1

Way Of Nembutsu Faith

A Commentary on
THE SHOSHINGE
with references to Wasan
By Zuio Hisao Inagaki

Part One
Section on the exposition
based on the Sutras

FOREWORD
The canon of Shin literature comprises the three Pure Land sutras, discourses, and
commentaries of the Seven Patriarchs, works of Shinran Shonin, and writings of other
masters. From the viewpoint of both doctrinal studies and the practical faith of Shin
Buddhism, the Shoshinge occupies a position of the first importance. Perhaps no other
text can match it in the influence it has exerted on the formation and development of the
Shin way of living throughout Japan. In recent years, the text has been translated not only
into English but also into other European languages in line with the enthusiastic efforts of
Shin Buddhists of all nationalities to spread understanding of the Other-Power teaching
of Shinran. The original text was written in classical Chinese and is full of highly
specialized doctrinal terms. So mere translation would be insufficient to bring the Shin
teaching close to the hearts of followers who have a non-Buddhist background. The series
of articles on the the Shoshinge which I was privileged to publish in the Honganji journal,
Daijo, since May 1990, are my attempt to introduce the text to the present age by
explaining and re-interpreting unfamiliar terms and concepts which appear in the
Shoshinge. It is with great pleasure that, after sixty months, I completed this commentary
in May 1995 and those articles have now been compiled and published in this single
volume. In the course of revising the text, I have added more hymns from Shinran's
wasan to convey his deep feeling and insight to the reader.
In publishing this work, I owe a debt of inexpressible gratitude to three Australian Shin
Buddhists. One is Rev. Jokyo G. Gatenby, who kindly checked the monthly contribution
to Daijo and went over the whole manuscript in the final stage of preparation. The second
is Mr. Harold Stewart, a Buddhist poet, who helped me with revision of the first few
chapters of this work before he died in August 1995. The third is Rev. Joko
Paraskevopoulos, who kindly read the proofs and gave me valuable suggestions. Without

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their sincere and patient cooperation, this work would not have been completed.
Namu Amida Butsu

(1) The title

'Shoshinge,' 'Hymn of True Faith,' is the title popularly used among Shin followers. The
full title that appears in the Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Practice, is 'Shoshin
nembutsu ge', which literally means 'Hymn of True Faith in Nembutsu.' The author,
Shinran Shonin, presumably meant to present in this hymn the faith and practice of Shin
Buddhism, which constitute the core of the Pure Land tradition, transmitted to Japan
through China from India.
Stated simply, 'faith' is trust in Amida, and 'practice' is the Nembutsu recitation. The faith
and practice on our side are, at the beginning, naturally based on self-power, and
therefore 'defiled' by selfish motivation, but thanks to Amida's virtuous power, these are
gradually deepened and purified until the light of shinjin dawns on our spiritual horizon.
In a general religious context, 'faith' by and large implies 'unquestioning belief in God,'
which does not apply in Shin or any other form of authentic Buddhism. Nevertheless, we
may well use this term to describe our mental state and attitude in our relation to Amida.
We are at least satisfied that 'faith' is derived from the Latin word 'fidere' (to trust) and is
actually used in the sense of 'complete trust.'
Faith in Shin Buddhism basically shares the common ground of shraddha with other
Buddhist faiths. First of all, it implies complete trust in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha;
secondly, it has the effect of purifying and calming one's mind (prasada); and thirdly, it
gives rise to pure aspiration and readiness for action to achieve some Buddhist objective
(abhilasa).
Our faith in Amida and in his law of salvation realized as the Forty-eight Vows and the
Name, is awakened by our contact with him through the Pure Land sutras and discourses.
When established in our hearts, faith keeps our thoughts fixed on Amida and the Dharma.
Through faith, also, we can join the Sangha, which in Shin Buddhism means the Sangha
of Bodhisattvas and other holy sages in the Pure Land and our teachers and friends, both
priests and laymen, in this world.
As we read and chant the Shoshinge, we hear the live voice of Shinran urging us to take
refuge in Amida, the supreme Dharma, and the community of true friendship.
The title "Shoshin nembutsu ge" can be interpreted in different ways. An important
doctrinal point is how to understand the relationship between shoshin (faith) and
nembutsu. Considering the fact that another hymn of similar content which Shinran
composed, presumably in later years, bears the title "Nembutsu shoshin ge," the order of
the two words, shoshin and nembutsu, does not seem to constitute a basic difference.
Faith without Nembutsu is impossible, and Nembutsu without faith is fruitless.
Furthermore, if Nembutsu and faith are based on selfish motivation, they are described as
'self-power faith and practice.' Such faith and practice are impure and so fail to bring true

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peace of mind with the assurance of Enlightenment.
In the Mahayana system of practice leading to Enlightenment, faith or acceptance of the
teaching generally precedes practice. We follow a certain method of practice because we
believe that the teaching, which prescribes it, is true. This pattern does not apply to Shin
Buddhism. We do not say the Nembutsu because we believe that it is the cause of our
salvation. We say it with no reason whatever on our part. On the one hand, we are too
ignorant to discern with certainty between true and false, right and wrong. On the other,
in our experience of shinjin the presence of Amida Buddha is beyond any doubt; and so
we do not have to believe it.
Here we are reminded of Shinran's remark recorded in the Tannisho, Chapter 2: "I am
entirely ignorant as to whether the Nembutsu is really the cause of birth in the Pure Land,
or whether it is the karma which will cause me to fall into hell." To the outsider, this
statement may appear to be an expression of uncertain faith, but the fact is that Shinran
was fully aware of Amida's irresistible saving power which was working within him
"Here and Now."
We are, from the beginning, ignorant and powerless, but we have unconsciously created a
false image of ourselves, which we assume to be true and real. Shin Buddhism brings us
face to face with our real self, and effectively destroys this illusion of ego. It is painful to
face one's own reality. But the whole operation is carried out naturally by Amida's
compassionate means. The pain of facing one's ugly and delusory self is more than
compensated for by the joy of encountering one's true Parent and finding in him our
ultimate refuge.
Once the Nembutsu is planted in our hearts, it takes root in the deep layers of our minds,
where our karma from past lives is stored like the dangerous energy in a dormant volcano
or an active fault. Since the Nembutsu is Amida's Mind and Body, it does not belong to
me. However many times we recite it, it does not become ours, but remains his. By our
complete trust in Amida, we find that we belong to him, not as his servant but as part of
his Dharma-Body. The Nembutsu, which we find on our lips, is a natural expression of
Amida's everlasting, universal presence and activity.
Shoshin, or shinjin, and Nembutsu are thus Amida's self-expression through our hearts
and mouths. We rejoice at participating in his eternal activity, helping to spread the sound
of the Dharma, and making the Voice of Amida heard by other fellow beings. This joy
accompanies our shoshin-nembutsu: Namu Amida Butsu.
Those who recite the Name of Amida Buddha
With Sincere Faith
Are always mindful of him
And wish to repay his Benevolence."
(
H
y
m
n
s

o
n
t
h
e
P
u
r
e
L
a
n
d
1
)

(2) Adoration to Amida Buddha (lines 1-2)

I take refuge in the Tathagata of Infinite Life;
I take refuge in the Buddha of Inconceivable Light.
The Shoshinge begins with adoration: the author Shinran praises Amida and professes his
whole-hearted trust in him. The Tathagata of Infinite Life and the Buddha of
Inconceivable Light are one and the same person, but are distinguished in accordance
with his two characteristic features. In fact, the Smaller Sutra states that 'Amida' has these
two connotations:
For what reason, Shariputra, do you think that Buddha is
called 'Amida'? Shariputra, the Buddha's light shines
boundlessly and without hindrance over all the worlds in
the ten directions. It is for this reason that he is called
'Amida.' Again, Shariputra, the lives of the Buddha and the
people of his land last for innumerable, unlimited and
incalculable kalpas. It is for this reason that the Buddha is
called 'Amida'. (chap. 4)
Amida is the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life, and is often called by his Sanskrit names,
Amitabha (infinite light) and Amitayus (infinite life). Furthermore, speaking in terms of

5
light, since Amida's light has twelve qualities or functions, he is given twelve epithets, as
mentioned later in the Shoshinge.
The second line comes from T'an-luan's Hymns in Praise of Amida Buddha. In this work,
T'an-luan, the Third Patriarch, first praises Amida's supreme virtues in terms of the
twelve epithets, and then further glorifies Amida and describes brilliant adornments of the
Pure Land based on the Larger Sutra. After that, he expresses his sincere wish to be
favored by Amida's Light of Compassion and attain birth in the Pure Land with other
aspirants. It is at this point that he states:
I take refuge in the (Buddha of) Inconceivable Light;
With singleness of heart I entrust myself to him, bow to and
worship him. (SSZ.I, 365)
It is presumed that here Shinran does not simply praise or adore Amida's Light for its
own sake, but wishes that his fellow beings may equally benefit from the Light of
Compassion and attain birth in the Pure Land.
The two qualities or attributes of Amida Buddha, Infinite Life and Light, are suggestive
of important points in the Buddhalogical sense. These two can be considered in the
relationship of essence and function as well as that of time and space. The Infinite Life
represents the essential quality of Dharmakaya, which is not only shared by all Buddhas
but also pervades all living beings and even non-sentient existence. From this life-essence
emanate pure activities and glorious manifestations, which appear in the form of light.
The Larger Sutra describes the endless unfolding of the light as follows:
Lotus-flowers of various jewels fill the Pure Land; each has
a hundred thousand kotis of petals with lights of numerous
colors.... The brilliance of these lights is so magnificent that
it outshines the sun and the moon. Each flower emits thirtysix hundred thousand kotis of rays of light, each sending
forth thirty-six hundred thousand kotis of Buddhas.... Each
Buddha emits a hundred thousand rays of light and
expounds the wonderful Dharma to beings in the ten
directions, thus setting innumerable beings on the right
Path of the Buddha. (chap. 21)

3) Dharmakara's Vows (lines 3-10)

Bodhisattva Dharmakara, in his causal stage,
Was in the presence of Lokeshvararaja, the Enlightened
One.
He saw the pure lands of many Buddhas, observed how
they had been established,
And examined everything, good and bad, about the humans
and gods inhabiting them.

6
He then brought forth the unsurpassed and most excellent
Vows,
The Great Vows, immeasurable in scope and depth, which
the world had never heard of.
Dharmakara chose and cherished those Vows after
contemplation for five kalpas.
He further vowed that his Name would be heard throughout
the ten quarters.
Amida, as a Sambhogakaya Buddha, does not come into the sphere of our direct sense
perception. His presence and activity are far beyond our normal perceptive faculties; they
can only be intuitively known in the state of concentration and absorption -- Samadhi.
From the beginning of Mahayana Buddhism, we know of a great number of Samadhis
which Shakyamuni is presumed to have taught to his disciples. One of them, the Samadhi
of Recollection of Amida, known in more general terms as 'Samadhi of Recollection of
the Buddha' (Nembutsu-Samadhi), has been the one through which the practitioner is
enabled to visualize Amida Buddha and his Pure Land. The method based on the
Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra (The Sutra of Samadhi in which All Buddhas Appear) is
simply concentration on Amida and recitation of his Name for seven to ninety days.
Nagarjuna recommended the practice of this Samadhi, and Shan-tao, in his works, fully
explained and discussed the method and significance of this practice.
Even though we, in the period of Decadent Dharma, are not able to practice this Samadhi
and visualize Amida, we are at least convinced of his presence in a spiritual realm far
beyond our sense perceptions. This conviction leads us to accept the mysterious truth
about Dharmakara Bodhisattva.
The Larger Sutra has the most detailed account of Dharmakara's Bodhisattva practices.
This sutra takes us to a certain period in the distant past, when a Buddha, called
Lokeshvararaja ('The World-Sovereign-King'), a Nirmanakaya Buddha like Shakyamuni,
appeared in this world. There was a king, who, having heard the Buddha's exposition of
the Dharma, rejoiced in his heart and awakened aspiration for the highest, perfect
Enlightenment. He renounced his kingdom and the throne, and became a monk, named
Dharmakara ('Treasury of Dharma').
The awakening of Bodhi-Mind means resolving to become a Buddha. Becoming a
Buddha means attaining the three bodies of a Buddha: dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and
nirmanakaya. By the cultivation of the highest wisdom one attains Dharmakaya, the body
of the ultimate reality. By the fulfillment of one's vows, one attains Sambhogakaya, the
body of bliss, and Nirmanakaya, the transformed body. Since the vows of Bodhisattvas
are primarily meant for sentient beings, they seek to establish special "spheres," where,
upon their attainment of Buddhahood, those beings who aspire for birth there and
fulfill certain prescribed "conditions" are to be born. Such spheres are outside the realms
of Samsara and also beyond the static Nirvana. Although they are popularly called "pure
lands," they are manifestations from their specific Samadhis. Before Dharmakara made
his own vows and planned his pure land, he asked Lokeshvararaja Buddha to show him
the pure lands of other Buddhas and how they had been established.
The Larger Sutra describes, in the following words of Shakyamuni Buddha, how

7
Dharmakara learned about the pure lands of other Buddhas and resolved to establish his
own:
The Buddha said to Ananda, "...the Bhiksu Dharmakara
said to the Buddha Lokeshvararaja, 'Respectfully, WorldHonored One, I announce that I have awakened aspiration
for the highest, perfect Enlightenment. I beseech you to
explain the Dharma to me fully, so that I can perform
practices for the establishment of a pure Buddha-land
adorned with infinite excellent qualities. So, please teach
me how to attain Enlightenment quickly and to remove the
roots of affliction of birth-and-death for all.'"
The Buddha said to Ananda, "At that time the Buddha
Lokeshvararaja replied to the Bhiksu Dharmakara, 'You
yourself should know by what practice you can establish a
glorious Buddha-land.' The Bhiksu said to the Buddha,
'That is far too great and deep for my comprehension. I
sincerely beseech you, World-Honored One, to explain in
detail the practices by which Buddhas, Tathagatas,
established their pure lands. After I hear that, I wish to
practice as instructed and so fulfill my aspirations.'
At that time the Buddha Lokeshvararaja recognized the
Bhiksu Dharmakara's noble and high aspirations, and
taught him as follows: 'If, for example, one keeps bailing
water out of a great ocean with a pint-measure, one will be
able to reach the bottom after many kalpas and then obtain
rare treasures. Likewise, if one sincerely, diligently, and
unceasingly seeks the Way, one will be able to reach one's
destination. What vow is there which cannot be fulfilled?'
Then the Buddha Lokeshvararaja explained in detail the
greater and lesser aspects of two hundred and ten kotis of
Buddha-lands, together with the good and evil natures of
heavenly and human beings living there. He revealed them
all to the Bhiksu just as he had requested. Then the Bhiksu,
having heard the Buddha's exposition of the glorious pure
lands and also having seen all of them, resolved upon his
supreme, unsurpassed vows. His mind being serene and his
aspirations free of attachment, he was unexcelled
throughout the world. For five full kalpas he contemplated
the vows, and then chose the pure practices for the
establishment of his Buddha-land." (chap. 6)
According to T'an-luan and other masters, when Dharmakara resolved to establish his
own pure land, he was already a Bodhisattva of a high stage. [SSZ.I, 287] He had attained
a deep samadhi in which he realized void-ness of all phenomena and became free from
attachment to them and to his own self. At this point, he was completely delivered from

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karmic bondage, and so there was nothing more to learn or practice for his own salvation.
But with deep insight into the ultimate reality, he knew at the same time that sentient
beings were infatuated by their own delusory view of ego and driven by insatiable
desires, thus repeating endless cycles of birth-and-death, which were both painful and
meaningless. This knowledge then gave rise to an irresistible desire to deliver them from
self-infatuation and suffering in Samsara. This led to the awakening of Great
Compassion. It was out of Great Compassion that Dharmakara sought to establish a pure
land where sentient beings could rest in true peace and realize enlightenment.
What is stated in the Larger Sutra concerning Dharmakara's Vows and the Pure Land
which he later established may appear to be mythical, but it cannot be stressed too much
that this sutra tries to explain in words what actually happened or is happening beyond
our world of ordinary experience.
In Buddhism, according to different levels of consciousness fraught with various degrees
of karmic defilements, this world of experience, which we call 'Samsara,' is divided into
three realms: (1) the realm of desire for those with the lowest level of consciousness and
heavy karmic defilements; (2) the realm of form for those with higher level of
consciousness and less karmic defilements, which means more freedom in action and
more blissful states of existence; and (3) the realm of non-form for those with the highest
level of consciousness and the least karmic defilements.
We humans live in the realm of desire, and the spiritual beings, known to us as devas or
gods, live in the higher planes of the realm of desire and the realm of non-form. When
karmic defilements are completely eliminated, one attains the highest level of
consciousness, accompanied by the highest state of bliss and freedom, which is called
'Nirvana.'
Where the individualistic pursuit of the ultimate goal ends, a bodhisattva's 'universal'
aspiration begins. By breaking through the Nirvanic tranquility with the power of insight,
he discovers his 'universal' personality, and finds himself to be one with all that exists,
including all living beings. This discovery gives him an unspeakable joy and exhilaration
and, at the same time, a deep sense of responsibility. With infinitely expanding vistas he
sees the whole breadth and depth of the universe, which is not only the physical universe
we are familiar with, but contains all the spiritual realms of different dimensions. He
finds that the entire universe is an organic whole, a living network of interrelated causes
and conditions, and the utmost perfection above all dichotomizing concepts. When he
sees living beings caught in the net of karma, repeating endless cycles of delusion,
wrong-doing, and suffering, he is moved to deliver them by all possible means.
Dharmakara's Vow is based on the common ground of bodhisattva-hood, and is a
manifestation of this universal awareness in a concrete form. But it distinguishes itself
from those of other bodhisattvas in that it provides a way of immediate salvation for the
most wicked through the Name and Light that Dharmakara as Amida later attained,
leading them to the same enlightenment as his in his land of the highest virtue and pure
karmic activity, called Sukhavati.
The whole scheme of salvation in Shin Buddhism centers around the Name: Namu
Amida Butsu, literally 'I take refuge in Amida Buddha' or 'adoration to Amida Buddha.'
The Name is not just a name in the ordinary sense of the term. It comprises the supreme
merits that Dharmakara accumulated by doing various meritorious practices for

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innumerable kalpas while living among sentient beings. The Larger Sutra describes his
career in terms comprehensible to us, as follows:
He did not harbor any thought of greed, hatred, or cruelty;
nor did he allow any ideas of greed, hatred, or cruelty to
arise. He was unattached to any form, sound, smell, taste,
touch, or idea. Possessed of the power to persevere, he did
not avoid undergoing various afflictions. Having little
desire for his own sake, he knew contentment. Without any
impure thought, enmity, or stupidity, he dwelt continually
in tranquil samadhi. His wisdom was un-obstructible, and
his mind free of falsehood and deceitfulness. With
expression of tenderness in his face and with kindness in
his speech, he spoke to others in consonance with their
inner thoughts. Courageous and diligent, strong-willed and
untiring, he devoted himself solely to the pursuit of the
pure Dharma, thereby benefiting a multitude of beings.
(chap. 9)
Dharmakara's Vows, unprecedented in scope and depth, were fulfilled by the performance
of various meritorious actions, known collectively as the Six Paramitas, lasting for eons.
One life-time was not long enough to cultivate even a small portion of the merits required
to fulfill the Vows. His Bodhisattva practice extended over many lives for innumerable
kalpas. To explain this, the Larger Sutra says:
He avoided all wrong speech that would bring harm upon
himself or others or both; he engaged in right speech that
would bring benefit to himself or others or both. He
abandoned his kingdom and renounced the throne, leaving
behind wealth and sensuous pleasures. Practicing the Six
Paramitas himself, he taught others to do the same. During
innumerable kalpas, he accumulated merits and amassed
virtues. (chap. 9)
Further, this sutra states:
He was reborn as a rich man, a lay devotee, a member of
the highest caste or of a noble family, a ksatriya king, a
wheel-turning monarch, a king of one of the six heavens in
the world of desire, or even higher, as a Brahma-king. He
revered and worshipped all Buddhas by making the four
kinds of offering to them. The merit he thus acquired was
indescribably great. (chap. 9)
The amount of merit and virtue accumulated is dependent upon the length of time of the

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practice. It is, therefore, natural that Dharmakara should have attained "the ocean-like
mass of merits" by performing Bodhisattva practices for innumerable kalpas. What is
more important is the moral quality of such merits. If one's action is based on a wrong
idea or motivation, it will not yield true merit. In the case of Dharmakara's practice, each
and every action was free of attachment and was firmly based on the fundamental
Mahayana principle of 'void-ness' (shunyata), for it is said in the Larger Sutra:
He dwelt in the realization that all dharmas are empty,
devoid of distinctive features, and not to be sought after,
and that they neither act nor arise; he thus realized that all
dharmas are like magical creations. (chap. 9)
T'an-luan, by way of explaining Dharmakara's true merit, distinguishes two kinds of
merit:
Regarding the phrase 'the embodiment of true merit,' there
are two kinds of merit: (1) The merit which accrues from
the activity of a defiled mind and is not in accordance with
the Dharma-essence; such merit arises from the various
good acts of ordinary men and gods. It also refers to the
reward of their attaining human and heavenly existence.
Both the cause and effect of such good acts are inverted and
false; hence, they are called 'false merit'. (2) The merit
which is produced from the wisdom and pure karma of
Bodhisattvas and which serves to glorify Buddhist
activities. It conforms to the Dharma-essence and has the
characteristic of purity. This dharma is not inverted and
false; hence, it is called 'true merit'. [SSZ.I, 284]
The true merits, which Dharmakara accumulated, are manifested in conceivable, and
even perceptible, forms. Vasubandhu, who presumably succeeded in visualizing the Pure
Land, distinguished Amida's true merits into three categories: (1) the Pure Land, (2)
Amida Buddha himself, and (3) Bodhisattvas in the Pure Land. He also noted that the
Power of the Vows was working to sustain those glorious manifestations and, at the same
time, to deliver sentient beings from samsaric suffering.
Shinran paid special attention to the name by which Vasubandhu addressed Amida, that
is, 'the Tathagata of Light Unhindered throughout the Ten Directions.' To call Amida by
this name is to glorify him and praise his virtues. This is a radical development from mere
repetition of the popular Nembutsu formula, 'Namu Amida Butsu.' By so doing, Shinran
enhanced the quality of the Nembutsu from the level of practice by self-effort to that of
the practice of the Buddhas. He found the logical basis for this in the 17th Vow.

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The development of the concept of Nembutsu from verbal practice, based on one's effort
of saying 'Namu Amida Butsu,' to Amida's working, which irresistibly makes us call his
Name, features in Shinran's theory and practice of salvation by the Other-Power. He paid
special attention to the 17th and the 18th Vows, and found the intrinsic relationship
between them.
In the tradition of Sino-Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, the 18th Vow is the pivotal point
around which revolves the whole doctrinal system. In Shin Buddhism, too, the 18th Vow
remains the center of the teaching, and so its true meaning is revealed. The text of this
Vow reads:
If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands
of the ten directions, who sincerely and joyfully entrust
themselves to me, desire to be born in my land and call my
Name even ten times, should not be born there, may I not
attain perfect Enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those
who commit the five gravest offenses and abuse the right
Dharma. (chap. 7)
Taken in its literal meaning, both entrusting and calling of the Name are based on selfeffort, but Shinran found that Amida's Power was working behind this faith and practice.
But how does Amida's Power work and how does it reach the aspirant?
This question led Shinran to investigate the meaning of the 17th Vow, which reads:
If, when I attain Buddhahood, innumerable Buddhas in the
lands of the ten directions should not all praise and glorify
my Name, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment. (chap. 7)
Apparently this Vow is not directly linked up with the 18th Vow, but Shinran found that
the internal relationship between those two Vows was clearly stated in the passage of the
Larger Sutra, which shows, in Shakyamuni's words, how they had been fulfilled. The
passage in question reads:
All Buddhas, Tathagatas, in the ten directions, as numerous
as the sands of the River Ganges, together praise the
inconceivable, supernal virtue of the Buddha of Infinite
Life. All sentient beings who, having heard his name,
rejoice in faith, remember him even once and sincerely
transfer the merit of virtuous practices to that land, aspiring
to be born there, will attain birth and dwell in the Stage of
Non-retrogression. But excluded are those who have

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committed the five gravest offenses and abused the right
Dharma. (chap. 22)
It is now clear that the entrusting and joyous faith is aroused through hearing Amida's
Name, which is praised by all the Buddhas. In other words, it is the virtue of the Name
that has aroused all the Buddhas to glorify it and also arouses sentient beings to entrust
themselves to Amida. Since it is entirely Amida's Power that is working behind the
devotee's faith and practice, the real agent who 'transfers the merit of virtuous practices' is
also Amida. That is why Shinran, without changing the Chinese diction, made this
sentence read:
those who...remember him even once and, through his
merit-transference, aspire to be born there, will attain birth,
etc. [SSZ.II, 71]
Looking back on the Eighteenth Vow from Shinran's viewpoint, the practice of saying
'Namu Amida Butsu' even ten times is significant only in so far as it is linked up with the
Name glorified in the Seventeenth Vow. Our Nembutsu does not come from our heart, but
from Amida's Heart of Great Compassion. It is the natural expression on our lips of
Amida's all-embracing and all-pervasive Power manifested in the form of the Name. 'The
inconceivable, supernal virtue of the Buddha of Infinite Life' stated in the passage of
fulfillment of the 17th Vow is the fountainhead of the salvific karmic Power, which runs
through the 18th Vow and effects our entrusting faith.
Dharmakara, after proclaiming the Forty-eight Vows, reiterated the importance of the
Name in the hymn which follows, saying:
When I attain Buddhahood,
My Name shall be heard throughout the ten directions;
Should there be any place where it is not heard,
May I not attain perfect Enlightenment.
(
L
a
r
g
e
r
S
u
t
r
a
,

13
c
h
a
p
.
8
)
Shinran praises the wonderful working of the Name in a hymn:
The sentient beings throughout the ten directions,
Who attain true entrusting Heart
By hearing Amida's Name of ultimate virtue,
Greatly rejoice at what they have received.
(
H
y
m
n
s
o
n
t
h
e
P
u
r
e
L
a
n
d
2
5
)

14
(4) Amida's Light (lines 11-16)
Amida sends forth universally the immeasurable and
boundless Light,
The unimpeded, incomparable and majestically flaming
Light,
The pure Light, the Light of joy, the Light of wisdom,
The unceasing, inconceivable and ineffable Light,
And the Light outshining the sun and the moon; with these
Lights he shines on the innumerable worlds.
All sentient beings are illumined by his Light.
Dharmakara's Vows having been fulfilled, he became a Buddha, named Amida, ten kalpas
ago. In terms of cause and effect, his Forty-eight Vows and sustained practices of the Six
Paramitas for innumerable kalpas are the cause of his Buddhahood. Concerning his
attainment of Buddhahood, the Larger Sutra explains it in the form of a dialogue between
Shakyamuni and Ananda:
Ananda asked the Buddha, "Has the Bodhisattva
Dharmakara already attained Buddhahood and then passed
into Nirvana? Or has he not yet attained Buddhahood? Or is
he dwelling somewhere at present?"
The Buddha replied to Ananda, "The Bodhisattva
Dharmakara has already attained Buddhahood and is now
dwelling in a western Buddha-land, called 'Peace and
Bliss,' a hundred thousand kotis of lands away from here."
Ananda further asked the Buddha, "How much time has
passed since he attained Buddhahood?"
The Buddha replied, "Since he attained Buddhahood, about
ten kalpas have passed." (chap. 10)
In accordance with the law of karma, when Dharmakara's causal practices matured, he
attained the fruition of Buddhahood. Since, as T'an-luan observes, the cause was pure,
being in accord with True Suchness, the resultant fruition of Buddhahood, manifested as
Amida's glorious appearance and the Pure Land, is also pure. [SSZ.I, 336]
The most illustrious aspect of Amida's Buddhahood is his Light, which is infinite and the
most glorious of the lights of all the Buddhas. According to the distinct attributes and
functions of Light, Amida has twelve names, as stated in the Larger Sutra: Buddha of
Infinite Light, Buddha of Boundless Light, Buddha of Unhindered Light, Buddha of
Incomparable Light, Buddha of the Light of the King of Flame, Buddha of Pure Light,
Buddha of the Light of Joy, Buddha of the Light of Wisdom, Buddha of Unceasing Light,
Buddha of Inconceivable Light, Buddha of Ineffable Light, and Buddha of the Light
Outshining the Sun and the Moon. (chap. 11)
Even though we, ordinary beings full of blind passions, are not able to see Amida's Light,
we can feel with our bodies and minds that we are always embraced by it. We can indeed

15
'see' his Light with the eye of Faith endowed by the Other Power.
The Larger Sutra further says:
The Light of the Buddha of Infinite Life shines brilliantly,
illuminating all the Buddha-lands of the ten directions.
There is no place where it is not perceived. I [Shakyamuni
Buddha] am not the only one who now praises his light. All
the Buddhas, Sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas
praise and glorify it in the same way. If sentient beings,
having heard of the majestic virtue of his light, glorify it
continually, day and night, with sincerity of heart, they will
be able to attain birth in his land, as they wish. (chap. 11)
To praise and glorify Amida's Light is none other than to call his Name, 'Namu Amida
Butsu' or 'Kimyo Jinjippo Mugeko Nyorai' (Adoration to the Tathagata of Light
Unhindered throughout the Ten Directions). By calling his Name while contemplating his
universal and transcendent working, we feel assured that his Light of Great Compassion
continually illumines us, even though we tend to be forgetful of it.
Since Amida attained Buddhahood,
Ten kalpas have passed;
The Light of his Dharma-body shines boundlessly,
Illumining those who are spiritually blind and ignorant
(
H
y
m
n
s
o
n
t
h
e
P
u
r
e
L
a

16
n
d
3
)
.Far-reaching is the Light of Compassion;
Wherever the Light reaches,
There arises the joy of Dharma.
Take refuge in the Great Consoler.
(
H
y
m
n
s
o
n
t
h
e
P
u
r
e
L
a
n
d
1
0
)

(5) Saving Power of the Vow (lines 17-20)

The Name promised in the Primal Vow is the Act of Right
Assurance;

17
The Vow of Sincere Mind and Joyful Faith provides the
cause of our Birth;
To attain the state next to the Buddha and realize Great
Nirvana
Is due to the fulfillment of the Vow which assures our
unfailing attainment of Nirvana.
Dharmakara's forty-eight Vows can be divided into three groups: (1) those concerning his
Buddhahood, namely, the Twelfth Vow which promised that his Light would be
immeasurable, the Thirteenth Vow that his Life would be infinite, and the Seventeenth
Vow that his Name would be praised by all Buddhas; (2) those concerning his Land,
namely, the Thirty-first Vow which promised that his Land would be pure and
immaculate and the Thirty-second Vow that his Land would be full of magnificent
splendors; and (3) those concerning salvation of living beings, namely, the rest of the
Forty-eight Vows.
In each Vow, Dharmakara expressed his firm resolution that unless it were fulfilled he
would not become a Buddha. He actually fulfilled these Vows by doing many kinds of
meritorious deeds and so became the Buddha of Infinite Life and Infinite Light -- namely,
Amida. The Land of immeasurable Light, which on his attainment of Buddhahood came
into existence beyond the realms of Samsara , is full of glorious adornments. This is the
Land where he dwells everlastingly, welcoming beings from other worlds and enabling
them to share the supreme joy of Enlightenment and Nirvana.
The third group of the Vows is further divided into two: the Vows concerning our
salvation and those concerning the beings in the Pure Land. The Vows in the second
division include those, which assure us of acquiring supernatural powers and attaining
special samadhis in the Pure Land. The beings born there are completely emancipated
from delusions and passions, and so, they are essentially the same as Amida Buddha. But
they are described as Bodhisattvas who help him with the work of saving sentient beings.
Of the Vows, which directly concern us, the Eighteenth is most important, for through
this Vow our salvation is actualized. By working with the Seventeenth Vow, the
Eighteenth makes us one with Amida through his Name, Namu Amida Butsu. In other
words, Amida comes to us in the form of the Name, and his heart directly enters ours to
establish in us the unshakable Faith. This Faith is the cause of Birth in the Pure Land and
of subsequent attainment of Enlightenment. Shinran Shonin emphasized that the Faith
given by Amida is the Bodhi-Mind containing the Buddha's Wisdom and Compassion. In
the Eighteenth Vow this Faith is presented as three minds, namely, Sincere Mind, Joyful
Faith, and Desire to be Born in the Pure Land, but they constitute the undivided One
Mind, as Vasubandhu professed when he took refuge in Amida in his Discourse on the
Pure Land.
The Nembutsu that we utter becomes the Act of Right Assurance if we entrust ourselves
wholly to Amida's saving power and let the Name work through our hearts and mouths.
Each Nembutsu is Amida's self-expression through us, and each act of worship is the
manifestation of his saving activity.
The Eighteenth Vow is the point of our union with Amida. When we come to believe
beyond any doubt that Amida is our true Parent, we find it natural that we should be born
in his Land and see him face to face. What a joy it will be, as Shan-tao says in his Hymns

18
on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, to see Amida in his glorious manifestation, seated on the
lotus-throne and surrounded by Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara and
Mahasthamaprapta. (SSZ. I, 704)
Contrary to what many people believe, birth in the Pure Land is not the final objective in
Shin Buddhism. Attainment of the same infinite life as Amida and enjoyment of the
highest bliss and pleasures are one aspect of the whole fruition, which is promised us.
The other aspect is attainment of Nirvana, the state of the ultimate tranquility and the
pure activity. The first aspect of our spiritual attainment is promised in the Eighteenth
Vow, and the second aspect, in the Eleventh Vow.
Speaking in ontological terms, the moment we encounter Amida through the NembutsuFaith of the Eighteenth Vow, we realize oneness with Amida, and thus we are
immediately emancipated from bondage to Samsara. After the fruits of our past karma,
that is, our bodies with all the defilements of blind passions, are relinquished at our
bodily death, we will attain Nirvana. This process is shown in the Eleventh Vow -- the
Vow assuring our unfailing attainment of Nirvana. This Vow reads:
If, when I attain Buddhahood, humans and gods in my land
should not dwell in the Definitely Assured State and
unfailingly reach Nirvana, may I not attain perfect
Enlightenment. (chap. 7)
We note that this Vow presents two stages of spiritual attainment which are of vital
importance to Pure Land aspirants. One is 'dwelling in the Definitely Assured State' and
the other, 'attaining Nirvana.' The Larger Sutra clarifies this point by stating:
The Buddha (Shakyamuni) said to Ananda, "Sentient
beings who are born in that Buddha-land all reside among
those assured of Nirvana. The reason is that in that land
there are neither beings who are destined to adverse
conditions nor those whose destinies are uncertain.(chap.
22)
If, as the Larger Sutra says, the Pure Land is inhabited only by those who are sure to
reach Nirvana, it is reasonable to think that those who will be born there should also be in
the Definitely Assured State while in this life of Samsara. This point was emphasized by
Shinran Shonin, who says in his Ichinen tanen mon'i (One Thought and Many Callings):
Those who will be born in that land all dwell in the
Definitely Assured State, because in that Buddha-land there
are neither those destined to the lower realms nor those
whose destinies are uncertain. As I understand the teaching
of the two Buddhas (i.e. Amida and Shakyamuni),
'immediately (assured of) birth' means abiding in the
Definitely Assured State; this further means attaining in the
state of Non-retrogression. Since those who dwell in this
state unfailingly reach the unsurpassed great Nirvana, they

19
are said to attain the 'state next to the Buddha' or to attain
the 'state of Non-retrogression'. (SSZ. II, 606-7)
Besides those terms in the above quotation, there is one more in Shinran Shonin's
thought, where he compares such aspirants to the future Buddha by saying that they are
'equal to Maitreya.' Since he is in the highest bodhisattva stage, they are the same because
they will become Buddhas in the next life.
What a joy it is to be firmly established in the state of Non-retrogression! Amida has
made this possible by transferring all his merit and power through the Name: Namu
Amida Butsu.
(6) Shakyamuni's sacred task (lines 21-24)
The reason for the Buddha's appearance in the world
Is solely to expound the Primal Vow of Amida, wide and
deep as the ocean.
All beings in the evil age with five defilements
Should believe in the truth of the Buddha's words.
Shakyamuni Buddha was born into a royal family in India about the 6th century B.C.
Having seen the miseries of human existence, he renounced the world and became a
mendicant to seek the way of salvation for himself and for all living beings. He tried
various methods advocated by his contemporary religious masters, but found them
useless in achieving his objective. He finally took to cross-legged meditation, through
which he attained the highest perfect wisdom and thus became an Enlightened One -- the
Buddha.
Speaking in terms of our common-sense understanding, Shakyamuni was born and died
as a man; he became a Buddha at the age of thirty-five and passed into Nirvana at eighty.
For forty-five years he expounded the Dharma to people like a physician prescribing
different medicines to patients of different illnesses or like an experienced instructor
giving appropriate teachings to students of different capacities. Some are meant for the
wise, some for those capable of difficult meditative practices, some for those capable of
observing the precepts, and so on.
Since human beings are deeply attached to themselves, they are prone to depend on their
own power to attain their objectives. It is for this reason that Shakyamuni, by skillful
means, first provided them with various methods of 'self-power' practice which would be
easier for them to begin with. So he prepared the way for the Other-Power teaching of
salvation.
The concept of Buddha differs greatly in Theravada and Mahayana. The Theravada
generally follows a pattern of thought acceptable to rational thinking, while the
Mahayana presents theories transcending human reason. In the Theravada, Buddhahood
is the result of practices over many lives. The Mahayana, while accepting this concept in
its Bodhisattva ideal, further reveals a deeper truth which is transcendental and multidimensional.
Shakyamuni did not for the first time become a Buddha in India; he is originally a

20
Buddha, an eternal Buddha. According to the Mahayana definition of Buddha, he has
three bodies: (1) Dharmakaya, the body of ultimate truth and reality; (2) Sambhogakaya,
the body of bliss with glorious manifestations of his supreme merit; and (3)
Nirmanakaya, the body of incarnation. The first two bodies represent the transcendental
nature of the Buddha, and the third body through his earthly manifestation saves living
beings. Thus, in the Lotus Sutra, Shakyamuni is described as an everlasting Buddha, and
the Nirvana Sutra stresses the ever presence of Buddhahood.
The relationship between Shakyamuni and Amida is not like that of humans which is
based on diverse, and often mutually contradictory, wishes and interests. All Buddhas
have one and the same body of truth, the same wisdom and compassion; in other words,
they share the same Dharmakaya. Although different methods of salvation and different
Buddha-lands are described in Mahayana sutras, they are multi-dimensional contents of
the self-same Dharmakaya. T'an-luan in his Commentary on the Pure Land Discourse
states that all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have two kinds of Dharmakaya: (1) Dharmakaya
as the ultimate reality, and (2) Dharmakaya as manifested through skillful means. The
former is the aspect of universality and equality, and the latter, that of particularity and
diversity. It follows then that Shakyamuni and Amida are different but one, one but
distinguishable. In the Larger Sutra we find the wonderful accord of Shakyamuni and
Amida in their common objective of saving us. In the first place, Shakyamuni became
one with Amida in the Samadhi of Great Tranquility, and in that capacity he expounded
Amida's Vows. Shinran accepted Amida as a manifested Dharmakaya Buddha and, at the
same time, saw in him the universal and everlasting Buddhahood, as he says:
Having entered the Samadhi of Tranquility,
Shakyamuni Buddha manifested his glorious countenance;
Hearing Ananda's wise observation,
The Buddha praised him for asking an appropriate
question.
(
H
y
m
n
s
o
n
t
h
e
P
u
r

21
e
L
a
n
d
5
3
)
The Buddha appeared in this world
To reveal the truth of the Primal Vow;
It is extremely difficult to meet a Buddha,
As rare as seeing an udumbara flower.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
4
)
Since Amida attained Buddhahood
Ten kalpas have passed, so says the sutra;
But he appears to be an old Buddha,
More ancient than innumerable kalpas of the past.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
5
)
We humans have no real control over our lives; we are helplessly at the mercy of our selfcreated karma. But Enlightened sages, like Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, have not only
been liberated from the bondage of karma but have accumulated immeasurable good

22
karma, with which they establish glorious Buddha-lands and engage in endless works of
benefiting others. Having realized the ultimate principle of non-duality, they dwell
neither in Samsara nor in Nirvana. This means that they have risen above Samsara and
Nirvana, but because of the vows made at the outset of the Bodhisattva's career, they
freely enter into samsaric worlds to save those beings who suffer there.
When Shakyamuni was born in this world, did he have a definite objective in view? This
has been a popular topic of discussion among Buddhists for many centuries. Each school
or sect has its own argument to claim that its teaching is the highest representing the
Buddha's real intention and that other teachings were set forth as expedient means for
those not yet ready to receive the ultimate teaching. Thus Zen, for example, asserts that
the Buddha-Mind transmitted directly from Shakyamuni outside the written scriptures is
the core of Zen and is superior to other approaches which are based on them. Tendai has
an elaborate system of classification of the Buddha's teachings to prove that Tendai
upholds the highest doctrine. Shingon claims that the esoteric doctrine revealed by the
Dharmakaya Buddha, Mahavairocana, is far superior to exoteric ways.
Life is not long enough to study all the practices to find the best. Even if we do enjoy a
long life, it would be all but impossible to practice meditation as prescribed and to
observe the precepts required for successful practice.
According to Shinran, the real intention of the Buddha's appearance in the world was to
expound the Larger Sutra and save beings through the Nembutsu. In the Kyogyoshinsho,
chapter on True Teaching, Shinran first declares that the True Teaching is the Larger
Sutra and then explains its essentials as follows:
Amida Buddha made the unsurpassed Vow and opened
widely the Dharma-store; taking pity on men of limited
capacities, he selected the treasure of virtues (i.e. Amida's
Name) and bestowed it upon them. Shakyamuni appeared
in this world and expounded various teachings, but
particularly desired to save multitudes of beings by
endowing them with the true benefit of the Name. Thus the
primary intention of this sutra is to expound Amida's Primal
Vow, and the essence of the sutra is his Name. (SSZ.II, 2-3)
Shinran's teacher, Honen, was dedicated wholly to the Nembutsu and recommended it to
all, saying that it is the easiest and yet the supreme practice. While following Honen's
teaching, Shinran went a step further and made clear that the Name and the Vow are
actually working behind our recitation of the Nembutsu, not our own power. He thus
cautioned us against reliance on our self-power which is both limited and defiled by blind
passions.
Shinran's Other-Power teaching is clearly distinguished from the rest of the teachings of
Shakyamuni which emphasize cultivation of wisdom by one's own power. Even if one
follows a path of self-power, one will eventually realize that what actually enlightens one
is the Power of the Buddha. When we come to take refuge in Amida, our eyes are opened
to his boundless Wisdom, Compassion, and Power. Then we will see that there is nothing
in the world that is not pervaded by Amida. As such Amida is appropriately called 'the

23
Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Directions.' He made himself
known to us through the Amida-Samadhi, and later the whole truth about Amida was
related in the Larger Sutra. When we receive this sutra with joyful faith, we find
ourselves bathed in the Light of Amida's Great Compassion.
Attaining Buddhahood through the Nembutsu is the
teaching of the True Religion;
Ten thousand practices and various acts of merit are
temporary teachings.
Unable to distinguish the true and real teaching from
temporary and provisional,
Many fail to see the path to the Pure Land of Naturalness.
(Hymns on the Pure land 71)
Sentient beings, having remained long in the expedient
ways
Of temporary and provisional teachings in the Path of
Sages.
Have been subject to transmigration in Samsara.
Take refuge in the Ultimate Teaching of Great Compassion.
(Ibid. 72)

(7) Amida's salvation: Emancipation from karmic bondage (lines 25-28)

If the single thought of Joy and Gratitude is awakened in
us,
We shall realize Nirvana without severing our blind
passions.
Ordinary people, sages, those who commit the gravest
offenses,
and abusers of the Dharma are equally led to the Land
beyond,
Just as many rivers become of one taste upon entering the
sea.
The English term 'salvation' as used loosely in Shin Buddhism has a different connotation
from that in other religions. Usually, this term, like the other key-word, 'faith,'
presupposes three elements: (1) the existence of a certain divine being who is the savior,
(2) those to be saved, and (3) the act of saving in response to their needs and request.
Salvation will mean that through the special favor or grace of the divine being the faithful

24
are delivered from their conditions of suffering and enabled to enjoy a happier life here
and hereafter.
In Shin Buddhism (and for that matter in other forms of authentic Buddhism), there is no
favor or grace to be given to special individuals. If one has gained what appears to be a
special grace of Amida and attained shinjin, it is not because of the devotion which has
been offered up to Amida, but in accordance with the law of karma, which was explored
to its depth and fully utilized by Dharmakara.
At all levels of existence, from the lowest hell to the Buddha-lands, the law of karma
reigns with irresistible force. Those in the states of samsaric existence, including
ourselves, are ignorant of this law and unable to use it for spiritual elevation. We are
given to greed, anger and stupidity, and unawares allow ourselves to be at the mercy of
karmic power.
Thus the first lesson in Buddhism is to know clearly how the law of karma is working at
the level of our existence. We are taught that good acts bring about happiness and evil
ones, suffering. Then we learn about ways of improving our karma: first the moral
teaching which promises rebirth in heavenly realms in the world of desire; then
meditation exercises which purify our karma and, if successfully practiced, will bring
about its due reward in still higher spiritual realms of form and non-form. At a more
advanced level, we learn how to put an end to our karmic activities so that we will not
endure any more suffering in samsaric existence but dwell in the everlasting bliss of
Nirvana.
In the earlier teaching of Buddhism, the existence of an individual is explained as a
composite of the five aggregates (skandha). This is not a mere conglomeration of
elements to be thought of objectively in mathematical or scientific terms, but some latent
subjective agent that brings together constituent elements is alluded to, without admitting
the existence of a permanent self, called 'atman'. In the Buddhist theory of karma, it is the
momentum of psycho-physical energy that collects various elements to form an
individual. If one does evil deeds, one's karma collects the elements, which are
unpleasant and not beneficial to oneself and others; in the extreme case, the torments of
hell. If, on the contrary, one does good deeds, one's karma is purified and attracts the
elements, which are pleasant and beneficial. In the process of purification, one's karma
absorbs subtle material elements and, in a still more advanced stage, only spiritual
elements. In the final stage, as one's karma is totally extinguished, it ceases to draw to
itself any physical or mental element, leaving the complete serenity and bliss of Nirvana
to pervade everywhere, into which the subjective agent itself merges as well.
That is not the whole story of the karmic law. Mahayana Buddhism gives the concept of
karma new dimensions of meaning. First, it reveals that the law of karma is not restricted
to individual beings but, in its subtle and deeper aspect, is working at the root of their
karmic activities. In this sense, the theory of universal interrelation or dependent
origination (pratitya-samutpada) should be considered as connected with the law of
karma.
How one's evil karma is removed or compensated for is the most important practical
problem in any Buddhist school. In the Pure Land tradition in general, the efficacy of the
Nembutsu is emphasized over and beyond other practices. The Contemplation Sutra
states that the Nembutsu can destroy even the worst karmic transgression and become the
cause of birth in the Pure Land. The Third Master T'an-luan took great pains in his

25
Commentary on the Discourse on the Pure Land to explain how this is possible. He first
raises a question:
Some sutras explaining the law of karma state that it is like
a balance, which a heavier object pulls down. According to
the Contemplation Sutra, those who have committed the
five deadly transgressions and the ten evil acts and those
with various adverse karma, will fall into the lowest realms,
where they will pass many kalpas undergoing
immeasurable sufferings. But if, at their death, they meet
with a good friend, who urges them to recite the Nembutsu,
and so repeat it ten times continually with sincere heart,
then they will attain birth in the Pure Land of Peace and
Bliss. There they will join the group of those who are
rightly established in the Mahayana. Thus, they will not
retrogress from the attainment of Enlightenment and will
forever be free from various sufferings in the three evil
realms. How is this explained in the light of the law of
karma according to which a heavier load pulls one down?
Furthermore, from the beginningless past, sentient beings
have been immersed in various defilements and so they are
tied to the three worlds of Samsara. If they can attain
emancipation from the three worlds by merely
remembering Amida Buddha with ten repetitions of the
Nembutsu, what will become of the bondage of karma?
To this question, which is a perennial one for all Shin Buddhists, T'an-luan gives the
following answer:
You consider the bondage of karma, such as the five deadly
transgressions and the ten evil acts, as heavy, and the ten
repetitions of the Name by a man of the lowest level of the
lowest grade as light.... Whether a certain act creates
dominant karmic force or not is dependent on (1) the state
of mind, (2) its object, and (3) the degree of concentration,
and not by length of time. (1) The state of mind: The
evildoer in question has committed evils in a false and
inverted state of mind, whereas the ten repetitions of the
Name arise when he hears the teaching of Truth from a
good friend. One is true and the other false. How can you
compare them? Suppose there is a room, which has been
dark for a thousand years. If a light is cast into the room
even for a short while, the room will instantly become
bright. How could the darkness refuse to leave because it
has been there for a thousand years?
(2) The object of mind: With deluded thoughts the evildoer

26
has committed vicious acts to other sentient beings who
have also come into existence as the result of evil passions
and delusive thoughts. Ten repetitions of the Nembutsu
arise from the unsurpassed Faith taking as its object the
Name of Amida Buddha who has a glorious body of upaya
(skillful means) and comprises immeasurable merits which
are pure and true....
(3) The degree of concentration: The evildoer who has
committed transgressions expects some result, and so his
mind is distracted by other thoughts. Ten repetitions of the
Nembutsu are based on a state of mind, which does not
anticipate any result and is, therefore, not deluded by other
thoughts. From the above observation it is clear that ten
repetitions of the Nembutsu are stronger than the five
deadly transgressions or the ten evil acts, and so it prevails,
enabling the evildoer to escape from the three worlds.
Although Master T'an-luan mentions 'unsurpassed Faith' which underlies the repetitions
of the Nembutsu, his general tone is that he admits the efficacy of the devotee's
concentrated practice of it. For Shinran Shonin the Other-Power Faith is of paramount
importance, and Nembutsu practice is not the prerequisite for birth in the Pure Land. But
it should be emphasized that one who attains Faith, spontaneously achieves a high degree
of concentration, in which one is totally encompassed by Amida and the Nembutsu
continually arises in one's mind.
Conversion from self-power teachings to the Other-Power Way means a complete change
in the basis for one's existence, accompanied by a reversal in the course of our karma.
When the Contemplation Sutra explains the salvation of wicked persons through the
Nembutsu, it refers to two aspects: (1) explicitly, the method of practice that the devotee
should follow and (2) implicitly, Amida's saving power originating from his Vows. The
explicit teaching of this sutra does encourage concentrated practice of the Nembutsu, and
so, the Pure Land masters in China and Japan generally followed this and further
developed systems of practice centering on the Nembutsu. But implicitly the
Contemplation Sutra reveals the Other-Power aspect which is fully explained in the
Larger Sutra. These two sutras had apparently separate origins and different courses of
transmission, but in China they joined together to form a major current of Pure Land
thought flowing through the whole history of Chinese Buddhism.
The relationship between the Name, Nembutsu and shinjin (Faith) is a delicate one,
which needs to be clarified by the expositions in the sutras and by our experience of
salvation. In the Contemplation Sutra, in which the Nembutsu is first applied to grave
karmic transgressors on their deathbeds, they are simply taught to say the Nembutsu
because it is the most effective prescription for those who need immediate help. The
evildoers mentioned in this sutra as those of "the lowest level of the lowest grade" have
committed the gravest offenses and various evils, and so, at their death, they are naturally
full of agony and are terrified by the fearful signs of karmic retribution. Under these

27
circumstances, they have no ears to listen to the Dharma and no time to reflect on the
evils that they have committed. The Nembutsu given at that ultimate moment can
penetrate to the depth of their minds and find its expression on their lips as "Namu Amida
Butsu." The Nembutsu thus received in the mind and repeated with the voice has the
effect of reversing the whole course of their karma, leading them safely to the realm of
Enlightenment -- the Pure Land.
T'an-luan's explanation of the efficacy of the Nembutsu, which was quoted above is
relevant to the essential nature and working of the Name. Following the explicit teaching
of the Contemplation Sutra, T'an-luan says that the Nembutsu which the evildoer says at
the time of his death is the sufficient cause of his birth in the Pure Land, but T'an-luan
implicitly refers to the Larger Sutra when he says, as quoted before, that the Nembutsu
"arises from the unsurpassed Faith taking as its object the Name of Amida Buddha
which ... comprises immeasurable merits." This explanation can be taken to mean that the
truly efficacious Nembutsu must come from the Other-Power Faith and that such
Nembutsu arises as Amida's self-expression through the Name.
Salvation in Shin Buddhism, as set forth straightforwardly by Shinran Shonin, reverses
the popular belief in the efficacy of the Nembutsu based on one's power. He takes great
pains in showing that the Nembutsu is nothing but the Name in action. When received
deeply in the mind, the Name gives rise to Faith; then the Name expresses itself as the
Nembutsu of acknowledgement and gratitude. Whether the Nembutsu is true or not is
thus dependent on the state of mind in which it is practiced. A Nembutsu devotee without
Faith has no settled mind (anjin); when the Name is correctly received in the devotee's
mind, Amida's Wisdom, Compassion and merits are also transferred to him at the same
time. Such a state of mind is called shinjin, and for the Nembutsu practitioner of shinjin,
true joy of salvation and gratitude to Amida naturally accompany the Nembutsu.
Even though we lack sincerity of heart and deep faith in the Dharma and also are
incapable of diligent practice of the Buddhist Path, we are enabled by the Power of
Amida's Vow to participate in the Great Work of Mahayana Bodhisattva-hood. The
"single thought of Joy and Gratitude" awakened in us marks the moment of our entry into
this spiritual realm of truth and happiness.
Those who attain Serene Faith of Joy,
Rejoicing greatly in a moment of spiritual unity with
Amida,
Through the Vow of Universal Salvation,
Shall be born in the Pure Land without fail.
(
H
y
m
n
s
o
n

28

t
h
e
P
u
r
e
L
a
n
d
2
6
)
'Salvation' in Shin Buddhism means, above anything else, liberation from the bondage of
karma. Since our defiled karma is created by our blind passions, which arise from our
basic ignorance, our bondage to karma cannot be eliminated without removing our blind
passions and ignorance. Let us first clarify the causal relationships between ignorance,
blind passions, and the state of karma-bondage in accordance with the fundamental
Buddhist theory of the "twelve causations."
As we all know, the Buddha Shakyamuni's renunciation of the world was motivated by a
quest for the cause of the suffering of life. After six years' search for the answer, he
finally found it while sitting in meditation under the Bodhi-tree. As he meditated deeply
on the painful reality of life, he discovered that the condition of life and death was caused
by the state of existence. Next, he found that the state of existence was caused by
grasping. In that way, his meditation brought him deeper and deeper inside, until he came
to the ignorance at the base of his existence. The moment he realized it, that ignorance
was gone and thus he attained Enlightenment.
Since, in Shin Buddhism, salvation is achieved when we receive Amida's wisdom,
compassion and merits through the Name, settling of shinjin should mean elimination of
this basic ignorance. Let us first examine the implications of the twelve causations. (1)
Ignorance (avidya), which lurks in the depth of our existence; it covers up the mind at its
root and hinders it from perceiving the ultimate reality. (2) Conditioned by ignorance,
blind volition or force (samskara) arises; this is the karmic energy before one's individual
character is formed. (3) Next, consciousness (vijnana) arises; this is explained as the
'apperceptional principle' or the 'life-potency of the sensory side of individuality', which
may be considered as the subconscious or pre-conscious activity. (4) Next, conditioned
by consciousness, 'name and form' (nama-rupa) are produced; they are the immaterial
and material factors which together constitute an individual existence. (5) Next arise the
six sense-organs (sad-ayatana), i.e., eyes, ears, nose, tongue, tactile organ, and mind,
followed by (6) contact with the external objects (sparsha), and (7) sensations (vedana).

29
(8) Next desire for pleasure (trisna) arises; this includes strong craving and lust, and
represents all evil passions. (9) Next arises the act of grasping what one desires
(upadana), which is followed by (10) the state of existence (bhava). (11) Then, birth
(jati) and (12) decay and death (jara-marana) occur.
The twelve causations reveal many inner facts about our samsaric existence. According to
the popular view in early Buddhism, the first two are related to the cause in the past life,
the next five are their results in the present life, and the following three, i.e., from desire
to the state of existence, act as the cause of the next life; the last two are their result. In
order to attain liberation from the cycle of samsaric causations, one must get rid of
'desire' and 'ignorance'.
The Buddha taught us various methods of liberation, each in correspondence with an
individual's propensity and capacity. But it is clearly all but impossible to remove, with
our own power, the factors which constitute our existence. Since all our efforts are defiled
by 'desire' and 'ignorance', how can we make 'pure' efforts? The answer is given by the
Buddha himself and the Pure Land masters. The Seven Masters invariably taught that we
should avail ourselves of Amida's Power of the Vow. The heart of trusting in the Power of
the Vow is shinjin. Since this heart does not arise from our defiled minds but is Amida's
Mind given to us, it is free of defilements. The moment we receive it, or rather we are
received by Amida, our spiritual darkness is gone. Even though we have not yet severed
blind passions, their roots have already been cut, so that they will not bear the fruit of
suffering in Samsara. Thus attainment of Nirvana is promised us. After relinquishing the
causes and effects of the samsaric existence, we will forever enjoy the pleasure of the
Dharma for ourselves and help others to enjoy it as well.
The term 'salvation' is interpreted in various ways in different religions. Within
Buddhism, this term has different meanings in Hinayana and Mahayana. Even within the
Mahayana, various schools and sects give this term specific meanings. There are at least
three clearly distinguishable levels of understanding about 'salvation.' The first is the
common-sense level, in which this term is used in a socio-religious sense. For example,
to remove social evils and help the destitute and handicapped people is the popular
activity of salvation. Since religious organizations exist in society, they are expected to
fulfill their functions to remove causes of social evils and sufferings and establish a better
society. So it is natural that every religious organization should have this aspect of
activity, but the emphasis placed on it varies in each religion. Right from the beginning,
Buddhism has had this aspect of salvation in its teaching, but the idea behind it has been
above the level of morality or sociological concerns. While encouraging its followers to
be kind to all living beings and engage in social welfare activities, Buddhism primarily
aims at removing the root-cause of their sufferings.
The second level is attained by turning one's attention to the subjective self. This does not
simply mean introspection or reflection on oneself in the ordinary sense of the term, nor
does it involve deepening of one's guilty feelings for social evils. The focal point of
understanding of the meaning of 'salvation' on this level is the law of karma. On the first
common-sense level, the law of karma as taught in Buddhism is not yet fully appreciated.
It has no deeper meaning to ordinary people than a didactic teaching. On the second
level, one learns the law of karma as a guide to understanding the root-cause of
sufferings. But we must be careful not to mix up the Buddhist teaching of the law of
karma with the Hindu concepts of karma. Both believe in transmigration and propose

30
methods of attaining liberation from it, but Buddhism is different from the ordinary
Hindu views in not admitting the permanent self (atman).
Buddhism conceives of one's existence as a process of becoming in the nexus of causal
relationships. Of the twelve links of causations, we find that the first three, i.e.,
ignorance, blind volition, and consciousness, are the most important in the formation of
one's existence but, because of the deep-seated ignorance in the mind, easily escapes
clarification even by great religious and philosophical thinkers of the past and present.
These three elements form the murky area of the unknown force, which threatens one's
existence from underneath and fills one with indefinable fear and anxiety. This anxiety
intrinsic to one's existence could sometimes drive one to violent acts or fanatic faiths; this
is the nursery of various superstitions and wrong views. From the Buddhist viewpoint,
this is the area where one's karmic seeds are accumulated and 'fermented' until they
become mature and are manifested as mental and bodily actions. When this area is
completely illumined by the light of wisdom, one attains liberation.
The third level is beyond the first two but, at the same time, includes them. In the
Mahayana concept of salvation, an individual's liberation from delusion and suffering
cannot be completed until and unless all sentient beings attain the same liberation. The
awareness of the universal relationship with them gives rise to the resolution to save them
all; this resolution turns one into a Bodhisattva. When Amida was a Bodhisattva, he made
this resolution in the form of the Forty-eight Vows. Now that they have been fulfilled, he
has already accomplished our salvation. The moment we hear the Name and, through it,
attain shinjin, we realize that we have been in his Light of boundless Wisdom and
Compassion. With the darkness of mind completely cleared, we everlastingly enjoy
oneness with Amida Buddha. In the ocean of Amida's Wisdom, there is no discrimination
between bombu and sages, evildoers and good persons. They are equally taken in and
never abandoned, and become one with Amida just as various river-waters are turned into
one taste upon reaching the ocean.
The Buddha's Wisdom and Virtue have been praised
So that sentient beings in the ten directions may know
about them;
Those who have attained Faith should always
Strive to repay the Buddha's Benevolence.
(Hymns on the Pure Land 50)

(8) Living in the Light of Great Compassion (lines 29-34)

The Light of all-embracing Compassion always illumines
and protects us;
The darkness of ignorance has already been destroyed by it,

31
But the clouds and mists of greed, desire, anger and enmity
Continually cover the sky of True Faith.
Be that as it may, just as the sunlight is blocked by clouds
or mists,
Below them it is light and there is no darkness.
The difference between ordinary people and Shin Buddhists does not show in outward
appearance, but is clearly found in their spiritual lives. First of all, Shin Buddhists are
aware of Amida's Light of Great Compassion and so can enjoy its benefit, while ordinary
people, ignorant of it, continue to walk in the dark. Second, Shin Buddhists are aware of
their evil passions in their entirety, not through their own intellect or insight, but through
Amida's Light; ordinary people may know part of their evil passions but are unable to see
them all. Mere reflection does not go deep into oneself, nor can psychoanalysis possibly
analyze away all that one has beneath one's consciousness. Meditation, when practiced
under the proper guidance of a truly enlightened master, can penetrate deeper into one's
mind, but does not necessarily promise a successful result.
Amida's Light which, above anything else, embodies Prajna can penetrate to the depth of
one's self and break its hard existential basis, bringing one to the realization that there is
nothing that supports one's existence but a false image of ego. When the Light is
perceived in us, all our evil passions and their karmic energy stored in our Alaya
consciousness are instantly cleared, or rather merged into Amida's pure merits. Even
though there still is a lingering tendency of passions, which beclouds our minds, we are
basically free of the fear and anxiety that are believed to be inherent in our nature.
Amida's Light takes various forms according to the conditions and needs of the beings to
be saved, and functions in multiple ways. Since Amida has three "bodies," his Light can
also be conceived to be of three kinds corresponding to them. First, Amida as the
Dharmakaya Buddha sends forth the Light of non-discriminative Wisdom, which is in
perfect accord with True Suchness. This Light is all pervasive and all merging. In fact,
there is in it no subject-object distinction, and things as they are clearly revealed in this,
the Light of the ultimate Truth.
Amida as the Sambhogakaya Buddha is a bodily manifestation. He has, therefore, the
physical Light emitted from his body, as well as the spiritual Light emanating from his
mind. The physical Light, as the Contemplation Sutra explains, "illuminates all the
worlds throughout the ten directions." There is no place where that Light does not reach,
but not all sentient beings are aware of this -- indeed, very few realize it. When one hears
the Dharma well and receives Amida's Compassion deep in one's heart, Amida's Light
"embraces and never abandons this person."
The Light of Amida as a Nirmanakaya creates various images for sincere devotees,
appearing in their dreams or at the time of death to guide them to the Pure Land.
Since the three Buddha-bodies are not separate but are an integrated whole, we simply
look up to Amida as 'Jinjippo Mukeko Nyorai' -- the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
Shining throughout the Ten Quarters. In the pure religious feeling arising from True
Faith, there is no room for knowledge obtained by analytical methods. Even the
knowledge of ourselves being full of evil passions does not remain in the mind as a stern
and painful reminder. We realize that this knowledge does not come from our insight but
is an image of ourselves reflected in the mirror of Amida's Wisdom. Any piece of

32
knowledge, whether of Amida or ourselves, can become an obstacle to full realization of
Amida's Compassion. If our knowledge is merged into Amida's Wisdom, we simply enjoy
living in his Light without fear and sorrow.

(9) Life of a myokonin (lines 35-40)

When we receive Faith, regard and revere the Dharma, and
attain Great Joy,
We instantly transcend the five evil realms.
If ordinary people, whether they are good or evil,
Hear the Dharma and trust Amida's Universal Vow,
Shakyamuni praises them as 'men of great and superior
understanding';
Such people are called 'white lotus-flowers.'
The Larger Sutra expressly states in the Verses on the Visits of Bodhisattvas to the Pure
Land (chap. 27):
To obtain human life is difficult in the extreme;
To meet a Buddha in this world is also difficult;
It is difficult, too, for a man to attain faith and wisdom.
Once you have heard the Dharma, strive to reach its heart.
If you have heard the Dharma and do not forget it
But regard and revere it with great joy,
You are my good friend. For this reason,
You should awaken aspiration for Enlightenment.
Even if the whole world is on fire,
Be sure to pass through it to hear the Dharma;
Then you will surely enter the Path of the Buddha
And everywhere deliver beings from the river of birth-anddeath.
Contrary to the popular misunderstanding that Shin Buddhism is an easy-going teaching
requiring no effort on our side, this sutra further stresses the importance of our diligent
pursuit of the Way as follows (chap. 31):
That land is sublime, blissful, serene and pure. Why do you
not diligently practice the good, reflect on the Naturalness
of the Way and realize that it is above all discriminations
and is boundlessly pervasive? You should each make a
great effort to attain it. Strive to escape from Samsara and

33
be born in the Land of Peace and Provision. Then, the
cause of the five evil realms having been destroyed, they
will naturally cease to be, and so you will progress
unhindered in your pursuit of the Way. The Pure Land is
easy to reach, but very few actually go there. It rejects
nobody, but naturally and unfailingly attracts beings. Why
do you not abandon worldly matters and strive to enter the
Way?
Shinran has repeated in the first two lines the import of the verses and the passage quoted
above, but does not encourage practicing good, meritorious acts. In his Shin Buddhist
system, all meritorious practices conducive to the attainment of Enlightenment in the
Pure Land are attributed to Amida Buddha. Since we are incapable of any practice, as
Shinran is quoted as saying in the Tannisho, hell would definitely be our dwelling place.
Good acts which we think we can do are, at best, false and inverted, and cannot possibly
yield the merits we require for attaining Enlightenment. Actually we can do nothing but
commit evil karma. This is the conclusion Shinran reached after his twenty years' quest
for Truth on Mount Hiei. When he descended from the mountain, he left behind all the
false visions of himself being capable of pursuing the good. Later, when he encountered
Honen's Nembutsu teaching, he found in it the Dharma in action, which had been
pursuing him to carry him across the river of birth-and-death. This Dharma is the
embodiment of ultimate truth and pure merits, which is given to us through the Name. To
hear and receive this Dharma means to join the stream of pure karmic activity of the
Original Vow.
When we hear and receive Amida's Dharma, we are awakened to twofold reality: (1) that
we are full of evil passions, karma-bound and incapable of salvation with our own power
and (2) that Amida with boundless saving power embraces and never forsakes us. In this
awareness, however, we no longer stand in opposition to Amida, but we find our true
identity in Amida, just as a child finds its identity in the mother's love. When we realize
our true identity, all the false identities superimposed upon it fall off, and then we are able
to walk along the Buddhist Path in the light of Wisdom and Compassion.
One who has correctly received Amida's Dharma and thereby awakened shinjin is praised
by Shakyamuni as 'a person of great and superior understanding.' This phrase comes from
the Section on the Teaching Assembly of Amitayus Tathagata, another Chinese version of
the Larger Sutra, which says (SSZ, I, 212):
Those who have in the past worshiped and made offerings
to innumerable Buddhas will be enabled by the power of
those Buddhas to enter this Great Dharma and be praised
joyfully by all the Tathagatas. Those who receive and hold
fast to this Dharma will attain immense all-knowing
wisdom and cultivate good roots as they wish. Those good
men and women who attain great and superior
understanding of this Dharma should further hear and

34
greatly rejoice in it, hold fast to it, chant and expound it to
others, and constantly follow it with joy.
Since our true identity is in Namu amida butsu, through the Nembutsu we keep
reminding ourselves of it and express our gratitude to Amida for enabling us to realize
our selves.
Those who receive Amida's Dharma have not only superior understanding and insight
into reality, but also attain wonderful personality, as it is said in the Contemplation Sutra
(chap. 32):
You should know that all who are mindful of that Buddha
are like white lotus-flowers among humankind; the
Bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta
become their good friends. They will sit in the place of
Enlightenment and be born into the family of the Buddhas.
Even though mired by evil passions, we are nevertheless 'white lotus-flowers' if our
minds are firmly set on the Nembutsu. Shan-tao, in his celebrated commentary on the
Contemplation Sutra, gives five other words of high praise to the practicer of the
Nembutsu (SSZ, I, 558): (1) konin, an excellent person, (2) jojonin, a superior person, (3)
myokonin, a wondrous, excellent person, (4) keunin, a rare person, and (5) saishonin, a
most excellent person.
Contrary to the popular concept, a myokonin is not a special type of person, but is applied
to anyone who lives up to the Nembutsu. A myokonin is fully aware of his or her true
identity, grateful to Amida and his Bodhisattva incarnations, Avalokiteshvara and
Mahasthamaprapta, and seeks to share their Compassion with other beings. Thus a
myokonin is a person of deep insight and warm personality. Although a myokonin is still
full of evil passions like other ordinary, unenlightened persons, those passions do not
hinder him or her from performing Buddhist activities, for they have already been cut at
the root and absorbed into Amida's pure merit. Evil passions make troubles when they are
left to run their course unbridled; when properly dealt with, they turn into pure karmic
energy. In the Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Faith, Shinran explains that a person of
shinjin gains ten benefits in this life, of which the third is the benefit of having evil turned
into good. This benefit is made ours through Amida's wonderful virtue. It is said in one of
Shinran's hymns on T'an-luan:
When many rivers of evil passions enter
Into the ocean of the Great Compassion and Great Vow
Of the Tathagata of All-pervasive Unhindered Light,
They become one in taste with the water of Wisdom.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 42)

(10) The Way of the Nembutsu-Faith (lines 41-44)

35
The Nembutsu promised in the Original Vow of Amida
Buddha
Is difficult to receive and retain with joyous Faith
For evil persons who have wrong views and are arrogant;
Of all difficulties nothing is more difficult than that.
We find in the Kyogyoshinsho, chapter on True Practice, many passages quoted as
evidence to show the supreme merit and efficacy of the Nembutsu. One of them, from
Tao-ch'o's Collection of Passages Concerning Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss, has
this to say (SSZ, I, 381):
Shakyamuni advised his father the King to practice the
Nembutsu Samadhi. The King asked the Buddha, 'Why do
you not recommend the practice of realizing directly the
Buddha's virtue, True Suchness or the highest principle of
void-ness?' The Buddha replied, 'The Buddhas' virtue of
Enlightenment contains immeasurable and subtle realms of
realization accompanied by various supernatural powers
and knowledge of emancipation, which are not objects of
perception for an unenlightened person. For this reason, I
recommend to you, my father the King, the Nembutsu
Samadhi.
Idealist Buddhists may try to enter straightaway into the heart of the Buddhas'
Enlightenment, but their limited capacities and evil passions inevitably create an iron
barrier which defies their penetration. The Nembutsu Samadhi comes from Amida's Heart
and reaches each one of those who humbly respond to his Call. The Nembutsu Samadhi
is not only practicable, but is the most efficacious of all samadhis. The passage quoted
above goes on to explain that in the following parable (SSZ, I, 381-2):
Suppose there is a big forest of foul-smelling eranda trees,
in which there is a young sandalwood tree still under the
ground. When this tree grows above the ground, its
fragrance pervades the whole forest and transforms it into a
sweet-smelling forest.
The eranda forest refers to our evil passions and defiled thoughts, and the sandalwood
tree refers to the Nembutsu. A single thought of concentration on and communication
with the Buddha, which is actually made possible by his boundless Mind Power, is
capable of turning our evil karma into the same merit as Amida's.
No other Buddhist practice is easier to follow than the Nembutsu Samadhi, but for those
who are misled by wrong teachings and believe in their own power, the Nembutsu of the
Other-Power is extremely difficult to accept. In this regard we read in the Larger Sutra, in
the Verses on the Visits of Bodhisattvas to the Pure Land (chap. 27):

36
Arrogant, corrupt, and indolent people
Cannot readily accept this teaching.
But those who have met Buddhas in their past lives
Rejoice to hear it.
Shinran Shonin calls wrong-viewed and arrogant people 'evil' in the sense that they reject
the right Dharma and the law of karma and so take the path to degeneration and
destruction. But who are not wrong-viewed until and unless they encounter Amida, the
embodiment of the right Dharma? Also, who are not arrogant unless they meet Amida's
Light of Great Compassion? We are by nature self-centered, and our frame of thought is
naturally constructed on the blind belief in the ego and the power, which it appears to
possess. As we hear and ponder on the Dharma over and over, we come to realize that
what exists in the true sense of the term is the Buddha's Life, Amida, which is allpervasive, all-inclusive and everlasting. When our eyes are opened to this ultimate reality
by being endowed with the Nembutsu-Faith, all our delusory mental constructs disappear
like dew on a blade of grass in the morning sun.
Shakyamuni and Amida are our Compassionate Parents;
By employing various skillful means
Have awakened in our minds
The supreme Faith beyond compare.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 74)

A Commentary on
THE SHOSHINGE
with references to Wasan
By Zuio Hisao Inagaki

Part 2
Section on the exposition
based on the Seven Masters' works

37
(11) The Seven Masters (lines 45-48)
The discourse-writers of India
And the noble masters of China and Japan
Revealed the true purpose of the Great Sage's appearance
And clarified that Amida's Original Vow responds to our
need.
Amida's law of salvation is fully described in the three Pure Land sutras. Even though
they were codified a few centuries after Shakyamuni's passing into Nirvana, his original
message concerning Amida was presumably transmitted in the form of samadhi to some
of his disciples who were able to understand deeper truth. When Mahayana arose, Amida
was one of the first Buddhas presented in Mahayana sutras, as evidenced in the earliest
Chinese translations dating from the middle of the 2nd century.
The most prominent figure in the Mahayana movement is Nagarjuna (c. 150-250), who is
celebrated as the promulgator of the School of the Middle (Madhyamika) and the theory
of void-ness (shunyata). His discourse on the Garland Sutra, Chapter on the Ten Stages,
has important references to Amida Buddha, especially in Chapter 9 'Easy Practice', in
which he professed his devotion to Amida and recommended recitation of his Name for
attaining the Stage of Non-retrogression. Nagarjuna is also believed to be the author of
the Twelve Adorations, which is often chanted in special services.
Secondly, as Mahayana further developed, there arose a system of theory, and practice
based on the idea that one's existence, along with one's environment, can be reduced to
one's consciousness. Eight levels of consciousness are conceived, and the most
fundamental one, called Alaya (literally, 'storage'), stores all karmic energy carried over
from previous lives and reproduces it in various forms when there are appropriate
conditions. Vasubandhu (c. 320-400) and his elder brother Asanga were founders of this
new school, which was called Meditation Practice (Yogacara), because it teaches that one
realizes ultimate reality and attains Enlightenment through concentration on and
observation of objects in relation to one's consciousness.
Vasubandhu was especially selected by Shinran as one of the Seven Masters, because in
his Discourse on the Pure Land with Hymn of Birth he systematized Amida's law of
salvation in a way which can be practiced effectively by ordinary people as well as
Bodhisattvas. It is significant that this great authority of Buddhism, who was an adept of
Yogacara practices, sincerely took refuge in Amida. He successfully visualized Amida,
the Pure Land, and the Bodhisattvas dwelling there, and fully described them in this
discourse. He systematized a theory of practice, called 'five mindful practices', thereby
setting the course of Pure Land Buddhism as a Yogacara-Pure Land system of meditation
on Amida while emphasizing recitation of his Name to glorify his virtue.
The Third Master is T'an-luan (476-542) of China. At first he became a scholar of the
Madhyamika philosophy, but came to take refuge in Amida after he encountered the
Indian monk called Bodhiruci, who gave him Pure Land scriptures. Inheriting the two
major Mahayana schools, Madhyamika and Yogacara, T'an-luan wrote an extensive
commentary on Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land, which has played a vitally

38
important part in Shinran's systematization of the Shin teaching. He gave new dimensions
of meaning to Vasubandhu's system of Yogacara-Pure Land practice, explaining his ideas
in ontological, epistemological, and soteriological terms. His special emphasis on the
Other-Power, which enables us to attain birth in the Pure Land and realize Enlightenment,
was adopted and further developed by Shinran. T'an-luan also composed a verse, entitled
'The Verse in Praise of Amida Buddha', based on which Shinran praised Amida's virtue in
the Hymns on the Pure Land.
The Fourth Master Tao-ch'o (562-645) followed T'an-luan's teaching and developed it
further. His keen awareness of the age of the declining Dharma reinforced his sincere
devotion to Amida. He especially adhered to the teaching of the Contemplation Sutra, on
which he lectured more than two hundred times, and dedicated himself to Nembutsu
recitation. He is said to have repeated the Nembutsu seventy thousand times a day, and
almost incessantly bowed and offered incense before the statue of Amida. He encouraged
his followers to recite the Nembutsu, and advised them to count the number of recitations
with red beans and, later, with special rosaries. His Collection of Passages Concerning
Birth in the Pure Land is a systematic presentation of the Pure Land teaching centering
on the Nembutsu. In this work he divides Buddhist ways of salvation into two groups, the
Path of Sages and the Pure Land Path, and then expresses his view that, in the ages far
removed from Shakyamuni, Buddhists are unable to understand the Dharma correctly and
so their practices are bound to fall short of attaining their objectives. He confirms that the
only teaching practicable to those of the age of the declining Dharma is the Pure Land
Path.
Shan-tao, the Fifth Master (613-681), was Tao-ch'o's disciple, and was an ardent
practitioner of the Amida Meditation in accordance with the Pratyutpanna-samadhi Sutra
and the Contemplation Sutra. After he successfully visualized Amida and his Pure Land,
he depicted their glorious manifestations in paintings, and explained the method of
meditation and the theory behind it in his works. His 4-fascicle commentary on the
Contemplation Sutra in particular, became the fundamental text of the Pure Land Way for
succeeding generations.
Besides recommending the Amida Meditation, Shan-tao presents in his work a set of five
practices for the attainment of birth in the Pure Land: (1) chanting sutras, (2) meditating
on Amida and the Pure Land, (3) worshiping Amida, (4) reciting the Nembutsu, and (5)
praising Amida's virtue. The fourth is the most essential practice, and the rest are
subsidiary to it. He himself recited the Nembutsu diligently, and urged his followers to do
the same. When masters of other schools criticized the Nembutsu teaching, saying that
mere chanting of the Nembutsu was not enough to make one attain birth in the Pure
Land, he clarified that each utterance of the Nembutsu contains pure aspiration (Namu)
and meritorious practice (amidabutsu) and so it is the sufficient cause of birth in the Pure
Land. After Shan-tao the Nembutsu teaching flourished, and developed into a major
current in Chinese Buddhism.
The Sixth Master, Genshin (942-1017), was a Tendai monk on Mt. Hiei. He dedicated
himself to both meditative and non-meditative practices centering on Amida, and
systematized the Pure Land Way in his Collection of Essential Passages Concerning
Birth in the Pure Land. This work was celebrated even in China, where he was respected
as 'a small Shakyamuni'. Genshin begins with a detailed explanation of suffering in the

39
evil realms of samsara and of utmost pleasure and happiness in the Pure Land. His
realistic description of hell and the Pure Land created a universal tendency towards
aspiration for the Pure Land. Although he explains the Amida Meditation in full detail,
his ultimate objective was to recommend the Nembutsu, which can be practiced even by
ordinary people burdened with heavy evil karma.
The last of the Seven Masters, Honen (1133-1212), was Shinran's teacher and a Tendai
master. He was well known as a highly erudite scholar, but was unable to attain his own
salvation for a long time. He read all of the Buddhist scriptures over and over again, until
on the fifth occasion he came across Shan-tao's words, "The continual recitation of
Amida's Name with singleness of mind, whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying, is
called the Act of Right Assurance, because it accords with Amida's Vow." At this
moment, he realized Amida's saving power, and thus attained spiritual liberation. After
that he was entirely devoted to the Nembutsu, and taught it to men and women in all
walks of life.
At the request of the Lord Chancellor Fujiwara Kanezane, who was a devoted follower of
the Nembutsu practice, Honen composed the Collection of Passages Concerning the
Nembutsu of the Best-Selected Primal Vow. In this work he first proclaims the
independence of the Pure Land sect. Until Honen's times, the Nembutsu had been
practiced only as an auxiliary act in the Tendai and other schools. Now he established a
place for the Nembutsu by declaring the foundation of a new sect solely based on this
practice. In clarifying his standpoint, he presents what is known as 'the threefold
selection' of Buddhist teachings: (1) of the two kinds of teachings, the Path of Sages and
the Pure Land Path, one should leave the Path of Sages and enter the Pure Land Path; (2)
of the two kinds of practices, Mixed Acts and the Right Acts, one should abandon the
former and follow the Right Acts; and (3) of the five Right Acts (i.e., chanting sutras,
meditating on Amida and the Pure Land, worshipping, reciting the Nembutsu, and
praising Amida's virtue), one should take the fourth and set aside the rest. He confirms
that the Nembutsu is the Act of Right Assurance, that is, the cause of our birth in the Pure
Land, because it is the practice required by Amida's Primal Vow.
The above is an outline of the teachings of the Seven Masters. Although their ways of
presentation were different, they were the same in showing us that the primary objective
of Shakyamuni's mission in this world was to guide us to the Pure Land Path. In Shinran's
view, Shakyamuni appeared in India as an incarnation of Amida, the Eternal, and
Transcendent Buddha. The huge bulk of Shakyamuni's teachings preserved in various
Asian languages shows the depth and breadth of the Dharma. Some teachings may be
suitable for metaphysical contemplations and some others for training the mind for
meditative purposes. After expounding various methods of practice corresponding to the
different propensities of people, Shakyamuni summed them up in the Contemplation
Sutra.
In this sutra the Buddha presents both meditative and non-meditative practices, not only
to be performed by one's self-power, but to be followed through Amida's Power as well.
This sutra induces different types of practitioners to enter the Pure Land Way. Ordinary
Buddhist practices are primarily intended to bring about spiritual elevations leading to the
same enlightenment as Shakyamuni's in this world. Now the 'direction' and 'objective' of
those practices have been changed to the Pure Land. The devotees are urged to direct the

40
merit from their practices towards the Pure Land in order to attain birth there.
Hence, we see a complete change in the use of meditation. Ordinarily, meditation is
employed to calm one's mind, purify it, cultivate wisdom, and finally attain Nirvana. The
Pure Land meditation as taught in the Contemplation Sutra and the Pratyutpannasamadhi Sutra is the special concentration of mind on Amida and the Pure Land.
Concentration leads to visualization. When one has a vision of Amida and the Pure Land,
one's karmic defilements are removed, and so one's birth in the Pure Land is assured.
Throughout the process of meditation, Amida's Power is working. It is this Power that
enables the practitioner to accomplish the Amida meditation.
Explicitly, the Contemplation Sutra thus urges the meditative Nembutsu, but its ulterior
objective is to guide the practitioner to non-meditative Nembutsu, i.e., recitation of the
Name, which is fully explained in the section on the Nine Grades of Aspirants. It is stated
here that those who commit the gravest offenses can be born in the Pure Land by
repeating the Name even ten times. When such evil persons say the Nembutsu on their
deathbeds, a highly concentrated state of mind is spontaneously attained, in which they
receive Amida's compassionate saving Power. The meditative Nembutsu is suitable to
those with superior spiritual capacities, but non-meditative Nembutsu can be practiced
even by those who have committed the gravest offenses, and yet the result to be attained
is the same. We are once again reminded that even after successful accomplishment of the
meditative Nembutsu, Shan-tao kept reciting the Nembutsu throughout his life. His
Nembutsu, like Shinran's, must have gone beyond meditative and non-meditative
practices.
The Contemplation Sutra was expounded to Vaidehi, heroine of the tragedy in the royal
family of Magadha in India. She was a laywoman and had no special training in the
Buddhist practice, but was able to visualize Amida and the Pure Land by means of the
Buddha's power. The visualization of Amida gave rise to sincere devotion to him, which
must have been expressed as an invocation like 'Namo 'mitabhaya', which means 'I take
refuge in Amitabha'. It was a spontaneous expression of her unspeakable feeling of awe,
respect, gratitude and joy. It was a cry of the spirit freed from the bondage of karma and
delusions. For Vaidehi, therefore, the Nembutsu was not a practice of self-power; neither
was it so for the Seven Masters and Shinran.
The Smaller Sutra reveals that numerous Buddhas in the six directions praise Amida's
virtue and urge sentient beings to believe this teaching. The most important part of this
sutra is the recommendation to 'hold fast to Amida's Name' for one to seven days, that is,
single-minded practice of the Nembutsu, in order to be born in the Pure Land.
Concentration on the Name will induce a samadhi, in which one either visualizes Amida
or attains spiritual unity with him.
The Larger Sutra fully explains Amida's Vows, his Pure Land, and the way of salvation
for sentient beings. 'The King of the Vows', in Honen's phraseology, is the Eighteenth
Vow, which promises our attainment of birth in the Pure Land through the Nembutsu.
Needless to say, the majestic body of Amida and the glorious manifestations of the Pure
Land are doctrinally important in Shin Buddhism, but they are not meant to be considered
as 'objective' descriptions; they are indeed meant to awaken sincere faith and aspiration in
us. In this sense, the Eighteenth Vow is the center of the Larger Sutra to which the rest of
the Vows and the other parts of this sutra converge. By truly understanding and
appreciating this Vow, we can come into direct contact with Amida and reach

41
emancipation from the endless cycles of birth and death.
All the Buddhas' teachings have, in the final analysis, only one message to give us:
Amida's Dharma. Shakyamuni fully explained this Dharma in the three Pure Land sutras
and partly in many other sutras. His message, however, had to be rephrased and amplified
again and again so that it could be appropriately applied to changing circumstances and
also better understood by people of later generations. During the course of transmission
of the Dharma through the ages, many masters have played an important part in
presenting it in various ideological and social settings.
As we have seen above, the Seven Masters made particularly important contributions to
the development and dissemination of Amida's Dharma through their writings. In all the
Seven Masters, the Nembutsu was the central practice, which they themselves followed
and recommended to others. They were also deeply aware and appreciative of the Vows
behind the Nembutsu practice. Nagarjuna, who recommends recitation of the Name in the
Chapter on Easy Practice, presents the gist of the Eighteenth Vow in his own words as
follows (SSZ, I, 259):
If one is mindful of me, recites my name, and takes refuge
in me, he will instantly enter the State of Assurance and
subsequently attain the highest perfect Enlightenment.
Then he professes his devotion to Amida in verse form. Vasubandhu includes recitation of
the Name in his system of Five Mindful Practices, and expresses his sincere devotion to
Amida at the beginning of his Verses of Aspiration for Birth in the Pure Land (SSZ, I,
269):
World-Honored One, with one mind
I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
Shining throughout the Ten Directions,
And aspire to be born in his land.
Amida is here referred to as 'the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the
Ten Directions.' It is not difficult to see why Vasubandhu used this appellation. As he
actually visualized Amida, he must have been prompted to call him by a name which was
more descriptive of this Buddha than 'Amitabha.' Shinran was especially drawn to this
verse and read a deep meaning in it.
In the Verses of Aspiration for Birth in the Pure Land, Vasubandhu does not simply
describe the beautiful manifestations of the Pure Land and the happiness which one can
enjoy there. He also depicts how Amida's Vows are working. In the 19th stanza he says as
follows (SSZ, I, 270):
When I observe the Power of the Buddha's Vow,
I find that those who encounter it do not pass in vain;
They are enabled to gain quickly
The ocean of the treasure of merit.

42
According to Vasubandhu's own explanation of this verse, if Bodhisattvas of lower ranks
see Amida, they will, through the Power of his Vow, quickly attain higher stages and
realize the Dharma-body of ultimate equality. The Power of the Vow, which Vasubandhu
saw, was working on the Bodhisattvas in the Pure Land, but it can be perceived in every
aspect of Amida's activity - in his Light and Name which reach all sentient beings
throughout the universe. When we encounter the Power of the Vow through the Name, we
are instantly freed from the bondage of our own evil karma and find ourselves securely
embraced by it. Shinran, therefore, read this verse in the light of his experience and
describes it in his own words as follows:
Those who encounter the Power of the Primal Vow
Do not pass in vain;
They are filled with the ocean of the treasure of merit,
From which the muddy waters of evil passions are not kept
away.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 13)
T'an-luan was the first to use the term "the Other Power." In his Commentary on
Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land, he clarifies the working of the Vow-Power
everywhere. He explains the twenty-nine glorious aspects of the Pure Land, Amida, and
the Bodhisattvas dwelling there in terms of Vows, and concludes his Commentary with
quotations of the Eighteenth, Eleventh and Twenty-second Vows to show that anyone
who entrusts himself to the Power of the Vow can quickly attain Enlightenment. His
emphasis on the Other Power is also clearly seen in his outline of the Pure Land teaching
presented at the beginning of his Commentary (SSZ, I, 279):
The Path of Easy Practice is followed by aspiring to be
born in the Pure Land through faith in Amida Buddha and
attaining birth there by the Power of his Vows. In the Pure
Land we are sustained by the Buddha's Power and join
those Mahayana sages who are certain of attaining
Enlightenment.
Tao-ch'o faithfully followed T'an-luan's teaching and quoted extensively from his
Commentary in the Collection of Passages Concerning Birth in the Pure Land. While
fully aware of the working of the Power of the Vow, he goes to great pains to expounding
the Nembutsu Samadhi based on the Contemplation Sutra and other sutras. His reading of
the Eighteenth Vow is strongly influenced by the Contemplation Sutra section on "those
who attain birth in the lowest level of the lowest grade." (SSZ, I, 410):
If there are sentient beings who have committed evils all
through their lives but, at their death, sincerely and
continuously repeat my name even ten times, they will be
born in my land. If not, may I not attain perfect
Enlightenment.

43
The original text of the Eighteenth Vow does not specifically refer to those who have
committed the gravest offenses, who are rated as "the lowest level of the lowest grade,"
but Tao-ch'o's deep insight into the nature of his own self and others has revealed their
inevitable evildoings, which "arise like a storm or a tempest." His understanding,
therefore, is that "the sentient beings" mentioned in this Vow who are to be saved by
Amida are neither sages nor morally good persons, but those of the heaviest evil karma.
He also pays attention to "the great karmic power of [Amida's] Vows," which enables us
to be born in the Pure Land. He says (SSZ, I, 406):
The human and heavenly beings in the worlds of the ten
directions who wish to be born in my land all avail
themselves of the Great Karmic Power of the Vows of
Amida Tathagata as the strong cause of their birth there.
Amida's saving power works in perfect accord with the law of karma. We are bound by
the law of karma because we act against it through ignorance of it. The Great Karmic
Power originating in Amida's Vows breaks our ignorance and turns our evil karma into
pure merits.

(12) Nagarjuna (lines 49-60)

Shakyamuni, the Tathagata, while dwelling on Mount
Lanka,
Prophesied to the assembly of monks that in Southern India
A Great Being named Nagarjuna would appear in the world
And destroy all the wrong views on 'being' and 'non-being',
Thus expounding the unsurpassed teaching of Mahayana;
He would reach the Stage of Joy and attain birth in the
Land of Peace and Bliss.
He teaches that the difficult practices are toilsome like
traveling by land,
And urges us to believe that the Easy Practice is pleasant
like sailing on water.
When a thought of mindfulness of Amida's Original Vow
arises,
At that instant one spontaneously enters the Stage of
Assurance.
Repeating always the Name of the Tathagata,
One should seek to repay for one's indebtedness to his
Great Compassion.
Nagarjuna (c. 150-250), which literally means 'dragon-tree', is indisputably the greatest
master of Buddhism in history, to whom the major schools and sects, which developed in
India, China, Tibet, and Japan, attribute their respective origin. In Japan he has been

44
highly esteemed as 'the founder of the eight schools.' According to the Kegon tradition,
Nagarjuna visited the Dragon Palace, where he was shown three versions of the Grand
Sutra on the Inconceivable Emancipation: large, medium, and short. The first two
versions were so extensive that he brought back only the short text consisting of a
hundred thousand verses. This version, however, was short-lived. Its abridgement in
thirty-six thousand verses came to be used, and was transmitted to China, where it was
translated as the Garland Sutra in sixty fascicles.
In the lineage of the Dharma transmission from India to China used in Zen in particular to
establish the authenticity of the Zen tradition, Nagarjuna is the 13th patriarch.
Furthermore, according to Shingon, Nagarjuna opened an iron tower in South India
which had not been opened since the Buddha's Parinirvana, and there he met Vajrasattva
to whom Mahavairocana had revealed the esoteric teaching. After receiving a mystic
Abhiseka ritual and the two main sutras, Nagarjuna later transmitted the esoteric teaching
to Nagabodhi. Nagarjuna is thus looked upon as the third in the line of transmission in
Shingon esotericism.
In a more general way, Nagarjuna was one of the earliest exponents of Mahayana, and
was reputed to have founded the School of the Middle (Madhyamika). In his verses on
"The Middle", he expounds that all things are produced by causes and conditions and
hence are devoid of substantiality, that is, void. He negates all possible propositions
regarding existence and non-existence, and clarifies that the ultimate truth lies in the
Middle.
Nagarjuna was Brahmin by birth. In his early years he had already become well-versed in
the four Vedas and mastered other learnings. Later he converted to Buddhism. Having
received monastic precepts, he first learnt Hinayana teachings. Later he entered the
Himalayas, where he studied Mahayana scriptures. Travelling throughout the country, he
further studied other forms of Buddhism and also non-Buddhist philosophical thought.
Under the royal patronage of the Satavahana dynasty in Southern India, he was engaged
in propagating Mahayana. It is said that the kings built for him a cave monastery on
Black-bee Hill, where he spent his last years.
His biographies compiled in China and Tibet are full of mysterious anecdotes. According
to one source, he had learnt some magic when young. With his three friends, he used it to
conceal their bodies from sight. They entered the royal palace unseen and raped some
court-ladies. When suspicion of the invisible intruders arose, the king ordered the guards
to close all the gates and to lash about in the air with their swords. Thus his three friends
were killed, but Nagarjuna escaped unhurt. This incident prompted him to renounce the
world.
Several centuries earlier, Shakyamuni had already prophesied in the Lankavatara Sutra
("Sutra on the Buddha's Visit to Lanka") that Nagarjuna would appear in Southern India,
destroy all the wrong views on existence and non-existence, and thus promulgate the
Mahayana. Sure enough, he wrote works refuting both positive and negative propositions
regarding the nature of existence.
Our Master, the Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, wrote such
discourses
As Emancipation by Wisdom and Ten Bodhisattva-stages,

45
In which he glorified the Land in the Western Quarter
And urged us to practice the Nembutsu.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 1)
The Buddha Shakyamuni once prophesied,
"In Southern India a monk will appear,
Nagarjuna Bodhisattva by name, and destroy
Wrong views on existence and non-existence."
(
I
b
i
d
.
2
)
'Existence' and 'non-existence' are dualistic concepts which are delusory phantoms like
'flowers in the sky' seen by those with eye-diseases. Nagarjuna took great pains to wean
us from all kinds of dichotomous views. In the Verses on the Middle, he demonstrated in
logical terms that any relativistic statement regarding existence is fallacious. For
example, he negated the notion of 'going' by showing that there was, in the final analysis,
neither "goer" nor "going"; he even negated the 'existence' of a Tathagata. Nagarjuna's
theory of total negation formed the central concept of the School of the Middle, and his
two discourses and a discourse by his disciple Aryadeva became the fundamental texts of
the Sanron (lit. 'three discourses') school. This school thrived in China, and was
transmitted to Japan during the Nara period.
In employing his logical negativism, however, Nagarjuna did not remain at level of mere
language. Through his Mahayana experience of void-ness (shunyata) he had already
reached the transcendent realm beyond all verbal expressions and conceptual
understandings. Although he negated the existence of a Tathagata conceived in the
dichotomous mind, he positively stated the existence and activity of the Tathagata as it
really is. In his other works, such as the Commentary on the Sutra of Prajnaparamita and
the Commentary on the Chapter Ten Stages of the Garland Sutra, he explained in
affirmative terms the glorious virtues of Buddhas, including Amida. The latter
commentary is particularly relevant to Pure Land thought, because he presented in it the
method of visualizing Amida and attaining the Nembutsu Samadhi. He particularly
recommended practice of the samadhi called "all Buddhas' appearance" (Pratyutpanna).
According to the Sutra on the Samadhi of All Buddhas' Appearance, one can visualize
Amida and all other Buddhas by concentrating on Amida for one to seven days; even if
one cannot see Amida clearly, one can still see him in a dream. Successful visualization
enables the practitioner to be firmly settled in the Stage of Joy and of Non-retrogression.
Nagarjuna himself is said to have attained the Stage of Joy.

46
Our Master, Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, expounded
The supreme teaching of the Mahayana;
Having attained the Stage of Joy,
He solely recommended the practice of Nembutsu.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 3)
For all Mahayanists who have resolved to become Buddhas, their immediate concern is to
attain the Stage of Non-retrogression. Until they reach this stage, they are liable to fall
back to lower spiritual stages owing to their still imperfect wisdom and evil karmic
influence. When the practitioner visualizes Amida, he receives Amida's undefiled wisdom
and perfect merit.
The samadhi practice centering on Amida apparently enjoyed popularity in India and
Central Asian countries. It was also transmitted to China and eventually to Japan. It is a
well-known fact that Master Hui-yuan (334-416) formed the White Lotus Society and
practiced this form of Amida meditation on Mt. Lu. Later, Master Shan-tao followed this
method and succeeded in visualizing Amida.
By far the most important contribution made by Nagarjuna to Pure Land Buddhism was
his introduction of an "easy practice" leading to the Stage of Non-retrogression, which
consisted in reciting the names of Amida and other Buddhas and great Bodhisattvas. In
the 9th chapter of the Commentary on the Chapter Ten Stages of the Garland Sutra,
entitled "Easy Practice," he distinguishes two approaches to the Stage of Nonretrogression (SSZ, I, 254):
There are innumerable modes of entry to the Buddha's
teaching. Just as there are in the world difficult and easy
paths -- traveling on foot by land is full of hardship and
traveling in a boat on a sea-route is pleasant -- so it is
among the paths of the bodhisattvas. Some diligently exert
themselves in practices while others quickly enter Nonretrogression by an easy practice based on faith.
He then gives the names of many Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, saying that recitation of any
of those names ensures attainment of the Stage of Non-retrogression.
Mahasattva Nagarjuna appeared in the world and taught us
That there are two paths, Difficult Practice and Easy
Practice;
He then led us who are repeating the cycle of birth-anddeath
In Samsara to board the ship of Amida's Great Vow.
(Hymn on the Patriarchs 4)
When Nagarjuna recommended recitation of the name of a Buddha or a great Bodhisattva
as an easy and sure way of attaining the Stage of Non-retrogression, he did not mean by

47
this a mere repetitive verbal act, but an act of devotion with mind and body. Of all the
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas listed in the "Chapter on the Easy Practice," Nagarjuna
particularly professes his sincere faith in Amida. After presenting the names of a hundred
and seven Buddhas, which correspond well with those of the past Buddhas in the Sanskrit
text of the Larger Sutra, Nagarjuna goes on to praise Amida's virtue and express his
devotion to him. In this section he first presents the gist of Amida's Vow in the following
words (SSZ, I, 259):
If one thinks of me, recites my Name, and takes refuge in
me, one will instantly enter the Stage of Assurance and then
attain the highest perfect Enlightenment.
'The Stage of Assurance' is the same as 'the Stage of Non-retrogression'. Those who reach
this stage are assured of attaining Enlightenment. In the 32-stanza hymn which follows,
he glorifies Amida's virtue with reverential faith in accordance with the Larger Sutra
(SSZ, I, 260):
The Buddha of Infinite Light and Wisdom, whose body is
like a mountain of genuine gold,
I worship him with my body, speech and heart by joining
my hands and bowing down toward him. (1)
If anyone thinks of the Buddha's infinite power and merit,
He will instantly enter the Stage of Assurance; hence, I
always think of him. (4)
Those born in his land are free of attachment to 'self' and
'mine';
They do not produce discriminative thoughts; hence, I bow
down and worship him." (11)
If anyone, aspiring to become a Buddha, contemplates
Amida in his heart,
Amida will instantly manifest himself before him; hence, I
take refuge in him. (14)
If a man plants roots of goodness but entertains doubt, the
flower (he will be born into) will not bloom;
For those who have pure faith, flowers will bloom, and they
will see the Buddha. (18)
The Buddhas of the ten quarters praise this Buddha's merit
For various reasons. I now take refuge in him and worship
him. (19)
He is the most honored of all men and heavenly beings; all

48
gods kneel down and worship him,
With their crowns made of seven treasures touching his
feet.
Hence, I take refuge in him." (26)
All wise and holy men and multitudes of human and
heavenly beings
Together take refuge in him; hence, I, too, worship him.
(27)
Boarding the boat of Eightfold Noble Path, he ferries
people across the sea that is difficult to cross;
He crossed it himself and carries others across. I worship
the one who possesses unrestricted power. (28)
With whatever merit I have acquired in this and previous
lives,
I wish to be in the presence of the Buddha and attain eternal
purity of heart. (32)
May the supreme merit I have acquired by this meritorious
act
Be shared with all other sentient beings. (32)
Those who hear and receive the teaching
Of our Master, Bodhisattva Nagarjuna,
Should be mindful of the Primary Vow
And continually recite Amida's Name.
(Hymn on the Patriarchs 5)
It is clear from the above quotation that, in spite of his much reputed philosophical
approaches to ultimate truth, Nagarjuna's real concern was to entrust himself to Amida,
who delivers with boundless merit and power all sentient beings from the bondage of
karma and suffering. Shinran reverently followed his footsteps and quoted from his
discourse in the Kyogyoshinsho to clarify the essence of the Shin teaching. We are also
deeply indebted to Nagarjuna for his hymn in praise of Amida, entitled Twelve
Adorations, which has become a popular gatha for Shin Buddhists all over the world.
In keeping with his reputation as the founder of eight schools, Nagarjuna was well versed
in various Buddhist teachings, and also attained a high stage of spiritual progress toward
the Buddha's Enlightenment. He was especially renowned as the greatest authority on the
philosophy of Void-ness, but before anything else, he was an earnest follower and
exponent of the Bodhisattva Path. The theory of universal Void-ness, in fact, constitutes
an essential part of the practice of the Six Paramitas. Without removing attachment to all
that exists, including one's own self, through the realization of Void-ness, one cannot

49
effectively perform the Bodhisattva Practices. Dana, for example, should be an
unattached act of giving in three ways: there should not be any attachment to the donor,
the recipient or the gift. Such an attitude applies to all the other practices. When this
attachment is removed, one attains the pure wisdom of non-attachment. One who does so
is said to have reached the Stage of Joy. Only after the eradication of deep-rooted
attachment can one effectively proceed toward Enlightenment.
Under normal circumstances, a bodhisattva must perform various practices for a long
time, over many lives, to reach the Stage of Joy. While admitting this, Nagarjuna
proposed an easier way of approach, which guarantees quicker attainment of this spiritual
stage. In the Chapter on the Easy Practice he first points out three disadvantages in the
normal bodhisattva practices: (1) the practices one must perform are many, (2) the time
required is extremely long, and (3) there is a danger of falling into the pit of nihilism.
Nagarjuna especially cautions us against the danger of Hinayanistic nihilism, saying: "If
one falls into the state of Sravaka and pratyekabuddha, this is called the death of the
bodhisattva, for he loses all merit.... Even if one has fallen into hell, one will eventually
be able to reach Buddhahood; if one falls into the stage of the Two Vehicles, the path to
Buddhahood will be blocked forever." In his Commentary on the Sutra of
Prajnaparamita, Nagarjuna notes that many bodhisattvas were unable to reach
emancipation by various self-power practices but finally attained it by the Nembutsu
Samadhi.
He says in the Commentary on the Sutra of
Prajnaparamita,
"The Tathagata is the Supreme King of the Dharma
And Bodhisattvas are the retainers of the Dharma";
One should revere the World-Honored One.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 8)
All Bodhisattvas remarked,
"When we were in the causal stage of bodhisattva-hood,
We performed a myriad goods and various practices
For innumerable kalpas;
(
I
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9
)
But our attachments were difficult to remove
And so it was impossible to leave birth-and-death.

50
By practicing the Nembutsu Samadhi,
We destroyed karmic hindrances and attained
emancipation."
(
I
b
i
d
.
1
0
)
The Easy Practice of the Nembutsu ensures attainment of the Stage of Joy and,
consequently, of Buddhahood. As quoted before, "If anyone thinks of the Buddha's
infinite power and merit, he will instantly enter the Stage of Assurance." Recitation of the
Buddha's Name while being mindful of and entrusting in his power is the cause of
instantaneous attainment of the Stage of Non-retrogression. It should be noted here that
even though one's effort is bound to be involved in the Nembutsu practice, it is soon
absorbed in the Buddha's all-embracing power, and thus one spontaneously enters the
Stage of Assurance. By spontaneously Shinran means 'through the power of Amida's
Vow,' which has been working on us since time immemorial and will continue to work on
all sentient beings until they are all emancipated from Samsara. After we are awakened to
Amida's power, what remains in our minds is a feeling of gratitude, a desire to repay his
Great Compassion, and a joy of participating in the eternal altruistic activity.
All who wish to attain quickly
The Stage of Non-retrogression
Should reverently and resolutely
Recite the Name of Amida Buddha.
(
I
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d
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6
)
The painful sea of birth-and-death has no bounds,
Where we have been sunk from the beginningless past.

51
The ship of Amida's Great Vow is the only means
To carry us across safely to the Other Shore.
(
I
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7
)

(13) Vasubandhu (lines 61-72)

The Bodhisattva Vasubandhu composed a discourse, in
which
He takes refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light;
In accordance with the sutras he reveals the true merits,
And clarifies that the Great Vow enables us to leap over
Samsara crosswise.
He revealed One Mind in order to emancipate multitudes of
beings
Through Amida's transference of merits by the Power of his
Primal Original Vow.
Upon entering the Great Treasure-Ocean of Merits,
One will unfailingly join the Great Assemblage.
Upon reaching the World of Lotus-store,
One will realize True Suchness and attain Dharma-Body.
Then, playing in the forests of evil passions, one will
display supernatural powers;
That is, one will enter Samsaric states and manifest
accommodative and transformed bodies to save beings.
Mahayana to which the Jodoshinshu belongs had two major currents in India: (1) School
of the Middle (Madhyamika) originated by Nagarjuna during the 2nd and 3rd centuries
and (2) School of Consciousness-Only (Yogacara) founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu in
the 4th century. Nagarjuna negated all modes of existence conceived and perceived by
unenlightened beings, thereby presenting transcendent reality which is above the
dichotomous views of 'existence' and 'non-existence.' He recognized Amida as
transcendent reality -- not as a lifeless abstract principle, but as a Person possessed of
boundless Wisdom and compassion.
The School of Consciousness-Only teaches how to meditate on phenomena in relation to
one's consciousness and reach Enlightenment through realization of the intrinsic unity

52
between the subjective self and environmental manifestations. Vasubandhu applied this
Yogacara meditation to the exploration of Amida and his Pure Land. The object of
meditation has been shifted from the worldly phenomena and their corresponding
perceptive faculties to the phenomena in the transcendent realm, known as the Pure Land,
and the Mind, which has produced it, that is, Amida's Mind of Compassionate Vow.
Vasubandhu, the second master of Shin Buddhism, was born in Purusapura, the capital of
Gandhara, in Northern India. He was the second son of Kaushika, a Brahmin, and his
brother, Asanga, was a great master of Buddhism, celebrated as one of the founders of the
Yogacara School. Tradition has it that Asanga, while in meditation, used to visit the
Tushita Heaven and learnt the teachings of Yogacara from Maitreya Bodhisattva.
Vasubandhu's younger brother, Vilincivatsa, belonged to the Sarvastivada School of
Hinayana and was said to have reached Arhatship.
Vasubandhu was first ordained as a monk of the Sarvastivada School, and became wellversed in the Abhidharma philosophy which centered around analyses of physical and
mental elements. Later he moved to Ayodhya, where he enjoyed the patronage from King
Vikramaditya and his son, Baladitya. He systematized the doctrine of Abhidharma, and
presented its essentials in more than 600 verses, which, together with his own
commentary on them, are known as Abhidharma-kosha (Discourse on the repository of
Abhidharma Discussions). He thus became well-known as an Abhidharma master. Later,
under the influence of Asanga, he converted to Mahayana. While he was a Hinayana
master, he abused Mahayana. When he realized the profound truth of Mahayana, he
deeply repented of the evil he had done by this abuse of Mahayana and wanted to cut out
his tongue. Asanga admonished him, "Why don't you now use your tongue to expound
Mahayana?" Since then Vasubandhu energetically propagated Mahayana by writing
Yogacara discourses and commentaries. He especially systematized the doctrine of
Consciousness-Only. His treatises explaining it laid the foundation of the Hosso school,
which thrived in China and Japan.
Vasubandhu's contribution to the development of the Pure Land thought is beyond
measure. He composed the Hymn of Aspiration for Birth: A Discourse on the Amitayus
Sutra, in which he presented the theory and practice centering around contemplation of
Amida, his Pure Land and the Bodhisattvas dwelling there. In the 24-stanza hymn which
forms the main part of this discourse, he first addresses Shakyamuni to profess his
devotion to Amida Buddha (SSZ, I, 269):
O World-Honored One, with singleness of mind,
I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
Shining throughout the Ten Directions,
And aspire to be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss.
Shinran paid special attention to this opening stanza. First of all, he takes 'singleness of
mind' as referring to the Other-Power Faith.
Single-hearted trust in Amida is awakened by his Power, not by the aspirant's intellectual
understanding or emotional feeling. There are two ways of perceiving Amida's Power: (1)
through visualization of Amida and his Land of Bliss and (2) through hearing and
concentrating on his Name. Like other Mahayana masters in those days, Vasubandhu was
capable of sophisticated meditation, through which he visualized Amida and the Pure

53
Land. He perceived Amida as the Buddha of transcendent Light shining everywhere
without hindrance. Amida's Light is the Light of Wisdom and Compassion, and so one
who beholds Amida is freed from the darkness of spiritual ignorance and selfcenteredness and is assured of birth in the Land of Nirvanic Bliss.
With the guidance of the Pure Land sutras, Vasubandhu described his experience of
visualization in the Hymn of Aspiration for Birth. The hymn and the commentary he
added to it are popularly called 'the Discourse on the Pure Land.' Honen especially
valued this work and included it in 'the four texts which directly expound the Pure Land
teaching'(the other three are the Three Sutras). Following him, Shinran quotes
Vasubandhu frequently in his works, often in conjunction with T'an-luan's commentary
on the discourse.
In describing the Pure Land and discussing relevant doctrinal points, Vasubandhu
followed the Pure Land sutras, presumably the Larger Sutra in particular, which present
Amida's merit and virtue in full detail. 'The true merits' which Vasubandhu reveals in the
discourse are the result of Dharmakara's Vows and Practices. By performing various
bodhisattva practices of supra-mundane good, Dharmakara accumulated a vast stock of
pure merits, which, on his attainment of Buddhahood, are exhibited as the glorious
physical and environmental manifestations. All his merits are also contained in his Name,
and so anyone who hears and recites it with sincere devotion is endowed with the
supreme merits.
Vasubandhu's description of his experience is threefold, and each division has various
aspects: (1) the Pure Land (17 aspects), (2) Amida's physical manifestation (8 aspects),
and (3) the Bodhisattvas dwelling in the Pure Land (4 aspects). The following is an
outline of the twenty-nine aspects:
[I] The Pure Land
(1) The Pure Land is the realm of purity above various
states of existence in Samsara, which are defiled and
delusory.
(2) The Pure Land is vast and boundless like empty space.
(3) It has originated from Great Compassion and supramundane goodness.
(4) It is suffused with pure light.
(5) It is full of exquisite adornments.
(6) Its brilliant light illumines the whole world.
(7) Jeweled ornaments produce delightful sensations to
those who touch them.
(8) Jeweled flowers fill the ponds; there are majestic towers
and brilliant trees; and decorative nets hang in the sky.
(9) Flowers and ornamental robes shower from the sky.
(10) The Buddha's wisdom is like the sun; it dispels the
darkness of the world.
(11) The sacred Name, which enlightens living beings, is
heard throughout the ten quarters.
(12) Amida presides over and sustains the land.
(13) Bodhisattvas are born miraculously from the flower of

54
Amida's Enlightenment.
(14) They always enjoy the Buddha-dharma and dwell in
meditation.
(15) They are free of afflictions and always enjoy
happiness.
(16) The Pure Land is the realm of Mahayana good, and
those born there are free of mental and physical handicaps
and imperfections.
(17) All their aspirations are fulfilled.
The Pure Land, which Vasubandhu visualized, is a transcendent realm, beyond time and
space, which only Buddhas can fully perceive.
The glorious adornments of the Pure Land of Peace and
Provision
Can be known only through the wisdom of the Buddhas.
The land is infinite like space,
Vast and without bounds.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 12)
Vasubandhu next discerns the following eight aspects of Amida's glorious qualities and
manifestations:
[2] Amida Buddha
(1) His lotus seat is adorned with numerous treasures.
(2) His majestic appearance is beyond compare.
(3) His wonderful voice is heard throughout the ten
quarters.
(4) He has no thought of discrimination.
(5) Heavenly and human beings in the Pure Land are born
out of his pure wisdom.
(6) His sovereign power is unsurpassed.
(7) He is worshipped by all beings.
(8) The Power of his Vow enables those who encounter it to
gain the supreme merits.
Those born in the Pure Land attain Mahayana enlightenment and, as bodhisattvas,
manifest all kinds of meritorious activity for the sake of suffering beings. Vasubandhu
distinguishes the following four aspects of their activity:
[3] Bodhisattvas
(1) Without moving their bodies, they can manifest various
forms throughout the ten quarters and display Buddhist
activities.
(2) In an instant, they can simultaneously visit all the

55
Buddha-lands throughout the ten quarters to edify sentient
beings and remove their suffering.
(3) They can illuminate all the Buddhas' teaching
assemblies and make offerings to them without
discriminative thought.
(4) They can visit any land where the Three Treasures do
not exist to spread the Buddha-dharma like Buddhas.
Upon reaching the Pure Land, we shall fully partake of Amida's boundless merits and
virtues and, as bodhisattvas, join his universal acts of salvation.
The holy sages arising from within the Tathagata's pure
flower
Are born transformed from the Flower of Enlightenment;
All the aspirations of sentient beings
Are thus completely and quickly fulfilled.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 14)
The holy sages with the resolute mind in the forms of gods
and humans
Arise from the oceanic Wisdom of the Universal Vow;
The virtues of their minds are pure and undefiled,
Free of discriminative thoughts like space.
(
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5
)
According to the Yogacara teaching, of which Vasubandhu and his brother, Asanga, were
the greatest authorities, the length of time normally required of a practitioner to attain
Enlightenment is "three asamkhya kalpas" (three incalculable eons). During such a long
time one must continuously perform various meritorious practices over many lives. Since
in the Yogacara all phenomenal manifestations and the noumenal principle are conceived
in terms of 'consciousness', theoretically speaking, Enlightenment is none other than
realization of one's true consciousness. The actual practice of meditation is of two kinds:
concentration (shamatha) and contemplation (vipashyana). By concentrating one's
thought on a specific object of high spiritual value, one's mind is purified and freed of
evil passions. Next, by contemplating the object with deep insight, one gains spiritual

56
benefit.
When Vasubandhu applied this Yogacara meditation to Pure Land Buddhism, he carefully
included 'concentration' and 'contemplation' in his system of practice. He devised the
Yogacara-Pure Land system, called the 'five mindful practices', which are as follows: (1)
worshipping Amida, (2) praising him as 'the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining
throughout the Ten Directions', (3) aspiring to be born in the Pure Land, (4)
contemplating the Pure Land, Amida and the Bodhisattvas, and (5) transferring the merit
of practice to other beings.
The first three mindful practices are shown in the first stanza of the Verses of Aspiration
for Birth:
I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
Shining throughout the Ten Directions,
And aspire to be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss.
'I take refuge' is the act of worshipping; needless to say, the mental attitude of devotion is
essential in worshipping. The act of glorifying Amida is shown by calling him by the
name which best expresses his supreme merit and virtue, namely, 'the Tathagata of
Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Quarters.'
The third mindful practice is aspiration for birth in the Pure Land. Vasubandhu related
this to the shamatha practice, as he explains in the Commentary section (SSZ, I, 271):
"How does one aspire (to the Pure Land)? One constantly resolves, and fixing one's
thought on eventual attainment of birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss, one wishes to
practice shamatha in accordance with the truth." Originally, shamatha is meant to pacify
the mind by stopping it from taking external objects. In the Yogacara-Pure Land system,
shamatha is practiced towards the Pure Land and is accompanied by a strong wish to be
born there. As the practitioner concentrates on it, worldly desires, which are defiled by
self-attachment gradually, subside, and evil passions and wrong views attending them are
removed. All physical and mental acts now converge on this pure aspiration, and so the
karmic energy required for birth in the Pure Land gains power. Speaking from Amida's
side, the aspiration for birth in the Pure Land is the reflection of Amida's wish to bring
sentient beings there, and the merits and karmic power required for birth are provided by
Amida himself. "Shamatha in accordance with the truth" means the true shamatha
practice, which is free of all defilements and accords with True Suchness; such a practice
is possible only when one is in perfect accord with Amida's Vow and its Power.
The fourth mindful practice is vipashyana, which is contemplation of the twenty-nine
aspects of glorious merits, namely, seventeen aspects of the Pure Land, eight aspects of
Amida, and four aspects of Bodhisattvas. By contemplating them, the practitioner
perceives Amida's merits and the Power of his Vow, and is assured of his birth in the Pure
Land.
Vasubandhu especially mentions the Power of the Vow in the eighth aspect of Amida's
virtue (SSZ, I, 270):
When I contemplate the Power of the Buddha's Primal
Vow,

57
I see that those who encounter it never pass in vain;
It enables them to gain quickly the supreme merits .
Speaking in terms of the Vow, all that Amida attained on his realization of Buddhahood
was due to the Vows, which he had made when he was a bodhisattva. The Twelfth Vow
was the cause of Amida's Infinite Light (Amitabha), the Thirteenth was the cause of his
Infinite Life (Amitayus), and by extension these two vows were also the cause of the Pure
Land of Immeasurable Light and Life. The Eighteenth Vow of Shinjin and Nembutsu is
the most concrete expression of Amida's wish to save all beings in delusion and suffering.
The Vow of universal salvation, as the Eighteenth Vow may be called, having been
fulfilled, the most effective way of salvation has become available for us. This is the Easy
Way of emancipation through the Name. The Name contains "all the elements of moral
good and all the roots of virtue" and is "the treasure-sea of the merits of True Suchness"
(Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Practice). Amida's supreme merits, which are in accord
with the ultimate truth and reality, are transferred to those who receive and recite the
Name with the heart of absolute trust in him. To encounter the Power of the Vow,
therefore, means to hear and receive the Name and to attain the boundless pure merits.
Shinran is grateful to Vasubandhu for his compassionate teaching:
Shakyamuni's teachings are numerous,
But the Bodhisattva Vasubandhu compassionately urged us,
Who are possessed of evil passions,
To take refuge in Amida's Universal Vow.
(Hymn on the Patriarchs 11)
The last of the Five Mindful Practices is merit-transference; concerning this, Vasubandhu
states in the last stanza of his Verses of Aspiration for Birth (SSZ, I, 270):
I have written this discourse and hymn
With the wish to see Amida Buddha
And, together with all sentient beings,
Be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss.
It was Vasubandhu's fervent wish to share the merits acquired with other beings in order
to attain birth in the Pure Land together.
At the beginning of the Verses of Aspiration for Birth, Vasubandhu expressed his singleminded devotion to Amida as "One Mind." One Mind is complete trust in Amida, and is
itself awakened by his saving power. Emancipation from karmic bondage is very difficult
to attain through one's own power, but easy if one avails oneself of Amida's Power. This
Power spontaneously carries the devotee to the Pure Land. Consider Shinran's praise of it
in his hymn on Vasubandhu:
Vasubandhu, the author of the Discourse, took refuge
With One Mind in the Buddha of Unhindered Light;

58
Having entrusted to the Power of the Primal Vow,
One reaches the Land of Reward, so he says.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 16)
The strong karmic Power engendered by the Primal Vow has produced the Pure Land,
maintains it everlastingly, and brings anyone who puts absolute trust in it to be born
there. Shinjin, or absolute trust, is here expressed as One Mind. Shinran's penetrating eye
saw the internal relationship between One Mind and the three aspects of Faith in the
Eighteenth Vow, namely, Sincere Mind, Serene Faith and Desire for Birth. In fully
discussing this problem in the Kyogyoshinsho, Chap. on True Faith, he begins with the
following question and answer (SSZ, II, 59):
Question: In the Original Vow, the Tathagata already made
the Vow of Sincere Mind, Joyful Faith and Desire for Birth.
For what reason, does the author of the Discourse profess
his faith as 'One Mind'?
Answer: In order to make us, ignorant beings, understand
better. Although Amida Tathagata made the Vow of Three
Minds, the true cause of Nirvana is Faith alone. For this
reason, the author of the Discourse made the three into one.
In a hymn, Shinran further demonstrates:
Faith is One Mind;
One Mind is the Diamond-like Mind;
The Diamond-like Mind is the Bodhi-Mind;
This mind is given us by the Other-Power.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 19)
The undivided One Mind constitutes the cause of Enlightenment. Since it is the BodhiMind, it has two aspects:
To take refuge with One Mind in the Buddha
Of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Quarters
Is the mind aspiring to become Buddha;
So says Vasubandhu, the Master of Discourse.
(
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1
7
)
The mind aspiring to become Buddha
Is the mind seeking to save sentient beings;
The mind that seeks to save sentient beings
Is True Faith endowed by Amida's Compassion.
(
I
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8
)
Vasubandhu's Pure Land system has two aspects: (1) causal practices and (2) resultant
states. The Five Mindful Practices are performed in this world, and each of them brings
about its result in the Pure Land. The correspondence between the five causal practices
and the five resultant states can be shown in the following diagram:
Cause ...................Result
1. Worship ..................... Approach
2. Praise ........................ Great Assemblage
3. Aspiration .................. Residence
4. Contemplation ........... Inner Chamber
5. Merit-transference ... Playing in the Garden
The five resultant states are shown by the analogy of gradual access to the inner chamber
of a house; after reaching it, one comes out in the garden to play. The Great Assemblage
is the Assemblage of innumerable Bodhisattvas in the Pure Land. Those born there all
become Bodhisattvas and as such participate in the endless Buddhist activity.
If the aspirants are led to entrust themselves to Amida and are wholly encompassed by his
Wisdom, Compassion and Power, their birth in the Pure Land is the natural outcome.
Amida's land, or sphere of activity, is called by various names: Land of Utmost Bliss
(gokuraku), Land of Peace and Provision (annyo), Pure Realm (josetsu) and Pure Land
(Jodo). Here it is called "the World of Lotus-store" (rengezo sekai). This term was used
by Vasubandhu himself in explaining the fruition of the third Mindful Practice (SSZ, I,
277):

60
If one single-mindedly aspires to be born there [in the Pure
Land] and practices Shamatha, the Samadhi of Tranquility,
one will reach the World of Lotus-store. This is called the
entry into the Third Gate.
The term 'World of Lotus-store' is not found in the Pure Land sutras, but occurs in the
Garland Sutra, where it refers to the land of Vairocana, the Cosmic Buddha. This land
has appeared from within a huge lotus-flower that grows in the Sea of Perfume, and
consists of twenty layers, each surrounded by innumerable worlds. Another sutra, entitled
"Brahma-net," describes this lotus-flower in detail: Vairocana sits on the lotus-dais in the
center; on each of the thousand petals there are ten billion Mount Sumerus. He manifests
a thousand transformed bodies of Shakyamuni, each dwelling on each petal; each Buddha
body of Shakyamuni, surrounded by ten billion Bodhisattva bodies of Shakyamuni,
preaches the Dharma under the Bodhi-tree.
Vairocana is the central Buddha in the Garland Sutra and is widely recognized as the
highest Buddha in the major Mahayana schools. He is a Sambhogakaya Buddha in the
Kegon sect, and a Dharmakaya Buddha in the Tendai sect. It is generally thought that
Vairocana is the original body of Shakyamuni and is superior to Amida. Both Vasubandhu
and Shinran, while recognizing the supreme Buddhahood of Vairocana, identified his land
with Amida's, because all Buddhas share the same essential body of Dharmakaya and
their pure lands are the same transcendent realm of True Suchness.
Upon reaching the Pure Land, we will realize Enlightenment and attain the same
Dharmakaya as Amida's. Dharmakaya is the highest personality, unsurpassed and all
embracing. It is the fountainhead of all Buddhist activities. We read in Shinran's
Kyogyoshinsho, chapter on True Enlightenment (SSZ, II, 103):
If ordinary persons full of evil passions and multitudinous
beings defiled by karmic evils and bound to Samsara, attain
Faith (shinjin) and Practice (Nembutsu) for birth in the
Pure Land, they instantly join the group of Mahayanists
assured of Nirvana. Since they reside among them, they
will unfailingly reach Extinction; Extinction is Eternal
Bliss; Eternal Bliss is Ultimate Tranquility; Ultimate
Tranquility is the unsurpassed Nirvana; the unsurpassed
Nirvana is the unconditioned Dharmakaya; the
unconditioned Dharmakaya is True Aspect; True Aspect is
Dharma-nature; Dharma-nature is True Suchness; True
Suchness is Oneness. Amida Tathagata has appeared from
Suchness, and manifests various forms of recompensed,
accommodative, and transformed bodies.
If one attains the highest wisdom (Bodhi, Prajna) and realizes with it the ultimate reality
(True Suchness, etc.), Great Compassion for all living beings is spontaneously awakened
in the mind. Shinran ends his hymns on Vasubandhu with the following:

61
Upon reaching the Land of Recompense,
One realizes the unsurpassed Nirvana
And then awakens Great Compassion;
This is due to Amida's Merit-transference.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 20)

(14) T'an-luan (lines 73-84)

Master T'an-luan was venerated by the King of Liang;
Facing toward his place, the king worshipped him as a
Bodhisattva.
When Bodhiruci, the Tripitaka master, gave him a Pure
Land scripture,
T'an-luan burned his Taoist texts and took refuge in the
Land of Bliss.
He wrote a commentary on the Bodhisattva Vasubandhu's
discourse, in which he reveals that
Both the cause and the effect of our birth in the Land of
Recompense come from Amida's Vows;
The karmic energy for our birth and returning to this world
originates from the Other Power.
The cause of attaining the Stage of Right Assurance is
solely Faith.
When Faith is awakened in the mind of a deluded and
defiled ordinary person,
He is made aware that birth-and-death is Nirvana.
After he unfailingly reaches the Land of Infinite Light,
He will save sentient beings everywhere, so says T'an-luan.
Buddhism reached China through Central Asia in the early centuries of our common era.
According to tradition, the oldest Chinese translation of the Larger Sutra had already
been produced by Lokaksema in the Later Han dynasty, from 147 to 186, followed by the
second translation in the 3rd century. The one held as the authentic text in the Chinese
and Japanese Pure Land schools has been traditionally ascribed to Samghavarman in the
middle of the 3rd century, but was presumably produced jointly by Buddhabhadra and
Pao-yun in 421. This was followed by two more translations, one in the 8th and the other
in the 10th century. Besides those five extant versions, the Larger Sutra is said to have
been translated seven more times. Although this record is based on incorrect entries in the
sutra-catalogs and so cannot be taken to be wholly true, it is undeniable that this sutra
enjoyed great popularity in China as it certainly did in India.
Chinese Buddhism entered a new epoch around the 5th century; Kumarajiva from
Kuccha translated the Prajna-paramita Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Smaller Sutra, and the

62
important Madhyamika literature by Nagarjuna. The theory of emptiness became popular
and also Pure Land Buddhism came to be practiced by eminent monks. It is a well-known
fact that the master Hui-yuan (334-416) founded the White Lotus Society on Mt. Lu to
practice the Pratyutpanna Samadhi which centered on Amida Buddha. By the time T'anluan (476-542) appeared, the Contemplation Sutra had been translated by Kalayashas.
The time was ripe for establishment of the Pure Land system firmly based on the
Mahayana philosophy and in accord with the Buddha's true intention. Such a system of
theory and practice centering on Amida was to be followed by ordinary people as well as
scholarly monks.
T'an-luan was born in the present Shan-si Province, north China, and entered the priestly
life at the age of fifteen. He soon distinguished himself in the Madhyamika doctrine of
the Four-discourse school. Later, when he became interested in the Great Collection
Sutra and wished to write a commentary on it, he became ill. He then turned to Taoism
for health and longevity, and went to see T'ao Hung-ching (452-536), the greatest Taoist
authority of the time. T'an-luan was given Taoist scriptures in 10 scrolls, but on his way
back, he met Bodhiruci from India at Lo-yang, the capital of China. The Indian monk,
who was a great Tripitaka master, admonished him that even if one gained longevity, he
would still be bound to Samsara, and that the Buddha-Dharma was the true way to eternal
life. So saying, he gave T'an-luan a Pure Land scripture, which was believed to be the
Contemplation Sutra or Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land or both. According to
tradition, T'an-luan put both the Buddhist and Taoist texts in the fire to see which would
survive. Sure enough, the Buddhist text was not burnt, and so he took refuge in it. Later
in 531, Bodhiruci produced a translation of the Discourse on the Pure Land, on which
T'an-luan wrote an extensive commentary.
Our Master, T'an-luan, accepted
Bodhiruci's teaching;
He burnt Taoist texts which he had acquired
And deeply took refuge in the Pure Land Way.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 21)
Setting aside his lectures on the Four Discourses,
He expounded the teaching of the Other-Power of the
Primal Vow;
He led ordinary, unenlightened beings burdened with
karmic bonds
To enter the gate of Nirvana.
(
I
b
i
d
.

63

2
2
)
The king of Liang, Wu-t'i (reigned from 502 to 549), especially venerated T'an-luan and
always paid homage to him. At the request of the king of Eastern Wei, Hsiao-ching-t'i
(reigned from 534 to 550), T'an-luan dwelt at Great Cliff Temple in Shan-si. The king
also honored him with the title of 'Divine Phoenix.' Later, he moved to Hsuan-chung
Temple in Fen-chou. The place where he dwelt came to be known as the 'Cliff of Master
Phoenix (Luan).'
The King of Liang, Hsiao-yen,
Always facing toward the place
Where T'an-luan, our Master, lived,
Worshiped him as 'Bodhisattva Phoenix'.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
4
)
The King of Wei venerated T'an-luan
And honored him with the title of 'Divine Phoenix';
And so the place where he lived
Was called 'Cliff of Master Phoenix
.
(
I
b
i
d
.
2
7
)

64
T'an-luan's Commentary on the Discourse on the Pure Land not only explains technical
terms and unfamiliar words which appear in Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land
but also reveals the full metaphysical and soteriological implications of important
concepts. As the Discourse is composed of two parts, hymn and explanation, the
Commentary is also divided into two parts: (1) exposition of the hymn and (2) exposition
of the explanatory section. At the outset of the Commentary, the author quotes
Nagarjuna's Chapter on Easy Practice to show that there are two ways of attaining the
Stage of Non-retrogression: the Path of Difficult Practice and (2) the Path of Easy
Practice. T'an-luan's additional explanation of the reason why it is difficult to attain the
Stage of Non-retrogression at the time when no Buddha lives in the world is as follows:
(1) Non-Buddhist ways of doing what seems to be good are at variance with the
bodhisattva's practice; (2) the Hinayanistic pursuit of self-benefit obstructs the
bodhisattva's acts of great compassion; (3) evildoers, who have no regard for
consequences, destroy the meritorious virtue that accrues from the practices of others; (4)
the results of good deeds based on deluded thinking distract the sacred practices; and (5)
relying solely on one's own power, one misses the support of Other Power.
First, the superficial, pretentious good, to which people are easily attracted, is a hindrance
to the Bodhisattva Path. Second, pursuit of self-benefit is easy to understand and is
popularly practiced; and so the bodhisattva's acts of great compassion is generally
ignored. Third, evildoers who reject the law of karma break the acts of virtue. Fourth, the
reward of birth in a heavenly state appears more attractive than Nirvana which the
bodhisattva's practices are expected to lead to. Lastly, one habitually relies on one's own
power to attain salvation, and hardly realizes that Amida's Power is available. T'an-luan
was the first to use the term 'Other Power,' which became the central theme in Shinran's
system of soteriology. He expresses his gratitude to T'an-luan in the Hymns on the Seven
Patriarchs as follows:
If T'an-luan had not expounded
The teaching of the Bodhisattva Vasubandhu,
How could we realize the Practice and Faith
Endowed by Amida's great virtuous Power.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 31)
T'an-luan's exposition includes answers to the many questions which we still ask today.
For example, in the opening verse of the Hymn, Vasubandhu professes his faith in Amida
as follows (SSZ. I, 269):
O World-Honored One, with singleness of mind,
I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
Shining throughout the Ten Directions,
And aspire to be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss.
In commenting on this verse, T'an-luan raises a question (SSZ. I, 282):

65
'Self' is non-existent in Buddhism; for what reason is 'I'
mentioned here?
His answer is:
Generally there are three cases in which 'I' is used: (1)
when a person has a wrong view (that a permanent self
exists in an individual); (2) when one speaks of oneself
with self-conceit; and (3) in ordinary parlance (in which a
Buddhist sage teaches others by distinguishing himself
from them). When the Bodhisattva Vasubandhu said 'I,' he
simply referred to himself simply in ordinary parlance. He
did not use it with a wrong view or with self-conceit.
T'an-luan does not simply explain difficult terms and concepts. He often raises questions
concerning soteriological problems and gives adequate answers, which are extremely
useful for our understanding of Amida's salvation. After explaining the reason why
calling the Name as 'the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten
Quarters' is the 'gate of praise,' T'an-luan asks this question (SSZ. I, 283):
You say that Amida's light is boundless, shining on all the
worlds in the ten quarters without hindrance. Why is it that
some people in this world are not illumined by his light?
He answers this question by saying:
The hindrance lies with living beings; it is not that the light
is liable to hindrance. It is like the sunlight, which shines
throughout the four continents. The blind do not see it, but
it does not mean that sunlight is not universally present. It
is also like dense clouds that bring pouring rain. A hard
stone is not saturated with rainwater, but it does not follow
that rain does not penetrate things.
Those who have not yet realized Amida's 'here-now' salvation often ask, "Why doesn't
Amida save me? If he is really a Buddha of Unhindered Light, his Light should have
reached me a long time ago." Their question is leveled against Amida as if to accuse him
of neglecting his duties. T'an-luan would answer them, "You are to blame. You have been
rejecting his salvation. His Light is here but you do not see it." His kind admonition
would lead them to awareness of Amida's boundless Light, which has been shining, on
them from the very beginning.
According to Vasubandhu, calling the Name is glorifying Amida's virtues. Recitation of
the Name is part of Yogacara-Pure Land practice leading to unity with Amida. T'an-luan
explains that the Name is capable of dissipating the darkness of the minds of sentient
beings and fulfill their spiritual aspirations. Shinran accepts this and praises the
wonderful power of the Name in a hymn as follows:

66
The Name of the Tathagata of Unhindered Light
And his Light which embodies Wisdom
Destroy the darkness of the long night of ignorance
And fulfill the aspirations of sentient beings.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 47)

T'an-luan then asks a practical question, "Even if you call the Name and remember
Amida, you may still have darkness of mind. Why?" He says that it is because "your
practice is not in accord with truth and the connotation of the Name." This means that
calling the Name in harmony with the essential nature and working of Amida is effective
but the recitation based on the practitioners delusory thinking or reasoning does not yield
spiritual benefit. Recitation of the Name is, therefore, not so much a verbal practice as a
mental act. Analyzing the state of mind, which is incongruous with the Way, T'an-luan
shows three characteristics: (1) lacking sincerity, (2) lacking single-mindedness, and (3)
lacking continuity. His explanation of inadequate faith is reproduced by Shinran in his
hymns as follows:
Concerning the practice, which is not in accord with the
Way,
Master T'an-luan explains:
First, one's faith is not sincere;
For it appears to exist at times, and not to exist at other
times.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 48)
Second, one's faith is not single-minded;
For it lacks decisiveness.
Third, one's faith does not continue without interruption;
For other thoughts arise and interrupt it.
(
I
b
i
d
.
4
9
)

67
Followers should remember that
These three aspects of false faith are mutually related;
Because such a faith lacks sincerity,
Decisive faith is also lacking.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
0
)
Shinran shares with T'an-luan the view that the true practice of Nembutsu in accord with
the Way is solely dependent on the true faith -- shinjin.
When Vasubandhu presents in his Discourse on the Pure Land the seventeen glorious
aspects of the Pure Land, he mentions Amida's inconceivable power behind them. He
says (SSZ. I, 271):
"How does one contemplate the glorious aspects of that
Buddha-land? The glorious aspects of the Buddha-land are
provided with the inconceivable power, and their nature
resembles that of the Mani-jewel."
T'an-luan explains the inconceivable power in terms of (1) the karmic power, namely the
karmic power produced by Dharmakara Bodhisattva's supra-mundane goodness and his
Great Vow, and (2) Amida Buddha's power to sustain the Land. Those who visualize the
Pure Land perceive Amida's great karmic power working behind the glorious
manifestations of the Land and also realize that the same karmic power is always working
upon sentient beings to deliver them from delusion and suffering.
Amida's Karmic Power takes the form of 'merit-transference' (eko; parinama) to reach us.
Shinran emphasizes that T'an-luan especially clarified Amida's transference of merits as
being the source of our salvation. It works in two directions: (1) for our going to be born
in the Pure Land and realize Enlightenment (oso) and (2) for our returning to this world
of Samsara to save other beings (genso). Two of the Forty-eight Vows, the Eighteenth and
the Eleventh, concern the 'Going forth' aspect of the merit-transference, and the Twentysecond Vow explains its 'Returning' aspect.
The gist of the Eighteenth Vow is as follows:

68
If, when I (namely, Dharmakara) attain Buddhahood,
sentient beings in the lands of the ten quarters who
sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be
born in my land, and call my Name even ten times, should
not be born there, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment.
(Larger Sutra 7)
When we encounter Amida through hearing his Name or contemplating him and his Pure
Land, we are filled with the highest spiritual joy - the joy of being embraced by his Light
of Wisdom and Compassion. It is also the joy of giving ourselves up to the working of the
pure Karmic Power, which is the Other-Power. One's encounter with Amida can be
considered as confrontation of the two karmic forces, one's own and Amida's. The more
sincerely one is devoted to Amida, the more deeply and inescapably one finds oneself
caught in Amida's Karmic Power, until one's entire karma is absorbed in Amida's. In our
actual experience of Faith, it is painful to part with our own self to which we have been
clinging since beginningless past, but that agonizing experience soon turns into an
indescribable great joy - the joy of finding our true Identity in Amida.
When Faith is thus awakened in us, we dwell in the Definitely Assured State. We are no
longer subject to samsaric states and are free of existential problems. We are assured of
attainment of Nirvana through Amida's Karmic Power. This process is described in the
Eleventh Vow, which reads:
If, when I attain Buddhahood, humans and gods in my land
should not dwell in the Definitely Assured State and
unfailingly reach Nirvana, may I not attain perfect
Enlightenment. (Larger Sutra 7)
T'an-luan has already noted the importance of the Eighteenth, Eleventh and Twentysecond Vows. Near the end of his Commentary on Vasubandhu's Discourse, he quotes
these Vows to prove that we are enabled by the Power of the Primal Vow to attain
Buddhahood quickly. One significant development is found in Shinran's interpretation of
the Eleventh Vow. While accepting the sutra's statement that those born in the Pure Land
dwell in the Definitely Assured State, he goes a step further and says that those to be born
in the Pure Land, namely those who have attained the Other-Power Faith, already dwell
in this state and can rest assured of the realization of Nirvana. He praises Amida's
inconceivable virtue in the following hymn:
The Unhindered Light shining throughout the Ten Quarters
Illumines the darkness of ignorance;
Those who receive joyful Faith in a moment of spiritual
union
Will unfailingly reach Nirvana.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 38)

69
At the end of the first volume of his Commentary, T'an-luan raises eight questions about
important doctrinal matters and answers them in clear terms. His explanation has formed
an essential part of Shinran's thought.
(1) What kinds of beings are to be saved?
The last stanza of Vasubandhu's Verses of Aspiration for Birth states (SSZ. I, 270):
I have written this discourse and hymn
With the wish to see Amida Buddha
And, together with sentient beings,
Be born in the Land of Peace and Bliss.
T'an-luan's question is what kinds of beings are specifically meant by 'sentient beings'.
Quoting the passage on the fulfillment of the Eighteenth Vow in the Larger Sutra, he
states that they refer to all beings, including non-Buddhists and ordinary people, who,
having heard Amida's Name, joyfully entrust themselves to him and sincerely direct the
merit of their practice towards him with aspiration for birth. He next quotes the passage
on birth in the lowest level of the lowest grade in the Contemplation Sutra, and concludes
that 'sentient beings' include even the most wicked persons who are to be born by saying
the Nembutsu ten times at their death.
(2) Harmonizing the different descriptions in the two sutras
about the salvation of evildoers:
The Eighteenth Vow excludes from salvation those who commit the five gravest offenses
and abuse the right Dharma, whereas the Contemplation Sutra mentions the birth of those
who have committed the five gravest offenses and ten evil acts. Harmonizing this
difference, T'an-luan says that those who have committed both the five gravest offenses
and the serious karmic transgression of abusing the Buddha Dharma are excluded from
salvation.
(3) Abusers of the Dharma will not be born in the Pure
Land:
A single transgression of abusing the Dharma is grave enough to send the person to the
hell of incessant pain; how can the abuser of the Dharma wish to be born in the Buddhaland?
(4) The specific act of abusing the Dharma:
T'an-luan defines the act of abusing the Dharma as denying the existence of Buddhas,
Dharma and Bodhisattvas. To entertain such a view through one's own thinking or
hearing from others is called abusing the right Dharma.
(5) Graveness of the transgression of abusing the Dharma:

70
It seems unreasonable to say that abusing the Dharma is a more serious karmic
transgression than the five gravest offenses, such as killing one's own parents, because
the person who abuses the Dharma does not do any harm to others. But the fact is that
without the Buddha Dharma all the worldly moral teachings and supra-mundane paths
would be destroyed and there would not be any sage or saint in the world. Actually the
five gravest offenses are committed through ignorance of the right Dharma.
'(6) The law of karma and Amida's salvation:
According to the law of karma, the heavy karmic transgressions, such as the five gravest
offenses and the ten evil acts, committed during innumerable kalpas should have their
inevitable retribution in spite of the ten times' Nembutsu which apparently produces only
a little merit. T'an-luan gives three reasons to explain that the Nembutsu uttered at one's
death is a powerful karmic act capable of canceling the evil karma of the five gravest
offenses and the ten evil acts: (i) the ten times' Nembutsu mentioned in the
Contemplation Sutra is based on the teaching of True Suchness, whereas evil acts are
committed depending on delusory and inverted views; the acts based on delusory thought
are no match for the act originating from the ultimate reality; (ii) the Nembutsu arises
from the supreme entrusting heart and depends on the Name of infinite pure merits, but
the evil acts are dependent upon delusion and evil passions; therefore, the Nembutsu can
expiate the evil karma; (iii) the Nembutsu is uttered in a concentrated state of mind in the
desperate situation before death when the horrible retribution of the evil karma is about to
engulf this person, whereas the evil acts are committed in a less pressing situation;
therefore, the Nembutsu induces a stronger karmic effect.
(7) The meaning of 'one thought':
The Contemplation Sutra mentions 'ten thoughts' in the passage on birth in the lowest
level of the lowest grade. The next question is about the meaning of 'one thought.' T'anluan first explains it in terms of time, as follows: There are a hundred and one arisings
and perishings of every existing thing in one moment; there are sixty such moments in
one thought. The term 'thought' under discussion does not have this temporal meaning.
'Ten thoughts' means ten consecutive thoughts of Amida Buddha, not mingled with other
thoughts, whether they arise from contemplation of his entire body or part of it or
whether they arise while reciting the Nembutsu.
(8) Is it necessary to know the number of the Nembutsu
thoughts?
T'an-luan last raises this question and answers it as follows: When the Contemplation
Sutra speaks of 'ten thoughts,' it simply means that the cause of birth in the Pure Land is
settled by the Nembutsu thought. There is no need to know the number of its recitations.
We have only to remember Amida continually, without thinking of anything else.
T'an-luan took great pains to explain that the Pure Land is a realm of transcendence
beyond Samsara and is conformable to the ultimate reality. The three worlds of Samsara

71
in which we transmigrate are impure and delusory. In order to free us from the endless
cycle of painful transmigration, Dharmakara made Vows, cultivated Wisdom, and
amassed merits with which he established the Pure Land. In other words, it is in perfect
accord with the law of Karma that Amida's physical glory and his Pure Land have come
into existence as the reward for his meritorious practices. The Pure Land, by its nature, is
free of mental and physical impurities, and is capable of purifying living beings born
there, until they realize the 'unconditioned Dharma-body which is pure and
undifferentiated. The ultimate state of purity is the same as True Suchness. In one of his
hymns on T'an-luan, Shinran says:
Birth in the Buddha-land of Peace and Bliss
Is the path to eventual realization of Buddhahood,
And so is the most excellent approach provided by Amida.
Hence, all Buddhas recommend birth in the Pure Land.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 43)
Being a Madhyamika-Pure Land master, T'an-luan developed Pure Land thought firmly
based on a non-dichotomous view of reality. From the viewpoint of the ordinary people,
evil passions as well as ego appear to exist, but enlightened sages see them as nonexistent and empty. When our delusion is removed, we are enlightened as we stand. The
Power of Amida's Vow reverses the course of our Karma, and brings us to realize the nondichotomous wisdom. The following hymn by Shinran clearly describes this Mahayana
truth:
The all-merging One-Vehicle teaching of the Original Vow,
We are taught, embraces even the most wicked evildoers;
Having entrusted ourselves to it, we will soon realize
That evil passions and Bodhi are one in essence.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 32)
T'an-luan often used analogies to explain highly metaphysical principles of Amida's
Dharma. He compared evil passions to ice and Bodhi to water, as shown in Shinran's
words in the following hymn:
If we receive Faith of the wonderful great virtue
Through the power of the Unhindered Light,
The ice of our evil passions surely melts
And turns into the water of Bodhi.
(
I
b
i
d

72
.
3
9
)
Speaking ontologically, our karmic hindrances and merits are essentially one.
.
Karmic hindrances are, in essence, merits,
As in the case of ice and water;
The more the ice, the more the water;
The more the hindrances, the more the merits.
(
I
b
i
d
.
4
0
)
T'an-luan also used a fire-ice analogy to explain how ordinary beings born in the Pure
Land can realize the Mahayana principle of Emptiness. He says that just as a fire made on
ice is spontaneously extinguished, even if one has an attached view of life, it will be
spontaneously removed upon birth in the Pure Land.
T'an-luan in the Commentary presents different ways of interpreting the nature of the
Pure Land, of which two may be introduced:
(1) as a manifestation of the ultimate reality,
(2) as the reward of Dharmakara's practice of the Six
Paramitas
From the perspective of the ultimate reality, which is beyond time and space and beyond
causal relationships, the Pure Land is its self-manifestation in the sphere of causes and
conditions. In Mahayana Buddhism the ultimate reality, or True Suchness as we call it, is
not an abstract concept but 'Reality' in the highest sense of the term, which is the allunifying principle. Its self-manifestation actually takes place within itself, because all the
diversified phenomena in Samsara reside in True Suchness and nothing exists outside of
it.
When Dharmakara made the Vows, he had already realized True Suchness with the
penetrating insight - Prajna. His Bodhisattva practice that followed signifies the process

73
of self-manifestation of True Suchness through the personality of Dharmakara. Also the
supreme merits that he is said to have acquired by performing the Six Paramitas are
nothing but the intrinsic energy or power contained in True Suchness. Those merits or
energy gave rise to the glorious Buddha-body and the Pure Land.
T'an-luan's highly metaphysical and yet most practical Pure Land thought contains much
we should carefully study for a deeper understanding of the basic teaching of Pure Land
Buddhism.
We shall lastly see his two views of the Buddha-body. One is the view that Amida has
two kinds of body: the body of True Suchness and the body for the sake of sentient
beings. The former corresponds to the Dharma-body (Dharmakaya) and the latter, to the
Rewarded Body and Transformed Body (Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya).
After presenting the twenty-nine aspects of the Pure Land, and so forth, Vasubandhu in
his Discourse explains that these glorious manifestations enter into the 'Nirvanic Dharmabody of true wisdom.' Commenting on this, T'an-luan introduces the theory of two kinds
of Dharma-body. He says (SSZ. I, 337-8):
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have two Dharma-bodies: (1)
the Dharma-body of Dharma-nature (dharmatadharmakaya) and (2) the Dharma-body of Expediency
(upaya-dharmakaya). From the Dharma-body of Dharmanature originates the Dharma-body of Expediency; through
the Dharma-body of Expediency the Dharma-body of
Dharma-nature is revealed. These two Dharma-bodies are
different but inseparable; they are one but not the same.
T'an-luan and the other Pure Land masters did not encourage us to meditate on the former
aspect of Amida, but emphasized the latter aspect, urging us to take refuge in Amida in
action. T'an-luan further states in the Verses in Praise of Amida (SSZ, I, 350):
Ten kalpas have elapsed since Amida became a Buddha;
His Life is truly immeasurable.
The Light of his Dharma-body reaches everywhere in the
universe,
Shining upon the darkness of the world. So I worship him.
Amida's intrinsic virtue and his saving activity are manifested as the Twelve Lights. In
accordance with the Larger Sutra, T'an-luan describes them in the Verses in Praise of
Amida, as follows (SSZ, I, 350-3):
(1) Immeasurable Light: "the Light of Wisdom is
immeasurable";
(2) Boundless Light: "the wheel of the Light of
Emancipation is boundless";
(3) Unhindered Light: "the cluster of Light is unhindered
like open space";
(4) Unequaled Light: "the Pure Light is unequaled";

74
(5) Majestically Flaming Light: "the Light shines with
utmost brilliance";
(6) Pure Light: "the Light of Enlightenment is brilliant and
its colors surpass everything";
(7) Light of Joy: "the Light of Compassion reaches distant
places, giving sentient beings peace and bliss";
(8) Light of Wisdom: "the Light dissipates the darkness of
ignorance";
(9) Unceasing Light: "the Light shines everywhere at all
times";
(10) Inconceivable Light: "the Light cannot be measured,
except by Buddhas";
(11) Ineffable Light: "the majestic Light, above all
dimensions, is beyond description";
(12) Light Outshining the Sun and the Moon: "the Light
shines more brilliantly than the sun and the moon."
Based on the above explanation, Shinran composed hymns in praise of Amida (Hymn on
the Pure Land 4-15). The twelve lights are contained in the Unhindered Light Shining
throughout the Ten Quarters, to which Vasubandhu paid homage in his Hymn of
Aspiration for Birth. Amida's Universal Light illumines all beings everywhere,
awakening them to Truth and Reality. Those who have been illumined by this Light and
so attain Joyful Faith dwell in the state of non-duality. Their diverse desires and karmic
acts are completely absorbed into Amida's Vow and his Work of Salvation.
When many river-waters of evil passions
Enter into the sea of Great Compassion and Great Vow
Of the Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten
Quarters,
They become one in taste with Amida's Wisdom.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 42)
The pure Primal Vow of the Tathagata enables us
To be born in the Land of Un-produced-ness;
Although we are originally divided into nine classes,
Such distinction no longer exists in the Pure Land.
(
I
b
i
d
.
4

75
6
)
T'an-luan's soteriological system based on Amida's Merit-transference is summarized in
the following three hymns:
Amida's Merit-transference having been actualized,
It works in two phases: Going forth and Returning.
Through this Merit-transference
We can attain Faith and Practice.
(
I
b
i
d
.
3
4
)
Merit-transference in the phase of Going forth is:
When Amida's skillful means fully matures,
One attains Faith and Practice of the Compassionate Vow;
Then one realizes that Samsara is Nirvana
(
I
b
i
d
.
3
5
)
Merit-transference in the phase of Returning is:
Having attained the Rank of Compassionate Teaching,
One enters into various states of existence
And puts into practice the Virtue of Samantabhadra.
(
I
b

76
i
d
.
3
6
)
T'an-luan passed away at the age of sixty-seven. At his death miraculous signs were
evident: streamers, flowers, flags and canopies appeared above the temple, exquisite
fragrance was in the air, and music was heard.
At the age of sixty-seven
T'an-luan passed away to the Pure Land.
At that time, miraculous signs appeared
And so all monks and laypeople were awestruck.
(
I
b
i
d
.
2
9
)

(15) Tao-ch'o (lines 85-92)

Master Tao-ch'o determined that by the Path of Sages
Enlightenment is difficult to attain
And clearly presented the Pure Land Path as the only
practicable method of salvation.
He disparaged practicing thousands of meritorious actions
with self-power
And encouraged exclusive recitation of the Name of perfect
virtues.
He kindly taught the three aspects of imperfect faith and
those of right faith.
He compassionately guided those of the ages of Semblance
Dharma,
Decadent Dharma and Extinct Dharma alike.
Although we commit evils throughout our lives, if we

77
encounter the Universal Vow,
We shall reach the Land of Peace and Provision, where we
realize the Supreme Fruition.
Tao-ch'o (562-645) was born in Ping-cho District in the present Shan-hsi Province, and
entered the priestly life at the age of 14. He became well-versed in the Nirvana Sutra, and
lectured on it as many as twenty-four times. At the age of forty-eight he visited the
Hsuan-chung Temple and read a stone inscription that praised T'an-luan's virtue. Inspired
by T'an-luan's admonition that trying to became a Buddha in this world by self-power is
futile, Tao-ch'o was converted to the Pure Land teaching. He is said to have
practiced Nembutsu seventy thousand times a day, and continually offered incense before
a statue of Amitabha. He was especially devoted to the Contemplation Sutra, on which he
lectured about two hundred times. He spread the Nembutsu practice among the populace,
urging them to count the number of recitations with red beans, later with special rosaries.
His teaching was so widely accepted that it was said that there was no one who did not
recite Nembutsu in the Shan-hsi Valley. He passed away at the Hsuan-chung Temple at
the age of eighty-four.
Shinran composed seven hymns praising the virtues of Tao-ch'o, of which the first two
read as follows:
Our Master, Tao-ch'o, set aside
Ten thousand practices of the Path of Sages,
And taught that the Pure Land Path
Is the only way we can follow.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 55)
Our Master, Tao-ch'o, setting aside
His great work on the Nirvana Sutra,
Entrusted himself to the Other-Power of the Primal Vow,
And recommended it to the beings of the five defilements.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
6
)
His Pure Land theory and practice are extensively discussed in his A Collection of
Passages Concerning the Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss. He distinguishes two
Buddhist approaches: Path of Sages and Path to Birth in the Pure Land. The former is

78
difficult to follow because we are far removed from the time of the Buddha and so our
understanding of the Buddha Dharma is very slight. Based on the Great Collection Sutra,
Tao-ch'o asserts that the last age of the Dharma has set in and the world is filled with the
five defilements; hence, only the Pure Land Path is available. He also quotes from the
same sutra to show that his time is already in the fourth five-hundred-year period after the
passing of Buddha Shakyamuni, when Buddhists are no longer able to cultivate wisdom
or practice meditation successfully but can attain salvation by reciting the Name with the
mind of repentance.
The following hymns by Shinran bring home to us the stark reality, as Tao-ch'o pointed
out, that in the last Dharma-age no one is able to attain salvation by self-power:
Even if beings in the last Dharma-age in the world of the
five
defilements
May perform the practices of the Path of Sages,
None will realize Enlightenment;
So said the Teacher, the World-Honored One.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
7
)
Having accepted the teaching of T'an-luan,
Tao-ch'o in the same line of thought
Asserted that to awaken aspiration for Bodhi and perform
practices
In this world is called self-power.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
8
)

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Beings in this defiled world commit evils and make karmic
transgressions,
As furiously as violent storms and torrential rains;
Buddhas, seeing this, pity such beings
And lead them to seek refuge in the Pure Land.
(
I
b
i
d
.
5
9
)
According to Tao-ch'o, the central theme of the Contemplation Sutra is the samadhi of
visualizing Amitabha, which he explains in terms of the Nembutsu samadhi. Quoting
from the Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplation of the Buddha, he demonstrates that
Shakyamuni taught his father the Nembutsu samadhi. In this sutra the Buddha compares
Nembutsu to a sandal-wood plant that grows in a forest of foul-smelling eranda trees;
even when it is still young, it emits luxuriant fragrance all around and completely
changes the atmosphere. Tao-ch'o explains this, saying that even though sentient beings
are full of evil passions, spiritual hindrances and countless karmic evils, a single
Nembutsu that grows in their minds can destroy all impurities. He further quotes from the
Garland Sutra, which states that Nembutsu can destroy all evil passions and hindrances
and so the Nembutsu Samadhi is called the king of samadhis. Later in his work, Tao-ch'o
gives scriptural evidence to prove that the Nembutsu Samadhi is the central practice
advocated in various Mahayana texts, including the Nirvana Sutra and the Garland Sutra.
Shinran pertinently describes in a hymn the effectiveness of the Nembutsu as follows:
Even though we commit evils all through life,
We should always recite the Nembutsu
With diligence and with singleness of heart.
Then all hindrances will be removed naturally.
(
I
b
i
d
.
6

80
0
)
Next Shinran deeply appreciates Amida's Vow which actualized salvation through the
Nembutsu:
In order to take sentient beings in his embrace
Who commit evils throughout their lives,
Amida made the Vow of saying the Name,
Promising not to become a Buddha if those who recite it
should not be born.
(
I
b
i
d
.
6
1
)
Tao-ch'o faithfully followed T'an-luan's teaching and in his work quoted many passages
from the Commentary on the Discourse on the Pure Land, one of which is the
explanation of imperfect faith. T'an-luan earlier raised a question: Recitation of the Name
should remove spiritual ignorance but there are some Nembutsu practitioners in whom
ignorance still exists. Why is this so? His own answer is twofold: (1) Because they do not
know that the Buddha has two kinds of body: Body of True Suchness and Body for the
sake of beings; (2) because they have imperfect faith, which is lacking sincerity, singlemindedness, and continuity. These three aspects of imperfect faith are indications of selfpower. They are related with each other, and those who cannot get rid of the attachment
to their own power are bound to repeat this vicious circle. By quoting this important
passage, Tao-ch'o kindly admonished us against the faults of dependence on self-power.
Tao-ch'o's contemporaries and masters of the Path of Sages generally considered Amida
as a Buddha of Accommodated Body and his Pure Land as a land of inferior quality. For
example, Hui-yuan of Ching-ying temple (523-92), the most distinguished scholar of the
time, classified pure lands into three: (1) mundane lands of purity, (2) supra-mundane
lands of purity, and (3) true lands of purity. Ordinary beings with pure karma produce and
dwell in mundane lands of purity, and Hinayana sages and bodhisattvas of lower stages
produce and inhabit supra-mundane lands of purity. Buddhas and bodhisattvas above the
first stage produce true lands of purity, which are in accord with True Suchness.
According to Hui-yuan, Amida is a Buddha of Accommodated Body and his land of bliss
is a mundane land of purity which is still within Samsara. Chih-i (538-97), the
systematizer of the Tendai teaching, held a similar view that the Pure Land was a land of

81
mixed habitation for ordinary beings and sages and so it belonged to Samsara.
In his A Collection of Passages Concerning the Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss,
Tao-ch'o refutes the above views and emphasizes that Amida is a Buddha of
Recompensed Body and his Pure Land is a Land of Recompense originating from his
Vows. As the Larger Sutra states, even bodhisattvas of higher rank, such as those in the
Stage of Non-retrogression, go to be born there. The Pure Land also admits ordinary
beings of little wisdom who aspire for birth with deep faith.
Tao-ch'o follows the general Mahayana principle in asserting that Amida has all the three
bodies, and contends that Amida in the Land of Utmost Bliss is a Sambhogakaya Buddha.
He also explains the relationship between Dharmakaya and the two other bodies by a
metaphor of the sun and the light (SSZ. I, 385):
Dharmakaya is like the sun and Sambhogakaya and
Nirmanakaya are like its rays of light.
Tao-ch'o also distinguishes two aspects of the Pure Land: the land of form and the land of
non-form. Those who have realized the Mahayana principle of non-form or non-arising of
all existences but still seek birth in the Pure Land in terms of cause-condition relationship
(pratitya-samutpada) are born in the land of non-form, where it is understood that they
attain Dharmakaya. But those who seek birth while still attached to forms are born in the
land of form, where they behold recompensed and transformed bodies of the Buddha and
advance to higher spiritual states. We must note that in Tao-ch'o's view we ordinary
beings, full of evil passions, can attain birth in the Nirvanic Pure Land. In this connection
we recall that T'an-luan has earlier said that those of the lower grade who have an
attached view regarding birth can also be born in the land of no-birth. It is just as a fire
made on ice is soon extinguished; once we are born in the land of no-birth, all our
attached views will be spontaneously removed.
As we have seen above, the location of Amida's Pure Land was a popular subject of
debate among Buddhist masters in Tao-ch'o's days. In his work he raises this question and
gives it his answer as follows (SSZ. I, 388):
Question: In which of the three worlds is the Land of Peace
and Bliss contained?
Answer: The Pure Land, being exquisite and sublime,
transcends the worldly existence. The three worlds are the
dark house inhabited by ordinary beings of birth-and-death.
There are different degrees of pain and pleasure, but the
common feature is defilement.... The Commentary on the
Prajnaparamita Sutra says, "The fruition of the Pure Land
is free of desires; hence, it does not belong to the world of
desire. Since the Pure Land has the solid ground to rest on,
it does not belong to the world of form. Since there are
phenomenal manifestations, it does not belong to the world
of non-form, either. Although it has solid ground, it is
exquisite, supernal and indescribably wonderful." For this

82
reason, Vasubandhu says in his Discourse on the Pure
Land:
As I contemplate the nature of that Land,
I find that it surpasses the three worlds.
It is ultimately like space,
Vast and without bounds.
Whether and where the Pure Land exists is not a theoretical question to be discussed in
logical terms. Tao-ch'o knew that it exists -- beyond the sphere of our ordinary
perceptions and relative thinking.
(16) Shan-tao (lines 93-100)
Shan-tao alone clarified the true intent of the Buddha
Shakyamuni.
Out of compassion for those who practice meditative or
non-meditative good as well as those who commit the five
gravest offenses and the ten evil acts,
He revealed that the Light and the Name are the cause and
condition for birth in the Pure Land,
Thereby leading them all into the Sea of Great Wisdom of
the Primal Vow.
When the aspirant receives the Diamond Faith,
Thereby attaining instantaneously Joy of oneness with
Amida,
He will obtain the three insights, as did Vaidehi,
And realize the eternal bliss of Dharma-nature.
Shan-tao (613-681) was born at Ssu-chou in the present Anhui Province (according to
another tradition, Lin-tzu in the Shantung Province). When young, he entered the
priesthood and devoted himself to the study of the Lotus Sutra and the Vimalakirti Sutra.
One day when he saw a painting of the Pure Land, he wised to be born there. He visited
Mt. Lu and other places to study and practice the Pure Land teaching. For several years
he lived at Wu-chen Temple on Mt. Chung-nan and devoted himself to contemplation of
Amida and the Pure Land in accordance with the method of the Pratyutpanna Samadhi,
until he successfully visualized them. When he was about twenty years of age, he went to
see Tao-ch'o and became his disciple. While attending his lectures on the Contemplation
Sutra, he diligently practiced contemplation as prescribed in this sutra and finally attained
the Nembutsu Samadhi and visualized Amida and his land of bliss. Later he went to
Ch'ang-an to spread the Pure Land teaching. He continued to practice contemplation and
recitation, and also strictly observed the precepts. It is said that when he saw a woman in
the street, he did not raise his head to look at her.
In those days, the Contemplation Sutra was popular among Buddhist scholars, but their
interpretations were often unacceptable to Shan-tao. He then wrote a four-fascicle
commentary on this sutra and clarified the standpoint held by his predecessors, T'an-luan

83
and Tao-ch'o. He is said to have copied the Smaller Sutra more than a hundred thousand
times and made more than three hundred paintings of the Pure Land. When Emperor Kao
Tsung issued an order to build a niche for a statue of Mahavairocana at Lung-men in
Honan Province, Shan-tao was appointed as supervisor.
His influence was so great that thousands of people took refuge in Amida and practiced
Nembutsu. While following T'an-luan and Tao-ch'o, he developed his own system of
practice which centers on the Nembutsu. His line of Pure Land teaching, known as the
Shan-tao School, was widely practiced in China and was later transmitted to Japan. His
successors, Fa-chao ( -773) and Shao-k'ang ( -805), were considered as his incarnations.
Manifesting from Amida's Great Mind,
Master Shan-tao appeared in the world.
For the sake of the people of the defiled world in the Last
Dharma-age,
He sought testimony of the Buddhas of the ten quarters
(when he wrote the commentary on the Contemplation
Sutra).
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 62)
Shan-tao appeared in successive ages,
Once as Fa-chao and at another time as Shao-k'ang;
Opening wide the storehouse of the supreme merits,
He fulfilled the true intention of all the Buddhas.
(
I
b
i
d
.
6
3
)
One of the greatest contributions which Shan-tao made to the development of Pure Land
Buddhism was his clarification of the soteriological meaning of Nembutsu. In those days
there were some masters of the Path of Sages who rejected the view that ten recitations of
the Name could become only a remote cause of birth in the Pure Land. Their assertion
was based on the theory presented in Asanga's discourse on Mahayana to the effect that
when Shakyamuni encouraged recitation of Amida's Name as the cause of birth in the
Pure Land, he actually meant that such a practice alone would only lead to birth at some
time in the future. Those masters misinterpreted Nembutsu as a mere act of aspiration
lacking in practice. Shan-tao refuted them, saying (SSZ, I, 457):

84
The ten times' Nembutsu taught in the Contemplation Sutra
contains ten aspirations and ten practices. How? 'Na-mu'
means 'taking refuge in'; it also means 'aspirating (for birth
in the Pure Land) and transferring (the merit of practice
towards it).' 'Amida-butsu' is the 'practice' (to be transferred
for birth). For this reason, one can surely attain Birth.
As compared with ordinary Buddhist practices, such as the Six Paramitas, recitation of
the Name must have appeared to masters of other schools to be merely an expression of
one's aspiration for birth; they thought that there was no element of practice in the
recitation. Shan-tao's explanation of the Name is no doubt based on his samadhi
experience in which he perceived Amida as the embodiment of the pure merits
accumulated during his career as a bodhisattva. All that is required of the aspirant for
birth is simply to receive and make use of Amida's merits; this he can do by repeating the
Name with singleness of mind.
Another doctrinal point of great importance, which Shan-tao clarified, concerns the
nature of Amida's Buddhahood. Eminent masters of other schools in China, such as Huiyuan of Ching-ying Temple, Chih-i of T'ien-t'ai School and Chi-tsang of San-lun School,
shared the view that Amida was a Nirmanakaya Buddha. One of the reasons for
advancing this theory is that Amida can be perceived even by ordinary beings and
Hinayana sages. Reasoning in accordance with scriptural evidence, Shan-tao refuted them
and determined that Amida is a Sambhogakaya Buddha manifested as the reward for his
Vows. He pointed out that the Contemplation Sutra mentions the welcoming of 'the
Tathagata Amida...together with innumerable transformed Buddhas' (Birth in the highest
level of the highest grade); this is clear evidence that Amida is a Sambhogakaya Buddha.
It follows then that Amida's Pure Land is the land of a Sambhogakaya Buddha. Even if
this were so, the masters of other schools would not accept the view that ordinary beings
could be born in such a superior Buddha-land. But Shan-tao made it clear that they could
attain birth because of the Power of Amida's Primal Vow. In the Essential Meanings of
the Contemplation Sutra he says (SSZ, I, 459):
Question: If that Buddha and his land are those of a
Recompensed Body, the nature of a Recompensed Land is
too high and too subtle for lesser sages; how could ordinary
beings with impurities and hindrances enter there?
Answer: Speaking of the impurities and hindrances of
sentient beings, it is indeed difficult for them to aspire to
and attain birth there. But by the powerful working of the
Buddha's Vow the beings of the five different paths of
Samsara can all equally enter there.
Buddhist methods of practice leading to Enlightenment, which were originally provided
by Shakyamuni Buddha for people of different capacities, can be divided into two
groups: meditative and non-meditative practices. Concentration and meditation in a
cross-legged posture have been extensively employed among Buddhists of nearly all

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denominations, whether Mahayana or Theravada, because they are most effective in
cultivating wisdom. Other forms of practice, such as chanting sutras, observing the
precepts, and abstaining from wrongdoing, are non-meditative good acts; they yield
"merits", that is, good spiritual energy, by which one can reach a higher spiritual state.
So long as those meditative and non-meditative practices are based on one's self-power,
which is limited and defiled by passions, one cannot hope to attain Enlightenment. As a
skillful means of guiding such a person to the Other-Power teaching, the Buddha
provided in the Contemplation Sutra (1) the Pure Land meditation consisting of thirteen
contemplations, beginning with the contemplation of the setting sun, and (2) nonmeditative acts of merits, including performance of the ten good deeds and observance of
the precepts. Those who have accomplished the Pure Land meditation are rid of various
spiritual hindrances and so can attain birth in the Pure Land, but the non-meditative
practices, which are of inferior quality as compared with meditative ones, if accompanied
by a fervent wish to be born in the Pure Land, can also become the cause of birth there. In
his four-fascicle commentary on the Contemplation Sutra, Shan-tao fully explains the
Pure Land practices presented in this sutra and clarified Amida's Great Compassion,
which reaches everywhere, embracing all beings, whether good or evil.
The teaching of the Contemplation Sutra, according to Shinran, corresponds to the
Nineteenth Vow. It provides two kinds of practice, meditative and non-meditative, to lead
beings of different spiritual propensities to the Pure Land Path. In anticipation of the
welcome of Amida and Holy Sages at the time of death, as promised in the 19th Vow, the
aspirants diligently cultivate merits by performing various practices, including recitation
of the Name.
Shan-tao's teaching was to lead such people to concentrate on the Nembutsu. He first
divided the Pure Land practices into two: right acts and miscellaneous acts, and chose the
following five as the Right Acts (SSZ, I, 537-8):
1. Chanting sutras: single-mindedly chanting such sutras as
the Contemplation Sutra, the Smaller Sutra and the Larger
Sutra;
2. Contemplation: concentrating on Amida and his land of
bliss;
3. Worshipping: single-mindedly worshipping Amida;
4. Recitation: single-mindedly reciting his Name;
5. Praising and making offerings: single-mindedly praising
Amida and making offerings to him.
The miscellaneous acts are other Buddhist practices, such as moral disciplines,
worshipping other Buddhas, chanting non-Pure Land sutras and Zen-type of meditation.
They originally belong to the teachings other than the Pure Land Path, but are tentatively
allowed to be pursued if they are intended to serve as the practices for birth in the Pure
Land. On the other hand, the right acts are in accord with the true meaning of the Pure
Land teaching. Shinran explains Shan-tao's teaching in the Hymns as follows:

86
Shakyamuni opened the Gate of Essential Teaching (of the
Nineteenth Vow),
Thereby leading practitioners of meditative and nonmeditative good to the Pure Land Path;
He provisionally established two kinds of acts, right and
miscellaneous,
But urged us to follow the exclusive practice of the
Nembutsu.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 65)
For those who have been following non-Pure Land teachings, it is difficult to give up
their systems of devotion and practice and suddenly change over to the Pure Land
system. They are allowed to continue to do the same acts but their Buddhist disciplines
should now be directed to Amida and his Pure Land. For example, one can chant the
Heart Sutra and practice zazen as before, but the objective should be changed from the
attainment of satori to that of birth in the Pure Land. This internal change will
spontaneously lead to a change in the system of practice. Shan-tao's system of the Five
Right Acts is to be adopted by anyone who finds it more comfortable than self-power
practices.
Of the Five Right Acts, the fourth is the most important and is called the 'Act of Right
Assurance'; the rest are called the 'Auxiliary Acts.' Concerning the Act of Right
Assurance, Shan-tao explains that it is to call the Name of Amida with singleness of
mind, whether one is walking, standing, sitting or lying, without interruption and
irrespective of the duration of this practice. Such an act is called the 'Act of Right
Assurance,' because it accords with the Buddha's Vow.
In any Buddhist system, concentration is of primary importance. Shan-tao emphasizes
this in his Commentary on the Contemplation Sutra as we see later. This is a mental
attitude accompanying any of the Five Right Acts, but it is easier to practice and more
effective if we concentrate on one particular act. The Nembutsu is chosen as such an act.
Clarifying this point, Shinran says in a hymn:
To perform the practice of the principal and auxiliary acts
in a mixed way
Is called 'the mixed practice.'
Those who practice thus lack singleness of mind,
And so fail to appreciate the Buddha's Benevolence."
(Hymn of the Patriarchs 66)
In Shan-tao's system of salvation single-mindedness is of great importance. In his
Commentary on the Contemplation Sutra, he pays special attention to the three kinds of
faith mentioned in the sutra's section on "those who attain birth on the highest level of the
highest grade." The three kinds of faith are as follows: sincere faith, deep faith, and faith
that resolves to be born by transferring to that land the merit acquired. Shan-tao interprets
deep faith as having two aspects (SSZ, I, 534):

87
(1) to accept in deep faith the fact that we are ordinary
beings of karmic evils, who have been transmigrating since
the eternal past without a chance to escape;
(2) to accept in deep faith the teaching that Amida's Fortyeight Vows embrace us and that we shall definitely attain
birth through the Power of his Vow.
These two aspects serve as the two poles that create the tension and dynamics of faith.
The first aspect of deep faith concerns our evil and defiled nature, full of blind passions
and wrong karmic tendencies. This is a realization that we have no means of salvation
with our own power. The second aspect of faith is acceptance of Amida's saving Power,
which was motivated by his Vows. Since Amida's salvation reaches us through his Light
and Name, our deep faith is established when we awaken to his Light and receive his
Name deep in our mind and heart.
We find in Shan-tao's Liturgy of Birth the passage which emphasizes the Light and the
Name as the factors of our salvation and presents faith as the requisite for birth in the
Pure Land (SSZ, I, 651):
Amida, the World-Honored One, originally made great
Vows and embraces and emancipates beings in the ten
quarters with his Light and Name; he makes beings awaken
faith.
In the third section of his Commentary on the Contemplation Sutra, entitled "On the
Meaning of Meditative Good Acts," Shan-tao begins his exposition of the thirteen
contemplations by raising a question and then presenting a practical method of
visualization, as follows (SSZ, I, 499-501):
Question: Vaidehi made a request to the Buddha wishing to
see the Land of Utmost Bliss. He agreed to explain and first
taught the method of concentration on visualizing the sun.
What does this mean?
Answer: There are three meanings. First, in order to make
sentient beings know about (the location of) the object (of
contemplation) and the direction in which one should
concentrate one's thought. Avoid winter and summer, and
choose only spring and autumn, when the sun rises in due
east and sets in due west. Amida's land is in the direction in
which the sun sets, namely due west passing over a
hundred thousand kotis of lands. Second, in order to make
sentient beings realize whether their own karmic
hindrances are light or heavy. How do they know? Because
they are taught to fix their minds on and contemplate the
(setting) sun. Before they concentrate their minds, they are
taught to sit upright in the lotus-posture: the right leg is
placed on the left thigh while keeping balance with the

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contour of the body; next the left leg is placed on the right
thigh while keeping the balance with the contour of the
body; the left palm rests on the right one, and the body
should be upright. The mouth is closed, but the two rows of
teeth should not be joined; the tongue touches the palate to
enable the passage of air through the throat and the nostrils.
Let them contemplate the four elements of the body until
they realize that it is empty, inside and out, and that nothing
exists. Imagine that the earth-element of the body, that is,
skin, flesh, sinews, bones, and so forth, disintegrate and
disappear in the west; when they reach the farthest end of
the west, even a single dust-particle of their bodies do not
remain to be seen. Next, imagine that the water-element,
that is, blood, sweat, secreting fluid, tears, and so forth, is
dispersed towards the north; when it reaches the farthest
end of the north, not even a single drop of it is perceived.
Next, imagine that the wind-element of the body is
dispersed towards the east; when it reaches the farthest end
of the east, not even the minutest portion of it remains to be
seen. Next, imagine that the fire-element of the body is
dispersed towards the south; when it reaches the farthest
end of the south, not even the smallest part of it remains to
be perceived. Also imagine that the body is of the spaceelement, being in complete unity with the empty space that
pervades the ten quarters; there is not a speck of it to be
perceived as non-empty. Also imagine that the five
elements of the body are totally empty but consciousness
exists as the sole pervasive entity; it is like a round mirror,
lucid inside and out, brilliant and pure.
When one accomplishes this exercise all delusory thoughts
are removed, and so one's mind attains a state of deep
contemplation. After that, one can gradually proceed to the
visualization of the sun. Those of superior capacity can in
one sitting visualize a clear image. When it appears, it
looks like a coin or a mirror in size. On its bright surface
one sees one's light or heavy karmic hindrances: (1) a black
hindrance like a dark cloud obstructing the sun, (2) a
yellow hindrance like a yellow cloud obscuring the
sunlight, and (3) a white hindrance like a white cloud
veiling the sun. Just as the sun covered by clouds does not
shine brightly, karmic hindrances of sentient beings cover
their pure mind and keep it from shining. If the practitioner
sees such a hindrance, he should adorn the room, set up a
Buddha statue, bathe, and cleanse himself, put on a clean
robe, burn fine incense, and make a confession (of his evil
karma) to all Buddhas and sages. Before the Buddha statue

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he should repent of the transgressions committed with his
body, mouth and mind, from the beginningless past, such as
the ten evil acts, the five gravest offenses, the four major
prohibitions, slandering of the Dharma and destruction of
all roots of goodness. If he does so, shedding tears of
sorrow like rain, as deep repentance arises in his mind, it
penetrates to the core and torments him as if his bones were
cut to pieces.
After such an act of repentance he should resume the sitting
meditation as before, and visualize with a peaceful mind. If
the clear image appears but there is none of the abovementioned three kinds of hindrance, the pure object of
visualization manifests itself brilliantly. This is called
'abrupt expiation of karmic hindrances.' Those who destroy
all hindrances by a single act of repentance are called 'men
of superior capacity.' If only the black hindrance is removed
by an act of repentance, or only the yellow and white
hindrances are removed, or only the white hindrance is
destroyed, we call such acts 'gradual removal,' not 'abrupt
destruction.'
Keeping in mind those symptoms of karmic hindrances,
one should diligently repent. Those who can repent by just
remembering them three or six times a day and a night are
men of superior capacity and higher practice. It is just as
one is burnt by hot water or fire (in a dream); when one
awakes, (the pain) is completely removed. Why do you
vainly wait for an appropriate time, place, circumstance or
person to come in order to remove the karmic hindrances?
Third, in order to make sentient beings know that Amida
and the Pure Land, with all the glorious adornments and
light, are brilliant inside and out, shining more brightly than
the sun by hundreds of thousands of times. If the
practitioner has not yet visualized the light of that land, he
should gaze at the brilliant image of the sun. If he worships
and remembers (Amida and the Pure Land) while
constantly keeping in mind the image (of the sun), he will
attain concentration, in which he will visualize various
pleasant adornments of the Pure Land. For these reasons,
the World-Honored One first taught the method of
visualizing the sun.
Shan-tao's explanation of the practical method of contemplation, such as that just quoted,
is found here and there throughout his writings.
Repentance is an important part of Shan-tao's Pure Land theory and practice. He took

90
every opportunity to urge an act of repentance. In the Liturgy for Birth he distinguishes
three kinds of repentance (SSZ, I, 680):
(1) the higher degree of repentance is to shed blood from
pores of the body and from the eyes;
(2) the middle degree of repentance is to exude hot
perspiration from all the pores of the body and shed blood
from the eyes;
(3) the lower degree of repentance is to become feverish all
over the body and shed tears from the eyes.
Repentance is an effective way of expiating evil karma, but there are prescribed methods
to follow. One can confess one's evil acts done to other Buddhists, all Buddhas of the ten
quarters, sages, or to images of them, or to oneself. By the act of repentance one is rid of
karmic hindrances and one's birth in the Pure Land is assured.
Shan-tao used a parable to illustrate how an aspirant, full of evil passions, awakens faith
and attains birth in the Pure Land (SSZ, I, 539).
A man is traveling to the west. In the wilderness he finds
himself pursued by bandits and wild animals. Trying to run
away, he comes to a place where two rivers confront each
other: one is a river of fire, which flows to the south and the
other, a river of water, which flows to the north. These two
rivers are a hundred paces wide but endlessly long. Where
they meet, there is a narrow white path, about five inches
wide, which leads to the west bank. As fire is raging on one
side and water is breaking over the path from the other, he
hesitates to take the path, but since death appears
inevitable, he thinks of crossing between fire and water.
Just then he hears a voice from the eastern bank, urging
him to go forward across the path, and another voice from
the western bank, urging him on. Encouraged by these
voices, he proceeds determinedly along the path and soon
reaches the western bank.
The river of fire represents anger, and that of water, greed. The white path symbolizes the
possibility of awakening faith in a mind full of evil passions. The voice from the eastern
bank is the teaching of Shakyamuni, and the voice from the western bank is Amida's call.
The western bank represents the Pure Land.
This parable became very popular and, together with the painting which depicts it, has
been widely used to explain the Pure Land teaching.
Master Shan-tao, having sought the Buddhas' witness,
Urged practitioners of meditative and non-meditative goods

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to convert their minds;
He presented the parable of Two Rivers of Greed and
Anger
To safeguard Faith of the Universal Vow.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 69)
Through the Name and Light Amida reaches everyone of us. When his mind of Wisdom
and Compassion is accepted deep in our hearts, it turns our hearts into the Diamond Faith
and gives rise to the supreme Joy of oneness with Amida. 'Diamond Faith', or literally
'Diamond Mind', occurs in Shan-tao's Commentary on the Contemplation Sutra to refer
to the mind of a bodhisattva of the highest rank. This is originally the state of samadhi in
which such a bodhisattva destroys his subtle mental obscurity and, when accomplished,
immediately leads to final Enlightenment. Shinran uses this term for the Nembutsu-faith
of the Other Power, because such Faith as given by Amida is itself Amida's mind and so
becomes the cause of our Enlightenment.
In general usage in Buddhism, 'diamond' (vajra) is the most precious substance, said to
be the finest essence of gold, and is the hardest material. As Shan-tao explains elsewhere,
it is used metaphorically for supra-mundane pure wisdom because it is indestructible. In
Shinran's usage, Diamond Faith and Mind of Great Joy are synonyms for the OtherPower Faith. Once established in our hearts, the Nembutsu-Faith is not shaken by other
beliefs or ideologies. It is also accompanied by pure spiritual joy, the joy of awakening to
Amida's Wisdom and Compassion and the joy of spiritual unity with Amida.
How can such Faith be awakened in us? Shinran explains in a hymn using Shan-tao's
phraseology:
Shakyamuni and Amida are our compassionate parents;
Using various skillful means,
They awaken in us
The supreme wonderful Faith.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 74)
As explained above, in Buddhism, as in other religious systems, repentance is an
effective way of expiating evil karma. A question may arise: Is repentance required in
Shin Buddhism? Shan-tao gives his answer in the Liturgy for Birth, saying that although
it is impossible to shed tears and blood, if one has a completely sincere mind (True
Faith), one attains the same effect of repentance. This is repeated by Shinran in the
following hymn:
Those in whom True Faith is firmly established,
Which is itself the Diamond Mind,
Are equal to those who repent of their evil karma
In three ways; so says our master Shan-tao.

92
(
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5
)
Even though we cannot possibly destroy even a small portion of our karmic evil by our
own power, Faith of the Other-Power effectively cancels all our evil karma and ensures
birth in the Land of Nirvana.
For us who live in the evil world of the five defilements,
Diamond Faith alone is available;
It enables us to leave Samsara forever
And reach the Land of Naturalness.
(
I
b
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d
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7
6
)
Shinran further praises the virtue of Diamond Faith:
As soon as Faith, which is firm as diamond,
Is established in us,
Amida embraces us in his spiritual Light,
Severing us forever from birth-and-death.
(
I
b
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d
.
7

93
7
)
Shan-tao's Pure Land system is largely based on his transcendent experience centering on
visualization of Amida and his Pure Land. From the beginning, his motive of following
the Pure Land Path is said to have been a casual encounter with the painting of the Pure
Land in his early days. Even before he became Tao-ch'o's disciple, Shan-tao had already
had some mystical experience while meditating on Amida in accordance with the
Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra (Sutra on Being in the Presence of All Buddhas). His
spiritual experience advanced as he concentrated on the Contemplation Sutra. Later,
when he wrote a four-fascicle commentary on this sutra, as he recounted in the epilogue,
a divine person appeared in dreams and gave him instruction about essential points. His
Method of Contemplation also is a useful manual for the contemplative practice. Side by
side with contemplation, Shan-tao concentrated on chanting the Amida Sutra and also
copied it thousands of times. He gave these copies to his followers. Further, he made
more than three hundred paintings of the Pure Land, which no doubt became the
prototype of the Pure Land Mandalas produced later in Japan.
Of the three Pure Land Sutras, the Contemplation Sutra provided Shan-tao with the basic
theory and practice for birth in the Pure Land. Queen Vaidehi, the heroine of the tragedy
in the royal family of Magadha, was imprisoned by her son, Ajatashatru, but, under the
guidance of Shakyamuni Buddha, was relieved of suffering and attained salvation. By the
Buddha's power she was able to visualize Amida and thereby gained the superior insight
into the non-arising of all existences (anutpattika-dharma-ksanti). Although this insight is
generally equated with realization of void-ness (shunyata), which bodhisattvas attain
after strenuous meditative exercises, Shan-tao interpreted it as the spiritual state given to
ordinary persons like Vaidehi by the Buddha's power. In his interpretation this insight has
three aspects: (1) joyfulness, (2) awakening to the Buddha's wisdom, and (3) complete
entrusting to his saving power. Shinran further explains it more explicitly, saying that
those three aspects are the spiritual benefit attending the Other-Power Nembutsu-Faith.
For Shinran, gaining the insight into the non-arising of all existences is the same as
receiving the Diamond Faith. Since such Faith is the Buddha's Wisdom and Compassion
endowed to the aspirants, they are assured of attainment of the ultimate Nirvanic bliss in
the Pure Land. Shinran says in a hymn:
Since Faith arises from the Vow,
Becoming a Buddha through the Nembutsu is natural;
The ultimate state of Naturalness is the Land of
Recompense,
Where realization of Great Nirvana is certain to come.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 82)
Those who have attained Nembutsu-Faith and live the life of Naturalness are often called
'myokonin' (wondrous, excellent person). This term was first used by Shan-tao when he
explained the term 'white lotus' (pundarika) to which Shakyamuni compared a person of

94
the Nembutsu in the Contemplation Sutra. "One who is mindful of the Buddha," says
Shakyamuni, "is a white lotus among humankind." In his commentary on this sutra,
Shan-tao explains that the 'white lotus' means an excellent person, a wondrous excellent
person, an unsurpassed person, a rare person, and a supreme person. In the common
usage since the pre-modern period in Japan, a myokonin has no educational background
to speak of but has understood the depth of the Other-Power Faith and expresses it in
daily living. One of Shinran's hymns refers to the above explanation by Shan-tao:
One who has heard the Nembutsu teaching of the True Pure
Land Way
And holds fast to it without harboring a single thought of
doubt,
Is praised by the Buddha as a rare and supreme person,
For such a person, Shan-tao says, is one who possesses
right mindfulness.
(
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0
)
As Shan-tao stressed throughout his writings, it is by the Power of the Primal Vow that
ordinary people with little or no spiritual capacity attain emancipation.
If it were not for the Universal Vow,
When would we ever escape from this world of suffering?
Being deeply mindful of the Buddha's Benevolence,
We should always recite his Name.
(
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6
)

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(17) Genshin (lines 101-108)

Genshin widely expounded the Buddha's lifetime
teachings;
Solely seeking refuge in the Land of Peace and Provision,
he urged all to follow him.
He distinguished between deep faith in practicing the
Nembutsu exclusively and shallow faith in doing
miscellaneous acts of virtue,
Thereby clarifying the different states of attainment: birth
in the Land of Recompense and birth in the Transformed
Land.
Those with extremely heavy evil karma should solely
repeat Amida's Name.
I, too, am in his embracement;
Although my evil passions hinder me from seeing it,
His Light of Great Compassion always shines on me
untiringly.
There were many other masters in China after Shan-tao, each contributing in his own way
to the further development of the Pure Land teaching. The next master, who is especially
important in the history of Shin Buddhism and so is regarded as the fifth of the Seven
Masters, is the Japanese Tendai monk Genshin (942-1017). Before Genshin's time,
Japanese Buddhism, which began in the sixth century as predominantly Mahayanaoriented Buddhism, had produced many great monks and flourished remarkably. Six
schools were already in existence in the Nara period (710-784), and two more major
Mahayana schools, Shingon and Tendai, were transmitted from China at the beginning of
the Heian period (794-1185).
From the inception of the T'ien-t'ai (Tendai) school in China, Amida occupied an
important position in its system of practice. Soon after Saicho's opening of Mt. Hiei as
the center of Japanese Tendai Buddhism, invocational and meditative Nembutsu became
widespread side by side with the practice of orthodox Tendai teaching and the ritual of
the esoteric tradition. As the first Tendai-Pure Land master we may mention Ryogen
(912-85), the 18th abbot of Enryakuji temple and the author of the commentary on part of
the Contemplation Sutra. He is said to have had three thousand disciples and four special
disciples. Genshin was one of them.
Genshin was born in Yamato Province (Nara Prefecture) and his family name was Urabe.
It is said that he was conceived by his mother after she prayed to Avalokiteshvara. He lost
his father when young, and went to Mt. Hiei, where he became a monk and studied under
Ryogen. It is said that at the age of fifteen he gave a lecture at the imperial court and
received fine presents, which he sent to his mother to please her. But she returned them
with an admonishment for his worldly ambitions. This gave him a great impetus to
pursue the Way without regard for secular engagements. Thus he went into retirement on

96
the mountain to practice the way to salvation diligently. He is said to have read through
all the Buddhist scriptures as many as five times.
As his insight and scholarship advanced, Genshin delivered lectures at important
meetings, and produced some 170 works, of which more than twenty were related to Pure
Land Buddhism. His most famous work was the Collection of Important Passages on
Birth, 3 fasc., which he composed between 984 and 985. This work was sent to China,
where it was received with great admiration. When it was brought to Kuo-ch'ing temple
on Mt. T'ien-t'ai in 986, more than five hundred monks rejoiced to read it and paid
homage to Genshin from afar, saying "Adoration to the Japanese Buddhist Teacher,
Master Genshin." This work had an extensive influence not only in Japan but in China as
well.
In 988 he laid down the Rite for the Samadhi for (Transcending) Twenty-five (States of
Samsara) and promoted the Society of 'Twenty-five' Samadhi, which was originally
founded in 986 by 25 monks in the Yokawa precinct of Mt. Hiei. In 1004 he was
appointed to a higher rank of priesthood but he resigned the following year. Known as a
distinguished artist, he produced many Pure Land paintings, including that of Amida
crossing the mountains to welcome a dying devotee. Genshin left a short sermon
consisting of only 491 characters, entitled Words on the Dharma at Yokawa, which
teaches simple but deep faith in Amida and urges us to practice the Nembutsu
exclusively.
When he lay on his death-bed at the age of 76, he kept correct mindfulness of Amida. For
seven days preceding his death, he did not take any food or drink, but kept concentrating
on Amida. On his last day, he cleansed his body and mouth, and while repeating the
Nembutsu, passed away as if falling asleep.
Genshin's Collection of Important Passages on Birth is the most comprehensive Pure
Land writing ever compiled in China or Japan. The number of passages quoted is 952 and
their scriptural sources range from sutras, discourses and commentaries in esoteric as
well as exoteric traditions. What appeals to general readers is the detailed description of
the sufferings of samsaric existence, especially those of the eight hells (chap. 1), and the
pleasures of the Pure Land (chap. 2). Many editions of this work have been published
with realistic illustrations of hell and the Pure Land, designed to awaken a strong
aversion to Samsara and a longing for the Pure Land. According to Genshin, there are the
following ten pleasures attending birth in the Pure Land (SSZ, I, 757-774):
(1) At the time of death, one meets Amida coming to
welcome him to the Pure Land;
(2) The lotus-flower into which one has been born opens;
(3) One is endowed with the 32 physical characteristics of a
Great Man and also possesses the five supernatural powers;
(4) One enjoys exquisite sensations with the five senseorgans;
(5) The pleasures enjoyed never diminish;
(6) One can enable those closely related to oneself to be
born in the Pure Land;
(7) One can meet with holy sages;

97
(8) One can see Amida and hear the Dharma from him;
(9) One can visit other Buddhas to make offerings to them
as one wishes;
(10) One advances on the Buddhist Path.
These are, however, not all the pleasures one can enjoy. They are like a drop of water on
the tip of a hair; what remains unsaid is like the rest of the ocean.
The central theme treated in this work (chap. 4-8) is the practical method of salvation,
which comprises the Nembutsu and other practices. The following three kinds of
contemplation are recommended for those of superior capacities:
(1) Contemplation of Amida's physical characteristics and
his lotus-throne;
(2) Contemplation of his figure as a whole;
(3) Contemplation of the white twist of hair between his
eye- brows.
Genshin next recommends an extremely simplified practice for those incapable of any of
the above. This is to repeat the Name single-heartedly while envisioning the Buddha's
welcome, the aspirant's birth in the Pure Land, and so forth (chap. 4)
In order to make the practice of Nembutsu effective, Genshin recommends the
'Nembutsu-assisting actions,' which are sevenfold: (chap. 5):
1) Bodhi-Mind
2) controlling one's mind and body
3) deep faith
4) sincere devotion
5) constant (recitation of the Nembutsu)
6) (mindfulness of) the Buddha
7) aspiration for birth.
Near the end of this work, Genshin presents scriptural evidence to prove that there are
practices other than the Nembutsu which lead to birth in the Pure Land (chap. 9). He lists
thirteen such practices, including chanting Mahayana sutras and dharanis, observing the
precepts and the Six Paramitas.
Genshin's work being an encyclopedic source of information on Pure Land practices and
faiths, it is not easy to know what kind of practice he recommended to us. The guideline
for reading this text widely used in Jodo and Shin schools is found in Honen's
commentary. He devised a threefold contextual division of the text:
(1) presentation in full - the whole text
(2) abridged explanation - the 7 Nembutsu-assisting actions
(3) the essential point - single practice of the Nembutsu.
From the viewpoint of the Nembutsu, other meditative practices are difficult and less
effective. Being a Tendai monk and an adept of sophisticated meditation, Genshin

98
appears to rank meditative practices higher than the Nembutsu, but from what he says in
the preface he was deeply aware of his poor spiritual capacity and considered the
Nembutsu as the sole means of salvation.
As we have seen above, although Genshin widely expounded meditative and nonmeditative practices leading to birth in the Pure Land, his original intention was to
recommend the Nembutsu. The steadfast practice of the Nembutsu with singleness of
mind yields the result of birth in the Land of Recompense, but miscellaneous practices,
whether meditative or non-meditative, performed with undetermined minds are, at best,
causes of birth in the Land of Indolence and Pride, which is metaphorically described as
the Border Region of the Pure Land and also as the Transformed Land. Genshin explains
in chapter 10 the nature of such a land by quoting from the Sutra on Bodhisattvas'
Dwelling in the Embryonic State and a discourse by Huai-kan (7th to 8th centuries).
Shinran in his hymn repeats Genshin's warning against miscellaneous practices, as
follows:
Genshin, the master of our school,
Based on the discourse by the Master Huai-kan,
Disclosed the Land of Indolence and Pride
Through the Sutra on Dwelling in the Embryonic State."
(
H
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t
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P
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99
9
1
)
In praising those of the exclusive practice of the Nembutsu,
Genshin taught that even one out of a thousand would not
fail
to reach the Pure Land;
In admonishing those of miscellaneous practices,
He said that even one out of a thousand would not attain
birth.
(
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2
)
Indeed many aspirants to the Pure Land are attracted not so much to the supreme spiritual
state, which they can attain upon birth in the Pure Land, as to the pleasures which they
hope to enjoy there. Very few actually understand Amida's Mind and attain Pure Faith,
and so many are led to the temporary abode in the Pure Land, as Shinran notes in the
following hymn:
Genshin taught that those who are born
In the Pure Land of Recompense are not many
And that those who are born
In the Transformed Land are not few.
(
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The 105th line of the Shoshinge, "Those with extremely heavy evil karma should solely
repeat Amida's Name," originally comes from Genshin's Collection of Important
Passages on Birth, chapter 8, where he states the following based on the Contemplation
Sutra (SSZ. I, 882):
Those with extremely heavy evil karma have no other
means (of salvation); by solely repeating the Buddha's
Name, they can attain birth in the Land of Utmost Bliss.
When he said 'those with extremely heavy evil karma,' he referred to nobody but himself.
He was fully aware of his evil karma, too heavy and boundless to dislodge by his own
power. The moment he recited the Nembutsu with complete trust in Amida, he found that
the mountain of his evil karma dissolved in Amida's Light of Wisdom and Compassion.
The next three lines are also based on the Contemplation Sutra, chap. 17, where it says:
"...each light shines universally upon the lands of the ten quarters, embracing, and not
forsaking, those who are mindful of the Buddha." Genshin's comment on this passage is
exactly the same as these three lines. Shinran and millions of his followers through all the
generations have cherished this verse and derived from it inexhaustible inspiration, and
many more will follow their examples throughout the infinite future ages - in different
countries and in many other languages.
Although my eyes are blinded by evil passions
And so are unable to see the Light of Embrace,
The Great Compassion continually
Shines on me tirelessly.
(
H
y
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P
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101
r
c
h
s
9
5
)
Those who aspire to the Land of Recompense,
Though different in outward appearances,
Should receive in faith the Primal Vow and the Name
And keep them in mind, whether awake or asleep."
(
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6
)
Sentient beings with extremely evil karma
Have no other means of salvation;
By solely reciting Amida's Name
They shall be born in the Pure Land, so Genshin says.
(
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7
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(18) Honen (lines 109-116)

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Genku, the master of our school, was well-versed in
Buddhism;
He was compassionately mindful of both good and wicked
ordinary people.
Disseminating the teaching of the True Way throughout
Japan,
He spread the selected Original Vow in this evil world.
Transmigration in the house of Samsara
Is definitely due to doubt;
Quick attainment of the bliss of Nirvana
Is necessarily realized by Faith.
The last of the Seven Masters and Shinran's teacher was Honen (1133-1212). He was
born in the present Okayama Prefecture, and his family name was Uruma. His boy's
name was Seishimaru. When Honen was 9, his father, who was a provincial official, was
attacked by an opposing faction. Before he died, he said to Seishimaru, "Don't seek to
take revenge for me. This incident is entirely due to my past karma. If you bear ill will to
my enemies, such hostility begets further hatred, and thus will multiply endlessly. Leave
the secular world quickly and seek the Buddhist Way to emancipation for me and for
yourself."
Honen left home and became a novice at a local temple, and four years later he was sent
to Mt. Hiei, where he studied and practiced under Genko and then under Koen. After
studying mainly the Tendai teaching, he left Koen and moved to the Kurodani precinct,
where he joined the Nembutsu group headed by Eiku and was given the name Honenbo
Genku. He also received the Mahayana precepts from Eiku.
After practicing on Mt. Hiei for twelve years, Honen left the mountain and visited various
masters in Kyoto and Nara. But, without finding the solution to his spiritual problem, he
returned to Mt. Hiei and began to read the complete collection of Buddhist scriptures
over and over in the library at the Kurodani precinct. In the third month of 1175, at the
age of forty-three, his spiritual horizon finally dawned when he happened on the
following passage in Shan-tao's commentary on the Contemplation Sutra (SSZ, I, 538):
To recite Amida's Name with singleness of mind
continually and without interruption, whether walking,
standing, sitting or lying, irrespective of the length of
practice -- this is called the Act of Right Assurance,
because it accords with Amida's Vow.
This passage awakened Honen to the power of Amida's Vow working through the Name.
Thus he gave up all the other practices and took the single-hearted recitation of the
Nembutsu as the sole practice for salvation. He then left the mountain and went to live in
Kyoto. His time coincided with the mounting social unrest caused by armed conflicts
between the Taira and the Minamoto clans. Those who despaired of a peaceful life in this
world and were convinced of the advent of the last Dharma-age came to Honen to hear
his Nembutsu teaching. He compassionately received people of all walks of life, both
monks and laymen, warriors and peasants, and taught them only the exclusive recitation

103
of the Nembutsu. Soon his name resounded throughout the country.
In 1198, at the request of the Lord Chancellor Fujiwara Kanezane, Honen wrote A
Collection of Passages Concerning the Nembutsu of the Best-selected Primal Vow, in
which he presented the essentials of the Nembutsu teaching and declared the
independence of the Nembutsu school. It may be remembered that the Nembutsu had
been part of the practice of major Mahayana schools in Japan but an independent Pure
Land school had not yet been formed. Honen emphasized that the Nembutsu of the bestselected Primal Vow, that is, the 18th Vow is not only the easiest practice that anyone can
follow, but also is superior to other sophisticated practices.
The growing popularity of Honen's teaching aroused jealousy in monks of other sects. In
1204, the monks of Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei urged their abbot to stop the Nembutsu
teaching. In 1206, when Honen's two disciples were accused of ordaining two courtladies without permission, the persecution of the Nembutsu began. The two disciples
were executed and Honen was exiled to Shikoku. In 1211 he was pardoned but soon after
he returned to Kyoto, he became ill and died in the following year. According to his
biography composed by Shinran, Honen often had visions of the Pure Land in his
Nembutsu Samadhi, and his death was accompanied by miraculous signs.
Honen's contribution to the spread of the Nembutsu teaching in Japan is inestimable, as
Shinran aptly eulogizes in a hymn:
As Honen, the master of our school, appeared in the world
And spread the One-Vehicle teaching of the Original Vow,
Everywhere in the Island of Japan have become manifest
The favorable conditions for the Pure Land Path.
(
H
y
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s
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t
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104
r
c
h
s
9
8
)
It was believed that Honen was an incarnation of Mahasthamaprapta and also had
appeared in China as Tao-ch'o and Shan-tao:
By the power of the one embodying the Light of Wisdom
Appeared Honen, the master of our school;
He revealed the true Pure Land teaching
And expounded the Best-selected Original Vow.
(
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9
)
The original state of Honen, the master of our school,
According to popular beliefs in the world,
Was Master Tao-ch'o;
Others believed that he was Shan-tao.
(
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)

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In his writings, Shinran took every opportunity to express his gratitude to Honen, as in
the following hymns:
For the past countless kalpas over innumerable lives
I did not know the powerful working for our emancipation;
If it were not for Honen, the master of our school,
I would have passed in vain this time, too.
(
I
b
i
d
.
1
0
1
)
To encounter a true teacher
Is the difficulty of all difficulties;
The endless transmigration in Samsara
Is solely caused by doubt on our side.
(
I
b
i
d
.
1
0
9
)
Honen's Pure Land teaching is characterized by exclusive recitation of the Nembutsu,
which he inherited directly from Shan-tao. He discarded all other methods of salvation,
such as meditation and even the Bodhi-mind, which is regarded as the prerequisite for
attaining Enlightenment in all the Mahayana schools. Since the Name contains all the
merits of Amida and the Nembutsu is supported by his Vow, recitation of it quickly brings
salvation even to the most wicked person. Salvation in the Pure Land teaching means
attainment of birth in the Pure Land, where the ultimate Enlightenment is spontaneously
achieved.
In selecting the Nembutsu out of many Buddhist practices, Honen presents threefold

106
elimination: (1) out of the choice between the Path of Sages and the Pure Land Path, he
eliminates the Path of Sages and takes the Pure Land Path; (2) out of the choice between
miscellaneous acts and the right act, he discards miscellaneous acts and follows the right
acts; (3) out of the Five Right Acts established by Shan-tao as the essential practices
leading to birth in the Pure Land, Honen casts aside the Auxiliary Acts (i.e., chanting
sutras, contemplation, worshiping, and praising and making offerings) and takes the
fourth act, recitation of the Nembutsu, which is called 'the Act of Right Assurance'
because it enables the practitioner to attain birth in the Pure Land.
Honen's Nembutsu practice did not end in mere vocal exercises. He deeply believed in
the transcendent state of concentration and absorption which the Nembutsu leads up to.
This spiritual experience, called 'the Nembutsu Samadhi,' was shared by Shan-tao, too.
According to the Record of Attainment of Samadhi, in the first month of 1199, when
Honen was sixty-five, he began his regular seven-day intensive practice of the Nembutsu.
On the first day a dim light appeared; on the second day he visualized the water in the
Pure Land. Within the seven days he partly visualized the beryl ground. Later in the
second month, he visualized various objects of the Pure Land. During the period of this
practice he daily recited the Nembutsu seventy thousand times.
That Honen attached great importance to the Samadhi experience is also shown by the
selection of his teacher in the lineage of Dharma-transmission. He chose Shan-tao in
particular because Shan-tao attained the Nembutsu Samadhi.
Honen claimed the supremacy of the Nembutsu over all the other Buddhist practices,
clarifying that it is the easiest and yet the most effective act, capable of emancipating
anyone who recites it from the painful cycle of birth-and-death. In his Collection of
Passages Concerning the Nembutsu of the Best-selected Primal Vow, Honen quotes a
passage from the Larger Sutra, "If there are people who hear the Name of that Buddha,
rejoice so greatly as to dance, and calls his Name even once, then you should know that
they have gained great benefit by receiving the supreme merits," and then explains as
follows: "One Nembutsu, one supreme merit; ten Nembutsu, ten supreme merits; a
hundred Nembutsu, a hundred supreme merits; a thousand Nembutsu, a thousand
supreme merits. In this way, the number of the Nembutsu increases, until one reaches the
Nembutsu recitations as countless as the sands of the River Ganges, which yield the same
number of supreme merits."
The merits of the Nembutsu spontaneously accrue to one who recites it with sincere and
joyful faith. As is clear from Honen's explanation above, one Nembutsu recitation is itself
the absolute practice of the supreme merit, but it does not end there; it multiplies
endlessly. One absolute Nembutsu contains the infinite number of Nembutsu, which
become manifest as continuous recitation of it all through one's life. In Shinran's
interpretation, this is wholly due to the fact that Amida's Name "contains various
goodness and virtue, all-complete and perfect in its efficacy, and is indeed the treasureocean of the merits of True Suchness." (Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Practice)
While recommending the exclusive recitation of the Nembutsu, Honen cautions us
against entertaining doubt and urges us to have sincere and deep faith. Based on Shantao's exposition of the 'three minds' mentioned in the Contemplation Sutra (i.e., sincere
mind, deep mind and aspiration for birth in the Pure Land by transferring the merits of

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practice towards it), Honen concludes, "Confinement in the house of Samsara is due to
doubt; entrance into the castle of Nirvana is realized by faith." According to Shinran, the
'three minds' in the Contemplation Sutra have dual aspects: (1) explicitly, they are to be
established by one's effort and (2) implicitly, faith which is truly sincere and deep comes
from Amida; such faith is Amida's Wisdom and Compassion transferred to us. This
interpretation agrees with the real intent of Honen. What he recommended to us is the
Nembutsu of the Other-Power Faith. Recitation of the Nembutsu with self-power is
dismissed as a practice with insincere and shallow faith, which is no better than repeating
the Nembutsu while entertaining doubt.
In the eyes of Shinran, Honen was no ordinary person. He was an incarnation of a
Buddha, as he says in a hymn:
As the time came for the Buddhas to exercise expedient
means
of salvation,
They manifested themselves in the person of Honen;
He taught us the supreme Faith,
And thus opened the gate leading to Nirvana.
(Hymns on the Patriarchs 108)
Shinran even believed that Honen was an incarnation of Amida:
Born in Japan, the land of many islands off the coast of the
Continent,
Honen spread the Nembutsu teaching;
In order to save sentient beings,
He had come to visit here many times.
(
I
b
i
d
.
1
1
3
)
Amida Tathagata manifested himself
As Honen, the master of this school;
When the term of his mission ended
He returned to the Pure Land.

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(
I
b
i
d
.
,
1
1
4
)

(19) Concluding remarks (lines 117-120)

The bodhisattvas and masters of this school who spread the
teaching of the Pure Land sutras
Have saved innumerable beings, totally defiled and evil.
People of the present age, both priests and laymen, should
with one mind
Accept in faith the teachings of those virtuous masters.
Shinran is often described as a religious genius or a reformer like Martin Luther (14831546). It is easy to observe a person from outside and compare him with some other
person, but extremely difficult to enter into his mind and think and feel the same way as
he does. For the follower of Shin Buddhism, just to praise Shinran and eulogize his virtue
is not enough. To understand his teaching and be grateful for his kind guidance is still not
true appreciation of Shinran. We must straightforwardly enter his mind and heart and,
through him, reach Amida's Mind in order to understand him from within and see him in
the light of truth.
Shinran was indeed a great religious personage, but his greatness did not come from his
high intelligence or his extraordinary spiritual power. He made great efforts from early
days to attain salvation, only to find that mere human efforts did not bring him nearer to
it. After twenty years' practice on Mt. Hiei he came down to the city of Kyoto and
encountered through Honen the transcendent and universal Power of Amida Buddha,
which made him great. We can say that Shinran entered into Honen's mind and reached
Amida's saving power, but what actually took place was Amida's Mind entering Shinran's
mind through Honen. Upon encountering Amida, Shinran ceased to be Shinran. He lost
his identity and personality as a man, along with all his evil karma, and was absorbed into
Amida's Personality, the Buddhahood. In the same way, the deeper we enter into
Shinran's mind, the deeper we find ourselves in Amida's all-embracing Mind.
In the endless transmission of the Shin teaching, Amida's Mind plays the central role.
Amida as a Person is manifested in a conceivable and perceivable form, and we can

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comprehend and appreciate his Mind through his Vows. The Three Sutras explain how
the Vows were made and fulfilled and how they are performing the salvific activities in
the samsaric world. We learn about the Vows in the Three Sutras, and through the Vows
we encounter Amida and enter into his Mind.
In the Shoshinge, and also in other works by Shinran, we note that he had no intention of
starting a new school but professed himself to be a follower of the tradition of the Shin
teaching developed by the Seven Masters. We can compare this Shin tradition to a great
river. The raindrops from the sky of Amida's Mind formed a river of Shin Buddhism. For
the first few centuries after Shakyamuni's Parinirvana it remained an undercurrent but
gradually gained power, until it rose to the surface of the history of Buddhism about the
beginning of our common era together with other Mahayana schools. Many masters in
India, such as Ashvaghosa, Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu, promulgated the Shin teaching
while advancing their respective metaphysical thought. In China the river grew bigger
with many tributaries flowing into it. While T'an-luan, Tao-ch'o and Shan-tao maintained
its main stream, the river washed a wide area of the Chinese mainland and its surrounding
countries like Korea and Vietnam. From early days Japan was benefited by the water of
this river, and before long Shin became the central current through the contributions of
many masters, especially Genshin, Honen and Shinran.
The river of Amida's Dharma flows on and on to the unknown future. We are fortunate
enough to encounter this river and become part of it by drinking its water and quenching
our spiritual thirst. This river will run the whole course of human history and benefit
boundlessly men and women of all walks of life. The sound of the river will echo
throughout the world with the chant of the Shoshinge joined by Shin Buddhists of
different races and nationalities.
[END]