoor
depending upon the voltage rating and local conditions.
In a large power System large number of Generating stations, Electrical Power Substations
and load centers are interconnected. This large internetwork is controlled from load dispatch
center. Digital and voice signals are transmitted over the transmission lines via the Power
substations. The substations are interlinked with the load control centers via Power Line Carrier
Systems (PLCC). Modern Power System is controlled with the help of several automatic,
semiautomatic equipment. Digital Computers and microprocessors are installed in the control
rooms of large substations, generating stations and load control centers for data collection, data
monitoring, automatic protection and control.

1.2

Functions of Electrical Power Substations are

Supply electric power to the consumers continuously

Supply of electric power within specified voltage limits and frequency limits

Shortest possible fault duration.

Optimum efficiency of plants and the network

Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at lowest cost

1.3 TYPE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SUBSTATIONS:

Based on Nature of Duties:
1.3.1 Step up or primary Electrical Power substation:
Primary substations are associated with the power generating plants where the voltage is
stepped up from low voltage (3.3, 6.6, 11, 33kV) to 220kV or 400kV for transmitting the power
so that huge amount of power can be transmitted over a large distance to load centers.
1.3.2 Primary Grid Electrical Power Substation:

Such substations are located at suitable load centers along with the primary transmission
lines. At primary Grid Power Substations the primary transmission voltage (220kV or 400kV) is
stepped down to secondary transmission voltages (110kV). This Secondary transmission lines
are carried over to Secondary Power Substations situated at the load centers where the voltage is
further stepped down to Sub transmission Voltage or Primary Distribution Voltages (11kV or
33kV).
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1.3.3 Step Down or Distribution Electrical Power Substations:

Such Power Substations are located at the load centers. Here the Sub transmission
Voltages of Distribution Voltages (11kV or 33kV) are stepped down to Secondary Distribution
Voltages (400kV or 230kV). From these Substations power will be fed to the consumers to their
terminals

Fig1.1: Step Down or Distribution Electrical Power Substations.

Basis of Service Rendered:

1.4 Transformer Substation:
Transformers are installed on such Substations to transform the power from one voltage
level to other voltage level.

1.4.1 Switching Substation:

Switching substations are meant for switching operation of power lines without
transforming the voltages. At these Substations different connections are made between various
transmission lines. Different Switching Schemes are employed depends on the application to
transmit the power in more reliable manner in a network.
1.4.2 Converting Substation:
Such Substations are located where AC to DC conversion is required. In HVDC
transmission Converting Substations are employed on both sides of HVDC link for converting
AC to DC and again converting back from DC to AC. Converting Power Substations are also
employed where frequency is to be converted from higher to lower and lower to higher. This
type of frequency conversion is required in connecting to Grid Systems.

1.5 Based on Substation Design:

1.5.1 Outdoor Electrical Power Substations:
In Outdoor Power Substations, the various electrical equipments are installed in the
switchyard below the sky. Electrical equipment is mounted on support structures to obtain
sufficient ground clearance.

Figure 1.2: Outdoor substation

1.5.2 Indoor Electrical Power Substation:

In Indoor Power Substations the apparatus is installed within the substation building.
Such substations are usually for the rating of 66kV. Indoor Substations are preferred in heavily
polluted areas and Power Substations situated near the seas (saline atmosphere causes Insulator
Failures results in Flashovers)

Fig1.3: Indoor Substation

1.6 Based on Design Configuration:

1.6.1Air Insulated Electrical Power Substation:
In Air Insulated Power Substations bus bars and connectors are visible. In this Power
Substations Circuit Breakers and Isolators, Transformers, Current Transformers, Potential
Transformers etc. are installed in the outdoor. Bus bars are supported on the post Insulators or
Strain Insulators. Substations have galvanized Steel Structures for supporting the equipment,
insulators and incoming and outgoing lines. Clearances are the primary criteria for these
substations and occupy a large area for installation.
1.6.2 Gas Insulated Electrical Power Substation:
In Gas Insulated Substation Various Power Substation equipments like Circuit Breakers,
Current Transformers, Voltage Transformers, Bus bars, Earth Switches, Surge Arresters, and
Isolators etc. are in the form of metal enclosed SF6 gas modules. The modules are assembled in
accordance with the required Configuration. The various Live parts are enclosed in the metal
enclosures (modules) containing SF6 gas at high pressure. Thus the size of Power Substation
reduces to 8% to 10% of the Air Insulated Power Substation.
1.6.3 Hybrid Electrical Power Substation:
Hybrid Substations are the combination of both Conventional Substation and Gas
Insulated Substation. Some bays in a Power Substation are gas insulated type and some are air
insulated type. The design is based on convenience, local conditions available, area available and
cost.

CHAPTER-II
ELEMENTS OF SUBSTATION
TRANSFORMER:

Transformer is a static electrical device, involving no continuously moving parts,

used in electric power systems to transfer power between circuits through the use of
electromagnetic induction
There are three principle operations of transformers:

2.1.1 Power transformer:

The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used between
the generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA and
above. Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation locations,
distribution points, and interconnections within the system or with nearby systems, such
as a neighboring utility. The complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission
and distribution voltages. Power transformers must be used at each of these points where
there is a transition between voltage levels. Power transformers are selected based on the
application, with the emphasis toward custom design being more apparent the larger the
unit. Power transformers are available for step-up operation, primarily used at the
generator and referred to as generator step-up (GSU) transformers, and for step -down
operation, mainly used to feed distribution circuits. Power transformers are available as
single-phase or three-phase apparatus. The construction of a transformer depends upon
the application. Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the dry type but
can also be liquid immersed. For outdoor use, transformers are usually liquid immersed.
Here focuses on the outdoor, liquid-immersed transformers, such as shown in figure 2.1.

Fig2.1. Liquid immersed power transformer

Power transformers have been loosely grouped into three market segments based on size ranges.
These three segments are:
1.

Small power transformers: 500 to 7500 kVA

2.

Medium power transformers: 7500 to 100 MVA

3.

Large power transformers: 100 MVA and above

2.1.2 Distribution Transformer:

Any transformer that takes voltage from a primary distribution circuit and steps down
or reduces it to a secondary distribution circuit or a consumers service circuit is a distribution
transformer. Although many industry standards tend to limit this definition by kVA rating (e.g. 5
to 500 kVA), distribution transformers can have lower ratings and can have ratings of 5000 kVA
or even higher, so the use of kVA ratings to define transformer types is being discouraged.

Fig 2.2: Distribution Transformer

2.1.3 Instrument Transformer:

In order to measure high alternating currents and voltage, we employ specially designed
transformer, called instrument transformer.
There are two types of instrument transformer as given below:

2.1.3.1 Current Transformer:

In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric
currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers
(PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly
apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately
proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what
may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in
metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.
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Design:

Fig 2.3: Current Transformers.

Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere electricity
supply. Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic
core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a
magnetic field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A
primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary
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circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the
primary current.
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around
a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore
consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The
primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to
carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common,
which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a
single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the
circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur.
Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical
examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic
molded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate
them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage
transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary
current is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an
output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary
winding can be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The
load, or burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher
than the core's design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle,
distorting the waveform and affecting accuracy.
Usage:
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical
utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase
services greater than 200 amp.
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The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often,
multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and
revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and protection
circuits, and allows current transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload
performance) to be used for the devices.
Safety precautions:
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from
its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to
continue Driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high
voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may
cause arc. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and
permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.
Accuracy:
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:
1.

Burden

2.

Burden class/saturation class

3.

Rating factor

4.

Load

Burden:
The load, or burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive) impedance
presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA,
10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA & 60 VA. As for ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B13

0.2, B-0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 can tolerate
up to 0.2 of impedance in the metering circuit before its output current is no longer a fixed
ratio to the primary current. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit
are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess
burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. Often,
substation meters are located significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive
length of small gauge conductor creates a large resistance. This problem can be solved by using
CT with 1 ampere secondarys which will produce less voltage drop between a CT and its
metering devices.

2.1.3.2 Potential Transformer:

Voltage transformers or potential transformers are used for measurement and protection.
Accordingly, they are either measuring type or protective type voltage transformers. They may
be either single phase or three phase units. Voltage transformers are necessary for voltage,
directional, distance protection. The primary of voltage transformer is connected to power circuit
between phase and ground. The volt ampere rating of voltage transformers is similar as
compared with that of power transformer. There are two types of construction:
Electromagnetic potential transformer, in which primary and secondary are wound on
magnetic core like in usual transformer.
Capacitor potential transformer, in which primary voltage is applied to a series capacitor
group.

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Figure2.4:
Potential
Transformer.
Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are another type of instrument
transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits. They are designed to
present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to
accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be
operated at a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69 V
or 120 V at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protection relays.

15

Fig2.5: Deferent types of Potential Transformer or PT.

16

The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labeled as H 1, H2

(sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1, X2 and sometimes an X 3 tap may be present.
Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same voltage
transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The
low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground.
The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity. This
applies to current transformers as well. At any instant terminals with the same suffix numeral
have the same polarity and phase. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for
proper operation of metering and protection relays.
While VTs were formerly used for all voltages greater than 240 V primary, modern
meters eliminate the need VTs for most secondary service voltages. VTs are typically used in
circuits where the system voltage level is above 600 V. Modern meters eliminate the need of
VT's since the voltage remains constant and it is measured in the incoming supply. This is mostly
used in H.V.

2.2 PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS OF A SUBSTATION:

Protection is the major part of an electrical substation. So there is some requirement of
protective equipments as listed below:

2.3 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates
once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically)
to resume normal operation.

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Fig.2.6- Common trip circuit breaker

Fig2.7-Vaccum tube Circuit Breaker.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual
household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an
entire city.
2.3.1 Operation:
Circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary
substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually
done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually
arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism.
The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some
high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and
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an internal control power source.

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the
circuit; some mechanically stored energy within the breaker is used to separate the contacts,
although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. The stored
energy may be in the form of springs or compressed air. Small circuit breakers may be manually
operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy
to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and
must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made
of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is
limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature circuit breakers are usually discarded
when the Contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have
replaceable contacts.

2.3.2 Types of Circuit Breaker:

1. Oil circuit Breaker
2. SF6 Circuit Breaker
3. Air Blast Circuit Breaker
4. Vacuum Circuit Breaker

2.3.3 Oil Circuit Breakers (OCB):

The oil in OCB serves two purposes. It insulates between the phases and between the
phases and the ground, and it provides the medium for the extinguishing of the arc. When
electric arc is drawn under oil, the arc vaporizes the oil and creates a large bubble that surrounds
19

the arc. The gas inside the bubble is around 80% hydrogen, which impairs ionization. The
decomposition of oil into gas requires energy that comes from the heat generated by the arc. The
oil surrounding the bubble conducts the heat away from the arc and thus also contributes to
deionization of the arc.
Main disadvantage of the oil circuit breakers is the flammability of the oil, and the maintenance
necessary to keep the oil in good condition (i.e. changing and purifying the oil).

Fig. 2.8- Minimum Oil circuit breaker

1.Vent valve
2 .Terminal pad
20

3 .Oil level indicator

4.Moving contact
5. Lower fixed contact
6. Separating piston
7 .Terminal pad
8. Upper drain valve
9. Lower drain valves

21

2.3.4

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers :

Fig.2.9:SF6 circuit Breakers.

High-voltage circuit-breakers have greatly changed since they were first introduced about
40 years ago, and several interrupting principles have been developed that have contributed
successively to a large reduction of the operating energy. These breakers are available for indoor
or outdoor applications, the latter being in the form of breaker poles housed in ceramic insulators
mounted on a structure.
Current interruption in a high voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by separating two
contacts in a medium, such as SF 6, having excellent dielectric and arc quenching properties.
After contact separation, current is carried through an arc and is interrupted when this arc is
cooled by a gas blast of sufficient intensity. Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it
rapidly so that gas temperature between the contacts is reduced from 20,000 K to less than 2000
K in a few hundred microseconds, so that it is able to withstand the transient recovery voltage
22

that is applied across

The contacts after current interruption. Sulfur hexafluoride is generally used in present
high-voltage circuit-breakers (of rated voltage higher than 52 kV).
In the 1980s and 1990s, the pressure necessary to blast the arc was generated mostly by gas
heating using arc energy. It is now possible to use low energy spring-loaded mechanisms to drive
high-voltage circuit-breakers up to 800 kV.

2.3.5 Air Blast Circuit Breaker:

Fig: 2.10-Air Blast Circuit Breaker

23

2.3.6.1 Operation:
Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto reclosure, unit type multi break
constructions, simple assembly, and modest maintenance are some of the main features of air
blast circuit breakers. A compressors plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air
receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are especially suitable for railways and arc furnaces, where
the breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast circuit breakers are used for interconnected lines and
important lines where rapid operation is desired.
High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg. /cm2 stored in the air reservoir. Air is
taken from the compressed air system. Three hollow insulator columns are mounted on the
reservoir with valves at their basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the
top of the hollow insulator chambers. The current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction
chambers to each other in series and the pole to the neighboring equipment. Since there exists a
very high Voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chambers
assembly is mounted on insulators.

2.3.7 Vacuum circuit breakers:

Vacuum circuit breakers are circuit breakers which are used to protect medium and high
voltage circuits from dangerous electrical situations. Like other types of circuit breakers, vacuum
circuit breakers literally break the circuit so that energy cannot continue flowing through it,
thereby preventing fires, power surges, and other problems which may emerge. These devices
have been utilized since the 1920s, and several companies have introduced refinements to make
them even safer and more effective.

Fig: 2.11- Vacuum circuit breaker.

24

2.3.7.1 Operation:
In a vacuum circuit breaker, two electrical contacts are enclosed in a vacuum. One of the
contacts is fixed, and one of the contacts is movable. When the circuit breaker detects a
dangerous situation, the movable contact pulls away from the fixed contact, interrupting the
current. Because the contacts are in a vacuum, arcing between the contacts is suppressed,
ensuring that the circuit remains open. As long as the circuit is open, it will not be energized.
Vacuum reclosure will automatically reset when conditions are safe again, closing the
circuit and allowing electricity to flow through it. Recloses can usually go through several cycles
before they will need to be manually reset. Other types of vacuum circuit breakers require
resetting every time the breaker trips. Before a manual reset, the person doing the resetting needs
to check the system to determine what caused the unsafe conditions in the first place, and make
sure that they have been addressed.
Vacuum circuit breakers are very durable, and they are designed to last for an extended
period of time. These electrical safety devices can be made with a variety of materials,
depending on the need and the preference of the manufacturer. As with other devices used to
interrupt current for safety, vacuum circuit breakers are given a rating which indicates the kind
of conditions they can handle. When people install circuit breakers, they must confirm that the
breaker they are using is suitable for the conditions; a breaker which is rated too low can fail
catastrophically.
Other techniques can be used for arc suppression with medium and high voltage electrical
systems, such as filling circuit breakers with inert gases to suppress arcing. Arc suppression is a
major concern with heavy duty power systems because if an arc forms, it can override the circuit
breaker and create very dangerous and very undesirable conditions. Companies which develop
circuit breakers for these applications usually test their breaker designs extensively to confirm
that they are safe.

2.4 RELAY:
Relay is a protective device that detects the fault and initiatives the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system
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Classification of relay:
According to construction and principle of operation:
1. Electromagnetic relays.
2. Induction relays.
3. Buchholz relay.
According to application:
1. Directional reverses current relays.
2. Directional reverse power relays.
3. Differential relay.
4. Impedance relay.
5. Reactance relay.

According to speed:
1. Instantaneous relay.
2. Definite time lag relay.
3. Inverse time lag relay
4. Inverse definite minimum time lag relay.
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A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiatives the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.

2.4.1 Basic principle of relay:

This diagram has shown one phase of 3-phase system for simplicity. The relay circuit
Connections can be divided into three parts.
1. First part is the primary wiring of a current transformer. Which is connected in series with
the line to be protected?
2.

Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
3. The third part is tripping circuit which may be either ac or dc. When a short circuit occurs
of on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line increasing to an enormous
value This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil causing the relay to
operate by closing its
27

Contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and
isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system.

2.4.2 Important terms of the relay:

1. Pick up current:
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the starts to operate.
Pick up current =Rated secondary current of CT Current setting
2. Current setting:
It is often desirable to adjust the pick up current to any required value. This is known as
current setting and is usually achieved by the use of taping on the relay operating coil.
3. Time setting multiplier
A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment
is known as time setting multiplier.
5. Gas operated (buchholz) relay
Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformer for
protection against all kinds of fault .It used to give an alarm in case incipient. When fault is
disconnect the transformer from this supply in this system .It is usually installed in the pipe
connecting the conservator to the main tank. It is use for excess of 750KVA.

28

Fig: 2.12- Gas operated (Buchholz) relay

2.4.3 Directional over current relay:

The Directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a directional protective relay under
short circuit conditions. When a short circuit occurs the system voltage for to a low value and
there may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause it operation. This difficulty is
overcome in the directional over current relay, which is designed to be almost independent of
system voltage and power factor. Under normal operating condition, power flows in the normal
direction in the circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, directional power relay does not operate,
thereby keeping the over current element unenergized.

29

Fig: 2.13- Induction directional over current relay.

However, when a short circuit occurs, thereby keeping the over current element rotates to bridge
the reverse direction. Should this element rotate and the moving contact attached to it closes the
trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.

2.5 FUSE:
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit which is melt when excessive
current flows through it thus break the circuit. The fuse element generally made of materials
having melting point & conductivity.

30

Important terms of fuse element: It is the current which the fuse element can normally carry with
over heating or melting. It is depends upon the temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse
holder, fuse material and the surrounding of the fuse.

Fig: 2.14-Cut off characteristics of fuse.

2.5.1 Type of Fuse:

a.

Low voltage Fuse.

b.

Semi enclosed rewires able Fuse.

c.

High rupturing capacity cartridge fuse.

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2.5.1.1High voltage fuses:

a.

Cartridge type fuses.

b.

Liquid type fuse.

c.

Metal clod fuse.

2.5.1.2 High rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse:

The H.R.C. fuse consist of a heat resisting ceramic body having metal end cap to which
is welded silver current carrying element .The space within the body surrounding the element is
Completely packed with a filling powder. The filling material may be chalk, plaster of pairs,
quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium. Under normal
condition, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point, it carries normal current
without overheating. When fault occurs the current increases and the fuse element melts.

32

Fig: 2.15- High rupturing capacity (HRC) Cartridge fuse.

2.5.2 Advantage of High rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse:

They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault currents.
They have high speed of operation.
They provide reliable discrimination.
They require no maintenance.
They provide reliable discrimination
They permit consistent performance.

2.5.3 Disadvantage of High rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse:

Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.
They have to be replaced after each operation.

2.6 LIGHTNING ARRESTER:

An early type of Lightning dissipater-arrester, which the patent states to prevent and
safely dissipate lightning strikes.

33

Fig. 2.16- Different type of arrester that are used to protect our power system.

2.6.1 Protection against Lightning:

The most commonly used device for protection against lightning surges are
1.

Earthing screen

2.

Overhead ground wires

3.

Lightning arresters or surges diverters.

2.6.2 Types of lightning arrester:

1. Road gap lightning arrester.

5. Valve type lightning arrester.

2. Horn gap lightning arrester.

6. Oxide film lightning arrester.

3. Multi gap lightning arrester.

7. Electrolyte lightning arrester.

4. Expulsion type lightning arrester.

8.

Burke lightning arrester.

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2.7 AUTO RECLOSURE:

Many fault an overhead transmission lines are transient in nature. Statically evidence
shows that about 90% of faults an overhead transmission lines are caused by lightning or by
passing of object near or through lines. These condition results in arcing faults and the arc in the
fault can be extinguished by the simultaneous opening of circuit breakers on both ends of the
lines or a one end of the line. Since the cause of transient faults mentioned above disappears
after a short time the circuit breaker can be recluse as soon as the arc in fault has been
extinguished. The autos re-closure trips open three times when circuit has any fault.

2.7.1 Operating sequence of auto Re-closure:

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Figure2.17: Auto re-closures operation system.

2.8 ISOLATOR:
Isolator is a disconnecting switch which operates under no load conditions, it has no
specified current breaking capacity. Isolator is not even used for breaking current. In some case
isolator are used for breaking charging current of transmission lines. Isolator is used in addition
to circuit breaker is opened first then isolator. While closing a circuit the isolator is necessary on
the supply side of circuit breakers in order to ensure isolation of the circuit breaker from live
parts of the purpose of maintenance
The operating mechanism manual plus one of the following.
Electrical motor mechanism
Pneumatic mechanism

2.8.1 Types of construction of Isolators:

Vertical break type

Horizontal break type, either center-break or double break

2.9 EARTHING:
36

The Earthing practice adopted at generating stations, sub-stations and lines should be in
such a manner as to provide:
a) Safety to personnel
b) Minimum damage to equipment as a result
of flow of heavy fault currents
c) Improve reliability of power supply
2.9.1 The primary requirements are:
The impedance to ground (Resistance of the Earthing system) should be as low as possible
and should not exceed,
Large sub-stations -1 ohm
Small sub-stations -2 ohms
Power stations -0.5 ohms
Distribution transformer stations- 5 ohms
2.9.1.1 All exposed steel Earthing conductors should be protected with bituminous paint.
2.9.1.2 PLATE EARTHING:
i) EHT Substation - 1.3 M x 13 M.Ms cast iron plates 25mm thick Plates are to be buried
vertically in pits and surrounded by finely divided coke, crushed coal or char coal at least 155
mm all around the plates. Plates should not be less than 15 m apart and should be buried to
sufficient depth to ensure that they are always surrounded by moist earth.
2.9.1.3 PIPE EARTHING:
a) EHT substations Cast iron pipes 125 mm in diameter 2.75 m long and not less than 9.5 mm thick
pipes 50.8mm in dia. and 3.05m long. Pipes are to be placed vertically at intervals of not less
than 12.2 m in large stations surrounded by finely broken coke crushed coal and charcoal at least
150 mm around the pipe on the extra depth. a) Peripheral or main earth mat- 100 x 16 m MS
flat
b) Internal earth mat-

50 x 8m MS flat to be placed at 5m apart

37

c) Branch connections-

Cross section not less than 64.5 square meters

Joints are to be kept down to the minimum number. All joints and connections in earth
grid are to be brazed, riveted, sweated, bolted or welded. For rust protection the welds should be
treated with barium chromate. Welded surfaces should be painted with red lead and aluminum
paint in turn and afterwards coated with bitumen. Joints in the Earthing conductor between the
switch gear units and the cable sheaths, which may require to subsequently broken should be
bolted and the joint faces tinned. All joints in steel Earthing system should be made by welding
except the points for separating the Earthing mat for testing purposes which should be bolted.
These points should be accessible and frequently supervised.
2.9.1.4 In all sub-stations there shall be provision for earthing the following:
a) The neutral point of earth separate system should have an independent earth, which in turn
should be interconnected with the station grounding mat
b) Equipment frame work and other non-current carrying parts (two connections)
c) All extraneous metallic frame work not associated with equipment (two connections)
d) Lightning arrestors should have independent earths which should in turn be connected to the
station grounding grid.
e) Overhead lightning screen shall also be connected to the main ground mat.
2.9.1.5 The earth conductor of the mat could be buried under earth to economical depth of burial
of the mat 0.5 meters.

2.10. CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT):

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to stepdown extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to
operate a protective relay.
These are high pass Filters (carrier frequency 50KHZ to 500 KHZ) pass carrier frequency
to carrier panels and power frequency parameters to switch yard. In its most basic form the
device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an
38

inductive element used to tune the device and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down
the voltage.

fig: 2.18. circuit diagram of cvt.

39

The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for connection to the high
voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one set of secondary terminals for connection to the
instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring
voltages in excess of one hundred KV where the use of voltage transformers would be
uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors
connected in series. This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors, that
replaced the first capacitor and a comparatively small voltage drop across the second capacitor,
C2, and hence the secondary terminals.

fig: 2.18. capacitor voltage transformer.

.11 Specifications of CVT:

CVT type

: CVEB/245/1050

Weight

: 665 kg

Total output simultaneous

: 250 VA

Output maximum

: 750 VA at 50O C

Rated voltage

: A-N, 220/3

Highest system voltage

: A-N, 245/3
Page|28

Insulation level

: 460/1050 KV
40

Rated frequency

: 50Hz

Nominal intermediate voltage

: A1-N, 20/3 KV

Voltage factor

: 1.2Cont. 1.5/30 sec

HF capacitance
Primary capacitance C1

: 4400pF +10% -5%

: 4840pF +10% -5%

Secondary capacitance C2

: 48400 pF +10%-5%

Voltage ratio

: 220000/3/ 110/3/110-

Voltage
Burden

110/3
: 110/3
: 150 100

Class

: 0.5

110-110/3

3P

2.11. WAVE TRAP:

Wave trap is an instrument using for trapping of the wave. The function of this wave trap
is that it traps the unwanted waves. Its shape is like a drum. It is connected to the main incoming
feeder so that it can trap the waves which may be dangerous to the instruments in the substation.
Generally it is used to exclude unwanted frequency components, such as noise or other
interference, of a wave. Note: Traps are usually unable to permit selection of unwanted
Or interfering signals.

fig: 2.19 wave trap

41

Line trap also is known as Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from the remote substation and diverting them to the
telecom/tele protection panel in the substation control room through coupling capacitor.

This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for communication
among various substations without dependence on the telecom company network. The signals are
primarily tele protection signals and in addition, voice and data communication signals. The Line
trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals thus obstructs the flow
of these signals in to the substation bus bars. If these are not present in the substation, then signal
loss is more and communication will be ineffective/probably impossible.

2.12. ISOLATOR WITH EARTH SWITCHES (ES):

Isolators are the no load switches and used to isolate the equipment. (Either line
equipment, power transformer equipment or power transformer). With the isolators, we are able
to see the isolation of the equipment with our naked eye. The line isolators are used to isolate the
high voltage from flow through the line into the bus. This isolator prevents the instruments to get
damaged. It also allows the only needed voltage and rest is earthed by itself.
Isolator is a type of switching device. It has non control devices. Isolator are operated
after the circuit breaker is opened. While closing the circuit, first close the isolator and after the
circuit breaker is closed. Strictly speaking Isolators are operated under no current condition. In
the following cases it is permissible to use isolator for making and breaking of the circuits.

42

fig: 2.20. isolator with earth switch.

Air break isolators or disconnecting switches are not intended to break load though these
are meant for transfer of load from one bus to another and also to isolate equipment for
maintenance. These are available mainly in two types vertical break type and horizontal break
type. The later type requires larger width. However the space requirement can be reduced in the
horizontal break isolators by having double break with a center rotating pillar.
Pantograph and semi-pantograph disconnects involve vertical movements of contact arm
and therefore require less separation between phases and thereby require less separation between
phases and thereby help in reducing the sub-station area to a larger extent. The isolators could be
operated mechanically or hydraulically or pneumatically or by electric motor. Earthing facility
shall be provided wherever required.

43

2.13.BUSBAR:
The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and
get into the instruments for further step up or step down. The
first bus is used for putting the incoming feeders in la single
line. There may be double line in the bus so that if any fault
occurs in the one the other can still have the current and the
supply will not stop. The two lines in the bus are separated by
a little distance by a conductor having a connector between
them. This is so that one can work at a time and the other
works only if the first is having any fault.

2.14. CAPACITOR BANK ATTACHED TO THE BUS:

The capacitor banks are used across the bus so that the voltage does not get down till at
the require place. A capacitor bank is used in the outgoing bus so that it can maintain the voltage
level same in the outgoing feeder.

fig: 2.21 capacitor bank in the distribution system.

Capacitor Control is usually done to achieve the following goals:
44

1. Reduce losses due to reactive load current; Reduce KVA demand, decrease customer energy
consumption, Improve voltage profile, and increase revenue.
2. Indirectly capacitor control also results in longer equipment lifetimes because of reduced
equipment stresses.
3. Experience shows that switched feeder capacitors produce some of the fastest returns on
equipment investment Sources of Energy Loss. Energy losses in transmission lines and
transformers are of two kinds: resistive and reactive. The former are caused by resistive
component of the load and cannot be avoided. The latter, coming from reactive component of the
load, can be avoided. Reactive losses come from circuit In the case of concentrated industrial
loads, there should be a bank, sized to almost equal the reactive load current, located as close to
each load as possible

45

fig.2.22 reactive losses.

CHAPTER-III
TYPES OF CONTROL
VAR control is the natural means to control capacitors because the latter adds a fixed
amount of leading VARs to the line regard less of other conditions, and loss reduction depends
46

only on reactive current. Since reactive current at any point along a feeder is affected by
downstream capacitor banks, this kind of control is susceptible to interaction with downstream
banks. Consequently, in multiple capacitor feeders, the furthest downstream banks should go online first and off-line last. VAR controls require current sensors.
Current control is not as efficient as VAR control because it responds to total line current,
and assumptions must be made about the load power factor. Current controls require current
sensors. Voltage control is used to regulate voltage profiles; however it may actually increase
losses and cause instability from highly leading currents.
Voltage control requires no current sensors.

fig: 3.1 types of control

Temperature control is based on assumptions about load characteristics. Control
effectiveness depends on how well load characteristics are known. Not useful in cases where
those characteristics change often. Temperature control does not require any current sensors.
Time control is based on assumptions about load characteristics. Control effectiveness depends
on how well load characteristics are known. Not useful in cases where those characteristics
change often. Time control does not require any current sensors.
47

Power factor control is not the best way to control capacitor banks because power factor
by itself is not a measure of reactive current. Current sensors are needed.
Combination control using various above methods is usually the best choice. If enough
current, and/or other sensors are available, a centrally managed computerized capacitor control
system taking into account the variety of available input parameters can be most effective,
though expensive to implement
3.1 CAPACITORS:
i)

Before commissioning a capacitor bank, capacitance of each capacitor shall be

measured with a capacitance meter. These shall be compared with the value obtained
by calculation using the formula, C = KVAR x 109 Micro Farads
2 f (V) 2
Where V is the rated voltage of capacitor and KVAR is the rated KVAR of capacitor.
As per IS the tolerance in the capacitance value for a capacitor unit is + 10% to 5%.

ii)

In the event of failure of one capacitor unit (say in R-phase) it is observed that
balancing is done by removing one capacitor each from Y and B-phases.

iii)

It is therefore necessary that number of capacitor units connected in parallel in each

series group in all the three phases on one star bank shall be same.

3.2 BUS BAR SYSTEM:

3.2.1 MESH (RING) BUSBAR SYSTEM:
Merits: 1. Bus bars gave some operational flexibility
Demerits: 1. If fault occurs during bus maintenance, ring gets separated into two sections.
2. Auto-reclosing and protection complex.

48

Requires VTs on all circuits because there is no definite voltage reference point. These VTs
may be required in all cases for synchronizing live line or voltage indication
2.

Breaker failure: During fault on one circuit causes loss of additional circuit because of breaker
failure.
3. Remarks:Most widely used for very large power stations having large no. of incoming and
outgoing lines and high power transfer.
3.2.2 Bus bar Isolator: These can be used for the protection of the instruments in the substation
by isolating the buses at the required instant.
3.3 INSULATORS:Ball and socket type disc insulators are assembled to the 132 KV, 220 KV
and 400 KV suspension and tension hardware, certain important design aspects and other details
are indicated below: in next page:
Sl.

Description

No.
1. Type of insulators

2. Dimensions of insulators of
suspensions string
3. Dimensions of insulators for
tension string
4. Number of insulator disc per single

132 KV lines

220 KV lines

400 KV lines

Ball and

Ball and

Ball and

socket type

socket type

socket type

disc insulator
255mm x

disc insulator
280mm x

disc insulator
280mm x

145mm

145mm

280mm x

280mm x

145mm

145mm

9 nos.

13 nos.

suspension string
5. Number of insulator disc per

2 x 9 nos.

2 x 13 nos.

double suspension string

6. Number of insulator discs per

10 nos.

14 nos.

2 x 10 nos.

2 x 14 nos.

single tension string

7. Number of insulator discs per each

49

145mm
280mm x
170mm
23 nos.
2 x 23 nos.
24 nos.
2 x 24 nos.

double tension string

8.

Electro Mechanical strength for

7000 Kgs.

7000 Kgs.

11,500 Kgs.

11,500 Kgs.

11,500 Kgs.

16,500 Kgs.

suspension string insulator

10. Total cleavage distance of each disc

280 mm

280 mm

315 mm

insulator for suspension strings

11. Total creapage distance of each

280 mm

280 mm

330 mm

disc insulator for tension string

12. Minimum impulse dry withstand

110 KV

110 KV

120 KV

70 KV (dry)

70 KV (dry)

70 KV

40 KV (wet)

40 KV (wet)

(dry)

tension string insulator

9. Electro Mechanical strength for

voltage (wave of 1 x 50 Micro

second) for each disc insulator
(I.E.C standard)
13. One minute power frequency
withstand voltage for each disc
insulator

14. Power frequency puncture voltage

per each disc insulator

40 KV
110 KV

110 KV

(wet)
140 KV

(Suspension

(Suspension

(Suspension

strings)

strings)

strings)

140 KV

140 KV

140 KV

(Tension

(Tension

Strings)

Strings)

(Tension

15. Size and designation of ball pin

16 mm

16 mm

Strings)
20 mm

shank for suspension string discs

16. Size and designation of ball pin

20 mm

20 mm

20 mm

shank for tension string discs

17. Maximum Radio Influence Voltage
at 10 KV (RMS) for each disc
insulator

50 Micro

50 Micro

Volts at

Volts at

1 MHz
50

1 MHz

50 Micro
Volts at 1
MHz

18.

Corona extinction voltage for

complete (RMS) string both

320 KV

(RMS)

suspension and tension strings

CHAPTER IV
PROTECTION OF EQUIPMENTS
4.1 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER:
There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three winding electrical
power transformers, auto transformer, regulating transformers, Earthing transformers, rectifier
transformers etc. Different transformers demand different schemes of transformer protection
51

depending upon their importance, winding connections, Earthing methods and mode of operation
etc. It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and above
transformers. While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are used
as main protective device. For all larger rated and important distribution transformers, over
current protection along with restricted earth fault protection is applied. Differential protection
should be provided in the transformers rated above 5 MVA.
Depending upon the normal service condition, nature of transformer faults, degree of
sustained over load, scheme of tap changing, and many other factors, the suitable transformer
protection schemes are chosen.

4.2 PROTECTION OF FEEDER:

As the length of electrical power transmission line is generally long enough and it runs
through open atmosphere, the probability of occurring fault in electrical power transmission line
is much higher than that of electrical power transformers and alternators. That is why a
transmission line requires much more protective schemes than a transformer and an alternator.
Protection of line should have some special features, such as1. During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point should be tripped.
2. If the circuit breaker closest the faulty point, fails to trip the circuit breaker just next to
this breaker will trip as back up.
3. The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be as minimum as
possible in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers associated with other
healthy parts of power system.
These above mentioned requirements cause protection of transmission line much different
from protection of transformer and other equipment of power systems. The main three methods
of transmission line protection are 1. Time graded over current protection.
2. Differential protection.
3. Distance protection.
4.2.1 Time Graded Over Current Protection:
52

This may also be referred simply as over-current protection of electrical power

transmission line. Let' discuss different schemes of time graded over current protection.
4.2.2 Protection of Radial Feeder:
In radial feeder, the power flows in one direction only that is from source to load. This
type of feeders can easily protected by using either definite time relays or inverse time relays.
4.2.3 Line Protection by Definite Time Relay:
This protection scheme is very simple. Here total line is divided into different sections
and each section is provided with definite time relay. The relay nearest to the end of the line has
minimum time setting while time setting of other relays successively increased, towards the
source. For example, suppose there is a source at point A, in the figure below

Fig: 4.1 Line Protection by Definite Time Relay

At point D the circuit breaker CB-3 is installed with definite time of relay operation 0.5
sec. successively, at point Can other circuit breaker CB-2 is installed with definite time of relay
operation 1 sec. The next circuit breaker CB-1 is installed at point B which is nearest of the point
A. At point B, the relay is set at time of operation 1.5 sec.
Now, assume a fault occurs at point F. Due to this fault, the faulty current flow through
all the current transformers or CTs connected in the line. But as the time of operation of relay at
point D is minimum the CB-3, associated with this relay will trip first to isolate the faulty zone
from rest part of the line. In case due to any reason, CB-3 fails to trip, then next higher timed
53

relay will operate the associated CB to trip. In this case, CB-2 will trip. If CB-2 also fails to trip,
then next circuit breaker i.e. CB-1 will trip to isolate major portion of the line.

Advantages of Definite Time Line Protection:

The main advantage of this scheme is simplicity. The second major advantage is, during
fault, only nearest CB towards the source from fault point will operate to isolate the specific
position of the line.
Disadvantage of Definite Time Line Protection:
If the number of sections in the line is quite large, the time setting of relay nearest to the
source, would be very long. So during any fault nearer to the source will take much time to be
isolated. This may cause severe destructive effect on the system.
4.2.4 Over Current Line Protection by Inverse Relay:
The drawback as we discussed just in definite time over current protection of
transmission line, can easily be overcome by using inverse time relays. In inverse relay the time
of operation is inversely proportional to fault current.

54

Fig: 4.2 Over Current Line Protection by Inverse Relay

In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and successively
this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the points towards the point A. In case
of any fault at point F will obviously trip CB-3 at point D. In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will
be operated as overall time setting is higher in relay at point C. Although, the time setting of
relay nearest to the source is maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if major fault occurs
near the source, as the time of operation of relay is inversely proportional to faulty current.

55

4.2.5 Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders:For maintaining stability of the system it is
required to feed a load from source by two or more than two feeders in parallel. If fault occurs in

any of the feeders, only that faulty feeder should be isolated from the system in order to maintain
continuity of supply from source to load. This requirement makes the protection of parallel
feeders little bit more complex than simple nondirection over current protection of line as in the
case of radial feeders. The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional relays and to
grade the time setting of relay for selective tripping.
Fig:4.3 Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders
There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load. Both of the feeders have
non-directional over current relay at source end. These relays should be inverse time relay. Also
both of the feeders have directional relay or reverse power relay at their load end. The reverse
power relays used here should be instantaneous type. That means these relays should be operated
as soon as flow of power in the feeder is reversed. The normal direction of power from source to
load. Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the fault current is If. This fault will get two
parallel paths from source, one through circuit breaker an only and other via CB-B, feeder-2,
CB-Q, load bus and CB-P. This is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current of
fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-2 respectively.

56

Fig:4.4 Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders with fault

As per Kirchhoffs current law, IA + IB = If.
Now, IA is flowing through CB-A, IB is flowing through CB-P. As the direction of flow of CB-P
is reversed it will trip instantly. But CB-Q will not trip as flow of current (power) in this circuit
breaker is not reversed. As soon as CB-P is tripped, the fault current IB stops flowing through
feeder and hence there is no question of further operating of inverse time over current relay. IA
still continues to flow even CB-P is tripped. Then because of over current IA, CB-A will trip. In
this way the faulty feeder is isolated from system.
4.2.6 Differential Pilot Wire Protection:
This is simply a differential protection scheme applied to feeders. Several differential
schemes are applied for protection of line but Mess Price Voltage balance system and Trans lay
Scheme are most popularly used.
4.2.7 Merz Price Balance System:
The working principle of Merz Price Balance system is quite simple. In this scheme of
line protection, identical CT is connected to each of the both ends of the line. The polarity of the
CTs are same. The secondary of these current transformer and operating coil of two
instantaneous relays are formed a closed loop as shown in the figure below. In the loop pilot wire
is used to connect both CT secondary and both relay coil as shown.

57

Fig:4.5 Merz Price Balance System

Now, from the figure it is quite clear that when the system is under normal condition,
there would not be any current flowing through the loop. As the secondary current of one CT will
cancel out secondary current of other CT. Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line
between these two CTs, the secondary current of one CT will no longer equal and opposite of
secondary current of other CT. Hence there would be a resultant circulating current in the loop.

Due this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the trip circuit of associate circuit
breaker. Hence, the faulty line will be isolated from both ends.

4.3 PROTECTION OF BUSBAR:

In early days only conventional over current relays were used for bus bar protection.
But it is desired that fault in any feeder or transformer connected to the bus bar should not
disturb bus bar system. In viewing of this time setting of bus bar protection relays are made
lengthy. So when faults occurs on bus bar itself, it takes much time to isolate the bus from source
which may came much damage in the system. In recent days, the second zone distance
protection relays on incoming feeder, with operating time of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds have been
applied for bus bar protection. But this scheme has also a main disadvantage. This scheme of
58

protection cannot discriminate the faulty section of the bus bar. Now days, electrical power
system deals with huge amount of power. Hence any interruption in total bus system causes big
loss to the company. So it becomes essential to isolate only faulty section of bus bar during bus
fault.
Another drawback of second zone distance protection scheme is that, sometime the
clearing time is not short enough to ensure the system stability. To overcome the above
mentioned difficulties, differential bus bar protection scheme with an operating time less than 0.1
sec., is commonly applied to many SHT bus systems.
4.3.1 Differential bus bar Protection:
4.3.1.1 Current Differential Protection:
The scheme of bus bar protection, involves, Kirchhoffs current law, which states that,
total current entering an electrical node is exactly equal to total current leaving the node. Hence,
total current entering into a bus section is equal to total current leaving the bus section.
The principle of differential bus bar protection is very simple. Here, secondaries of CTs
are connected parallel. That means, S1 terminals of all CTs connected together and forms a bus
wire. Similarly S2 terminals of all CTs connected together to form another bus wire. A tripping

Relay is connected across these two bus wires. Here, in the figure above we assume that at
normal condition feed, A, B, C, D, E and F carries current IA, IB, IC, ID, IE and IF. Now, according
to Kirchhoffs current law,

59

Fig:4.6 Current Differential Protection.

Essentially all the CTs used for differential bus bar protection are of same current ratio. Hence,
the summation of all secondary currents must also be equal to zero. Now, say current through the
relay connected in parallel with all CT secondarys, is ire, and IA, iB, iC, iD, iE and iF are secondary
currents. Now, let us apply KCL at node X. As per KCL at node X,

So, it is clear that under normal condition there is no current flows through the bus bar
protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred as Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred
at any of the feeders, outside the protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through
primary of the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders connected
to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through the corresponding CT of respective

Feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if we apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.That
means, at external faulty condition, there is no current flows through relay 87. Now consider a
situation when fault is occurred on the bus itself.
60

Fig:4.7 Current Differential Protection with fault.

At this condition, also the faulty current is contributed by all feeders connected to the bus.
Hence, at this condition, sum of all contributed fault current is equal to total faulty current. Now,
at faulty path there is no CT. (in external fault, both fault current and contributed current to the
fault by different feeder get CT in their path of flowing). The sum of all secondary currents is no
longer zero. It is equal to secondary equivalent of faulty current. Now, if we apply KCL at the
nodes, we will get a non-zero value of iR
So at this condition current starts flowing through 87 relay and it makes trip the circuit
breaker corresponding to all the feeders connected to this section of the bus bar. As all the
incoming and outgoing feeders, connected to this section of bus are tripped, the bus becomes
dead. This differential bus bar protection scheme is also referred as current differential protection
of bus bar.

4.3.2 Differential Protection of Sectionalized Bus:

During explaining working principle of current differential protection of bus bar, we have
shown a simple non sectionalized bus bar. But in moderate high voltage system electrical bus
61

sectionalized in than one sections to increase stability of the system. It is done because, fault in
one section of bus should not disturb other section of the system. Hence during bus fault, total
bus would be interrupted.
Let us draw and discuss about protection of bus bar with two sections. Here, bus section
A or zone A is bounded by CT1, CT2 and CT3 where CT1 and CT2 are feeder CTs and CT3 is bus
CT. Similarly bus section B or zone B is bounded by CT4, CT5 and CT6 where CT4 is bus CT,
CT5 and CT6 are feeder CT. Therefore, zone A and B are overlapped to ensure that, there is no
zone left behind this bus bar protection scheme. ASI terminals of CT1, 2 and 3 are connected
together to form secondary bus ASI BSI terminals of CT4, 5 and 6 are connected together to form
secondary bus BSI. S2 terminals of all CTs are connected together to form a common bus S2.

Fig:4.8 Differential Protection of Sectionalized Bus

Now, bus bar protection relay 87A for zone A is connected across bus ASI and S2. Relay
87B for zone B is connected across bus BSI and S2. This section bus bar differential protection
scheme operates in some manner simple current differential protection of bus bar. That is, any
fault in zone A, with trip only CB1, CB2 and bus CB. Any fault in zone B, will trip only CB5, CB6
and Bus CB. Hence, fault in any section of bus will isolate only that portion from live system. In
current differential protection of bus bar, if CT secondary circuits, or bus wires is open the relay
may be operated to isolate the bus from live system. But this is not desirable.
62

4.3.3 DC Circuit of Differential bus bar Protection:

A typical DC circuit for bus bar differential protection scheme is given below.

Fig:4.9 DC Circuit of Differential bus bar Protection.

Here, CSSA and CSSB are two selector switch which are used to put into service, the bus bar
protection system for zone A and zone B respectively. If CSSA is in IN position, protection
scheme for zone A is in service. If CSSB is in IN position, protection for zone B is in service.
Generally both of the switches are in IN position in normal operating condition. Here, relay
coil of 96A and 96B are in series with differential bus bar protection relay contact 87A-1 and
87B-1 respectively. 96A relay is multi contacts relay. Each circuit breaker in zone A is connected
with individual contact of 96A. Similarly, 96B is multi contacts relay and each circuit breaker in
zone-B is connected with individual contacts of 96B. Although here we use only one tripping
relay per protected zone, but this is better to use one individual tripping relay per feeder. In this
scheme one protective relay is provided per feeder circuit breaker, whereas two tripping relays
one for zone A and other for zone B are provided to bus section or bus coupler circuit breaker.
On an interval fault in zone A or bus section A, the respective bus protection relay 87A, be
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energized whereas during internal fault in zone B, the respective relay 87B will be energized. As
soon as relay coil of 87A or 87B is energized respective no. contact 87A-1 or 87B-1 is closed.
Hence, the tripping relay 96 will trip the breakers connected to the faulty zone. To indicate
whether zone A or B bus bar protection operated, relay 30 is used. For example, if relay 87A is
operated, corresponding No contact 87A-2 is closed which energized relay 30A. Then the No
contact 30A-1 of relay 30A is closed to energized alarm relay 74.
Supervision relay 95 of respective zone is also energized during internal fault, but it has a
time delay of 3 second. So, it reset as soon as the fault is cleared and therefore does not pick up
zone bus wire shorting relay 95x which in turn shorts out the bus wires. An alarm contact is also
given to this auxiliary 95x relay to indicate which CT is open circuited. No volt relay 80 is
provided in both trip and non-trip section of the D. C. circuit of differential bus bar protection
system to indicate any discontinuity of D. C. supply.
4.3.4 Voltage Differential Protection of bus bar:
The current differential scheme is sensitive only when the CTs do not get saturated and
maintain same current ratio, phase angle error under maximum faulty condition. This is usually
not 80, particularly, in the case of an external fault on one of the feeders. The CT on the faulty
feeder may be saturated by total current and consequently it will have very large errors. Due to
this large error, the summation of secondary current of all CTs in a particular zone may not be
zero. So there may be a high chance of tripping of all circuit breakers associated with this
protection zone even in the case of an external large fault. To prevent this mul. Operation of
current differential bus bar protection, the 87 relays are provided with high pick up current and
enough time delay. The greatest troublesome cause of current transformer saturation is the
transient dc component of the short circuit current. This difficulties can be overcome by using air
core CTs. This current transformer is also called linear coupler. As the core of the CT does not
use iron the secondary characteristic of these CTs, is straight line. In voltage differential bus bar
protection the CTs of all incoming and outgoing feeders are connected in series instead of

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connecting them in parallel.

FIG:4.10 Voltage Differential Protection of bus bar

The secondaries of all CTs and differential relay form a closed loop. If polarity of all CTs
are properly matched, the sum of voltage across all CT secondaries is zero. Hence there would be
no resultant voltage appears across the differential relay. When a buss fault occurs, sum of the all
CT secondary voltage is no longer zero. Hence, there would be current circulate in the loop due
to the resultant voltage. As this loop current also flows through the differential relay, the relay is
operated to trip all the circuit breaker associated with protected bus zone. Except when ground
fault current is severally limited by neutral impedance there is usually no selectivity problem
when such a problem exists, it is solved by use of an additional more sensitive relaying
equipment including a supervising protective relay.

4.4 PROTECTION OF CAPACITOR BANK:

Like other electrical equipments, shunt capacitor may also be subjected to internal and
external electrical faults. Hence this equipment is also to be protected from internal and external
faults. There are numbers of schemes available for protection of capacitor bank, but during
applying any of the schemes, we should remember the initial investment on that capacitor for
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economical point of view. We should compare the initial investment in the capacitor and the cost
of the protection applying on it. There are mainly 3 types of protection arrangement are applied
to a capacitor bank.
1. Element Fuse.
2. Unit. Fuse.
3. Bank Protection.
Element Fuses:
Manufacturers of capacitor unit commonly provide inbuilt fuse in each element of the
unit. In this case, if any fault occurs in any element itself, it is automatically disconnected from
rest of the unit. In this case, the unit still serves its purpose, but with smaller output. In smaller
rated capacitor bank only these inbuilt protection scheme is applied to avoid the expenditure of
other special protective equipments.
Unit Fuse:
The unit fuse protection is generally provided to limit the duration of arc inside a faulty
capacitor unit. As the arc duration is limited, there is less chance of major mechanical
deformation and huge production of gas in the faulty unit, and hence the neighborhood units of
the bank are saved. If each unit of a <="" p="" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; font-family:
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Bank Protection:
Although in general fuse protection is provided with each of the capacitor units, but when
a capacitor unit is under fault and the associated fuse element is blown out, the voltage stress
increases to the other capacitor units connected in series in same row. Generally, each capacitor
unit is designed for withstanding 110% of its normal rated voltage. If any other capacitor unit
further becomes out of service, in the same row where previously one unit is damaged, the
voltage stress upon other healthy units of that row will increase further and easily crosses the
limit of maximum allowable, voltage of these units. Hence it is always desirable to
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replacedamaged capacitor unit from the bank as soon as possible to avoid excess voltage stress
on the other healthy units. Hence, there must be some indicating arrangement to identify the
exact faulty unit. As soon as the faulty unit is identified in a bank, the bank should be removed
from the service for replacing the faulty unit. There are several methods of sensing unbalance
voltage caused by failure of capacitor unit. The figure below is showing the most common
arrangement of capacitor bank protection. Here, the capacitor bank is connected in star
formation. Primary of a potential transformer is connected across each phase. The secondary of
all three potential transformers are connected in series to form an open delta and a voltage
sensitive relay is connected across this open delta. In exact balanced condition there must not be
any voltage appears across the voltage sensitive relay because summation of balanced 3 phase
voltages is zero. But when there would be any voltage unbalancing due to failure of capacitor
unit, the resultant voltage will appear across the relay and the relay will be actuated for providing
an alarm and trip signals.

FIG:4.11 Bank Protection

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The voltage sensitive relay can be so adjusted that up to a certain voltage unbalancing
only alarm contacts would be closed and for certain higher voltage level the trip contacts along
with alarm contacts would be closed. The potential transformer connected across the capacitors
of each phase also serves for discharging of the bank after being switched off. In another scheme,
the capacitors in each phase are divided into two equal parts connected in series. Discharge coil
is connected across each of the parts as shown in the figure. In between the secondary of
discharge coil and the sensitive voltage unbalance the relay an auxiliary transformer is connected
which serves to regulate the voltage difference between secondary voltages of discharge coil
under normal conditions.

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Fig:4.12 Bank Protection

Here the capacitor bank is connected in star and the neutral point is connected to the ground
through a potential transformer. A voltage sensitive relay is connected across the secondary of
the potential transformer. As soon as there is any unbalance between the phases, the resultant
voltage will appear across the potential transformer and hence the voltage sensitive relay will be
actuated beyond a preset value.

Fig:4.13 Bank
Protection.
Here, the

capacitor bank

of each phase is divided into two equal parts connected in parallel and the star points of both
parts are interconnected through a current transformer. The secondary of the current transformer
are connected across a current sensitive relay. In case any misbalancing occurs between the two
parts of the bank, there would be an unbalance current flowing through the current transformer
and hence the current sensitive relay will actuate. In this scheme for discharging the bank after
switching off, discharge coil may be connected across the capacitors in each phase.
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Fig:4.14 Bank Protection.

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In another scheme of protection of capacitor bank, the star point of a three phase
capacitor bank is connected to the ground through a current transformer and a current sensitive
relay is connected across the secondary of the current transformer. As soon as there is any
unbalancing between the phases of capacitor bank, there must be a current flowing to the ground
through the current transformer and hence the current sensitive relay will be actuated to trip the
circuit breaker associated with the capacitor bank.

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CHAPTER-V
132/33KV TSTRANSCO NARSAMPET
The present-day electrical power system is A.C. i.e. electric power is generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. The electric power is produced at
the power stations which are located at favorable places, generally quite away from the
consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large network of transmission and
distribution. At many places in the line of the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to
change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, A.C. to D.C., frequency, P.f. etc.) of electric supply.
This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station. For example, generation voltage
(11KV or 66KV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (say 400KV or 220KV) for
transmission of electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this
purpose is the sub-station. Similarly, near the consumers localities, the voltage may have to be
stepped down to utilization level. This job is again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called
substation.

5.1 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD) :

A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the concerned
Electrical System which includes all the required electrical equipment connection sequence wise
from the point of entrance of Power up to the end of the scope of the mentioned Work. As in the
case of 132KV Substation, the SLD shall show Lightening Arrestor, C.T/P.T Unit, Isolators,
Protection and Metering P.T & C.T. Circuit Breakers, again Isolators a3nd circuit Breakers, Main
Power Transformer, all protective devices/relays and other special equipment like CVT, GUARD
RINGS, etc as per design criteria. And the symbols are shown below. There are several feeders
enter into the substation and carrying out the power. As these feeders enter the station they are to
pass through various instruments.

5.2 AUXILIARY SUPPLY:

220V.Battery system: To control and protect the substation equipment the 220 volts DC battery
system is necessary. It is provided in the main control room. It will be discussed below.

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5.3 SINGLE
LINE
DIAGRAM OF
SUBSTATION:

SUBSTATION AT NARSAMPET:
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The substation in narsampet, Warangal (dist.), Telangana was completed by the year 2000,
under APTRANSCO; it is one of the largest substations in the state of Telangana.
This substation has the carrying capacity of 300MW at different voltage levels of 132 and can
step down to 33KV, using two input lines through the incoming feeders.

5.4 SAILENT FEATURES OF 132/33KV SUBSTATION NARSAMPET:

The 132/33KV substation narsampet has the following equipment and feeder bays
1) 132kv Feeders 2 Nos.
2) 132/33KV 31.5MVA PTR 1 Nos. & 132/33kv 16MVA PTR-1 Nos.
3) 33KV Feeders 4 Nos.
The 132KV supply is fed from either 132KV Warangal or Ayyagaripally
5.4.1 33KV Features:
20KV Bus Twin Zebra Bus 132/33KV PTRs Namely
i) 10/16MVA PTR-I

Make-INDOTEC

ii) 31.5MVA PTR-II

Make-VIJAYA
ELECTRIALS

5.4.2 33KV Features:

Copper Bus with Bus Coupler
i. 33KV Rekampally
ii. 33KV Nallabelli
iii. 33KV Kothagudem
iv. 33KV Narsampet

5.4.3 DC SYSTEM :
5.4.3.1 Battery Bank:
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Make: AMARARAJA, 220V DC, 80AH, VLRA Batteries

5.4.3.2 Connected Battery Charger:
Make: DUBAS 220V DC, 80AH
Float Current: 8 Amps,
Boost Current: 16 Amps

5.4.3.3 Chargers:
1 No. 80AH, 220V DUBAS Make charger along with 1 set (110 cells) of amararaja make
maintenance free VRLA battery bank is available for DC supply. Main input AC supply is fed
from ACDB. Following checks are to be made in each shift
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Check the earth leakage.

Check the float charger/boost charger voltage.
Check the charging current.
Battery charging & discharging currents.
Ensure the DC emergency lights in every shift.
Checking of DC distribution

5.4.3.4 DC Systems:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Record the pilot cell voltage of bank daily.

Record the DC output and load current hourly.
Visual inspection of battery bank for any bulginess and charger.
Test the DC lamp provided in the control room.
Checking of healthiness of 3- phase AC supply of charger.
Checking for DC earth leakage.

5.5 IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN VIEW WHILE LAYING OUT

THE SUBSTATION:
Substations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a
considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations. It is, therefore, essential to
exercise utmost care while designing and building a substation.
The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a substation:

75

i)

It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be located at the

ii)

center of gravity of load.

It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration must be
given to the maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out
repairs and maintenance, abnormal occurrences such as possibility of explosion or
fire etc. For reliability, consideration must be given for good design and
construction, the provision of suitable protective gear etc.

iii)

It should be easily operated and maintained.

iv)

It should involve minimum capital cost

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CHAPTER-VI
CONCLUSION

Transmission and distribution stations exist at various scales throughout a power

system. In general, they represent an interface between different levels or sections of the
power system, with the capability to switch or reconfigure the connections among various
transmission and distribution lines.
The major stations include a control room from which operations are coordinated. Smaller
distribution substations follow the same principle of receiving power at higher voltage on one
side and sending out a number of distribution feeders at lower voltage on the other, but they
serve a more limited local area and are generally unstaffed. The central component of the
substation is the transformer, as it provides the effective in enface between the high- and lowvoltage parts of the system. Other crucial components are circuit breakers and switches. Breakers
serve as protective devices that open automatically in the event of a fault, that is, when a
protective relay indicates excessive current due to some abnormal condition. Switches are
control devices that can be opened or closed deliberately to establish or break a connection. An
important difference between circuit breakers and switches is that breakers are designed to
interrupt abnormally high currents (as they occur only in those very situations for which circuit
protection is needed), whereas regular switches are designed to be operable under normal
currents. Breakers are placed on both the high- and low-voltage side of transformers. Finally,
substations may also include capacitor banks to provide voltage support

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