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Studio Teaching
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such objectives often seems artificial and perhaps even contrary to the ultimate purposes of
the studio.
There is also another reason why the content of
teaching in studio is not generally made more
Some of the most confusing messages for students concern the nature, purpose, and process
of designing.7 Taken together, these can be considered the "model of design" we present,
although such "models" are often neither
explicit. All the aspects of design educationthe skills, the language, and the approach to
problems-are more effectively taught indirectly
acterized by multiple and sometimes contradictory goals, implicit theories, and inherent
in various experiences that those who do understand make available to him."5 In fact, what we
"pluralistic" about the design process: "imposing" a model of design is considered too doctrinaire. Nevertheless, these instructors do communicate implicitly--and unintentionally-their
attitudes about design, and therefore may be
imposing them without recognizing it.
Because so much of the content of studio teaching is implicit, we should be aware of what we
are communicating so that we can be intentional
about it. Contradictions between what we say
studio derive from a model of design (the analysis-synthesis model) that we do not necessarily
subscribe to and that has been challenged as
"theoretically Iuntenable ... and practically confusing."8 Moreover, I would add that another
model of design (the concept-test model) would
lead to some different teaching methods that
might enable students to learn more effectively.
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Two-stage analysis-synthesis organization
Consequences
and O'Sullivan pointed out in 1972, on rationalist-empiricist assumptions about the necessity of
objectivity in problem-solving: "the notion that
a solution by means of a set of logical or procedural rules."12 It was assumed that non-quantifiable and intuitive aspects of design would have
an important role in the process, but would be
differentiated as much as possible from its
rational aspects. The process is thereby divided
designing."
analysis activities.
procedures, while the synthesis stage is relatively unstructured. During the early weeks of a
studio project, analytic assignments of short
duration (three weeks is a long assignment) are
often given to the class as a whole, conveying
the expectation that there are certain prescribed
design, which will be discussed in the next section, I believe its consequences in studio teach-
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what the studio is perceived to teach, and some
students are more successful at learning it than
others. In some cases, major inconsistencies
between a problem definition and its solution are
not even recognized by the student, much less
reconciled. The dichotomy is even more
serious when students begin to see formmaking as entirely separate and different from
problem-solving.
Fear of designing
Students, even very capable students, often feel
pointing because the physical form consequences of their design intentions have not been
explored. Although there are, of course, many
reasons why a design proposal is not fully
Inappropriate closure
design problems.
Consequences
grove, and O'Sullivan argue that the analysissynthesis model is theoretically untenable
because "factual (perceptual) knowledge"
cannot exist outside a theoretical (cognitive)
framework and because the logic of induction,
as demonstrated by Popper, is "both unattainable and unnecessary."22 Problem-solving, as we
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tor of our imagination and of our power to communicate with others."25
From these theoretical and practical difficulties
rigorous analysis, thrive on each other; oscillating or cycling between them is what enables the
designer to learn from his or her work and progressively improve the design.
point. It is a method that emphasizes the resolution of many issues simultaneously, since it
structures a problem holistically rather than by
Beginning backwards
The starting point of a project that begins backwards is its solution: students are asked to con-
The pedagogical purpose of beginning backwards can also be seen as helping create for
students the perception of a need for knowledge. Perceived need, as we know from studies
of the learning process is a critical motivating
Incremental information
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information at each design cycle: to introduce
One of the goals of decomposing the information is to teach students how to differentiate relevant from irrelevant information at each
stage-that is, to acquire information strategically. In later design cycles, therefore, students
are encouraged to take the initiative in identifying
ing about them. It can not only challenge superficial notions of originality and the value of
uniqueness for its own sake, but it can also discourage unthinking adoption of prior solutions.
The key is to help students distinguish the perti-
later studios.
Self-evaluation
Students are encouraged in board crits and in
group reviews to take initiative in evaluating their
each case, the idea of physical form as the realization of specific design intentions is empha-
design ideas is a fundamental aspect of the concept-test model. In order to design, students
have to understand the difference between external sources of knowledge and their own percep-
Form experiments
test model because, according to this conception of design, as Schon suggests, the object of
the designer is not rationality but "reflexivity":
tions. Such shared reflections afford the opportunity to address not only the current status of
the designer's capacity for detached commitment-to propose an idea with full commit-
ment, then to evaluate it as a detached criticthat is the core of the concept-test model. It is
an ability that is essential to what we mean by
"thinking architecturally." An indication of contingent thinking in the studio is the difference
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ra for evaluation are discussed that are derived
process. They address such capabilities as generating a comprehensive design concept and
identifying and responding to diverse issues in
the design problem.
Talking with a student about the progress he is
making in a problem in relation to a particular
Some Conclusions
Notes
1 Beinart, Julian "Analysis of the Content of Design," Architec-
4 Ibid, p. 349.
5 Ibid, p. 414.
6 For a thorough discussion of the problem of "learning
CA) 1981, p. 5.
10 The most thorough and influential elaboration of design proc-
12 Ibid., p. 73.
13 Ibid., p. 70.
14 "It is easy to bring out the contrast between the analytical
nature of the program and the synthetic nature of its realiza-
decisions.
.. is made by successive composition and fusion." Alexan15 Colquhoun, Alan "Typology and Design Method" in Gutman,
Robert (ed.) People and Buildings Basic Books (New York),
1972, p. 404.
16 Summerson, John "Case for a Theory of Modern Architec-
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References
don) 1966.
1974).
Broadbent, Geoffrey and Ward, Anthony, (eds.) Design Methods in Architecture Architectural Association (London) 1969.
and Buildings Basic Books (New York, NY) 1972, pp. 395-405.
(Stroudsburg, PA) 1972, reprinted in Proshansky, H. M., Ittelson, W. H., and Rivlin, L. G. (eds.), Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting (2nd ed.) Holt Rinehart and
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