Phenolic Compound in Fruit PDF

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012, 47, 20232044
Invited review
Phenolic compounds in fruits an overview
Charles W. I. Haminiuk,1* Giselle M. Maciel,2 Manuel S. V. Plata-Oviedo1 & Rosane M. Peralta2
1 Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Tecnologia de Alimentos (PPGTA), Universidade Tecnologica Federal do Parana, Campus Campo Mourao,
Parana, Brasil
2 Departamento de Bioqu mica, Laboratorio de Bioqu mica de Microorganismos, Universidade Estadual de Maringa, Maringa, Parana, Brasil
(Received 23 January 2012; Accepted in revised form 2 April 2012)
Summary
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites widely found in fruits, mostly represented by avonoids and
phenolic acids. The growing interest in these substances is mainly because of their antioxidant potential and
the association between their consumption and the prevention of some diseases. The health benets of these
phytochemicals are directly linked to a regular intake and their bioavailability. Studies have shown the
importance of the regular consumption of fruits, especially for preventing diseases associated with oxidative
stress. In the present review, the most recent articles dealing with polyphenols in fruits are reviewed, focusing
on their occurrence, main methods of extraction, quantication and antioxidant assays. In addition, the
health benets and bioaccessibility bioavailability of phenolic compounds in fruits are addressed.
Keywords
Bioaccessibility, bioavailability, extraction, fruits, health benets, high-performance liquid chromatography, phenolic com
pounds.
Introduction
Phenolic compounds comprise a diverse group of

molecules classied as secondary metabolites in plants
that have a large range of structures and functions. They
can be classied into water-soluble compounds (phenolic acids, phenylpropanoids, avonoids and quinones)
and water-insoluble compounds (condensed tannins,
lignins and cell-wall bound hydroxycinammic acids)
(Rispail et al., 2005). Phenolic compounds have been
considered the most important, numerous and ubiquitous groups of compounds in the plant kingdom (Naczk
& Shahidi, 2004). These substances are synthesised
during the normal development of the plant, as well as
in response to dierent situations, such as stress and UV
radiation, among others (Naczk & Shahidi, 2004).
Phenolic compounds have an aromatic ring bearing
one or more hydroxyl groups and their structure may
vary from that of a simple phenolic molecule to that of a
complex high-molecular mass polymer (Balasundram
et al., 2006). These antioxidant compounds donate an
electron to the free radical and convert it into an
innocuous molecule.
Oxidative stress can cause a series of degenerative
illnesses in humans, such as cancer, multiple sclerosis,
autoimmune disease and Parkinsons disease, to name a
*Correspondent: Fax: +554435181405; e-mail: haminiuk@utfpr.edu.br
few (Theriault et al., 2006). Studies have suggested that

a diet rich in phenolic compounds could avoid the
oxidative damage that leads to ageing and age-related
diseases by scavenging the free radicals from cell
metabolism (Kurosumi et al., 2007). Regarding their
biological eects (antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial,
anti-tumour and antibacterial activities), polyphenols
are known to participate in protection against the
harmful actions of reactive oxygen species (Luo et al.,
2011).
The antioxidants present in fruits, such as phenolic
acids, avonoids, anthocyanins and tannins, among
others, have been frequently associated with health benets (Fu et al., 2011). Historically, fruits have been
considered a rich source of some essential dietary
micronutrients and bres, and more recently they were
recognised as being an important source of a wide array
of phytochemicals that individually, or in combination
may benet health (Yahia, 2009).
This review focuses on presenting recent studies about
phenolic compounds in fruits. A brief overview of the
research on polyphenols in fruits is presented. Their
occurrence, their main methods of analyses and an
evaluation of their antioxidant properties using dierent
in vitro and in vivo techniques are addressed. Finally, the
health benets and the bioavailability bioaccessibility of
the phenolic compounds in the human body are
discussed.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2012.03067.x
2012 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012 Institute of Food Science and Technology
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Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.
Research on phenolic compounds in fruits
The research on phenolic compounds in fruits has

evolved considerably over the last 20 years (Fig. 1). The
role of phenolic compounds in foods, especially in fruits,
has drawn the attention of researchers all over the
world, and a large number of reviews and books have
been published about this topic (Robards et al., 1999;
Kaur & Kapoor, 2001; Balasundram et al., 2006;
Andres-Lacueva et al., 2009; Belitz et al., 2009; El
Gharras, 2009; Ignat et al., 2011). Approximately,
3244 articles on the topic of phenolic compounds in
fruits were published from 1991 to 2011.
The progressive increase in the number of publications
(40-fold from 1991 to 2011) evaluating polyphenols in
fruits as the main topic mostly reects the great interest
in studying these compounds worldwide. The United
States, Spain, Italy, China and Brazil stand out as the
top ve countries around the world where research on
polyphenols in fruits has become prominent (Fig. 2).
The research is mainly focused on: (i) determination of
total phenolic, avonoid and anthocyanin contents, (ii)
evaluation of dierent types of extraction (liquidliquid,
solidliquid and supercritical uid, (iii) investigation of
the biological activity of polyphenols against some key
diseases and microorganisms, (iv) evaluation of their
total antioxidant capacity using several dierent chemical methods: (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical
(DPPHd), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC),
2,2-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)
(ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP),
trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), b-carotene linoleic acid, etc.), (v) the quantication and
identication of polyphenols by spectrophotometric
methods and high eciency liquid chromatography
(HPLC) using dierent detectors (UV Vis, MS, ELSD,
etc.), and (iv) study of bioaccessibility and bioavailability
of polyphenols.
Classification and chemical structure of phenolic
compounds
Phenolic compounds make up a large and fascinating

family of substances (Vermerris & Nicholson, 2006).
Fruits contain considerable levels of bioactive compounds that impart health benets beyond basic nutrition (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001). The amount of phenolic
compounds in fruits is strongly dependent on the degree
of ripeness, variety, climate, soil composition, geographic
location and storage conditions, among other factors
(Belitz et al., 2009). They are mainly classied according
to the number of phenol rings they contain (phenolic
acids, stilbenes, avonoids, lignans and tannins). All
these substances have one or more hydroxyl groups
directly linked to an aromatic ring characterising thus the
phenolic structure (Vermerris & Nicholson, 2006).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012
Figure 1 Number of publications on the topic of phenolic compounds

in fruits produced in two decades (database searched 20 February
2012). Data Source: certain data included herein are derived from the
Web of Science prepared by Thomson Reuters, Inc. (Thomson),
Philadelphia, PA, USA: Copyright Thomson Reuters 2012. All
rights reserved (out of a total of 3244 articles).
Figure 2 Share of publications about phenolic compounds in fruits

among the top ten countries to publish such studies (database searched
20 February 2012). Data Source: certain data included herein are
derived from the Web of Science prepared by Thomson Reuters,
Inc. (Thomson), Philadelphia, PA, USA: Copyright Thomson
Reuters 2012. All rights reserved.
In the case of the avonoids group, when they are

linked to one or more sugar molecules they are known
as avonoid glycosides, and when they are not connected to a sugar molecule they are called aglycones
(Williamson, 2004). The degree of glycosylation directly
aects the antioxidant capacity of avonoids. Usually,
the aglycone forms of myricetin and quercetin are more
active than the glycoside form (Hopia & Heinonen,
1999; Kaur & Kapoor, 2001). The avonoids are the
main bioactive compounds found in fruits and are
2012 The Authors

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012 Institute of Food Science and Technology
distributed into six subclasses: avonols, avanones,

isoavones, avan-3-ols, avones and anthocyanins.
Flavonoids account for approximately two-thirds of
the dietary phenols (Robbins, 2003) and they are mostly
present as glycosides, and partly as esters, rather than as
free compounds (Vermerris & Nicholson, 2006; Belitz
et al., 2009). The per capita consumption of the six
avonoid subclasses in the United States is estimated to
be 189.7 mg day)1, being mainly avan-3-ols (Chun
et al., 2007).
Flavonoids or bioavonoids are widely distributed in
fruits and they are recognised as being natural antioxidants; over 5000 avonoids have been identied to date
(Lampila et al., 2009). These substances have apparent
roles in plant stress defence, such as in the protection
against damage caused by pathogens, wounding or excess
UV light (Winkel-Shirley, 2002). The term avonoid is
usually used to describe a broad collection of natural
products that include a C6-C3-C6 carbon framework or,
more precisely, phenylbenzopyran functionality (Marais
et al., 2006), and they constitute most of the yellow, red
and blue colours in fruits (Lampila et al., 2009). These
phytochemicals were found to be very eective scavengers
of free radicals in in vitro tests and they are important
antioxidants because of their high redox potential and
their ability to chelate metals (Tsao & Yang, 2003; El
Gharras, 2009; Ignat et al., 2011).
The second most important group of phytochemicals
comprises the phenolic acids, which account for almost
the remaining third of the dietary polyphenols, and
which are present in fruits in a bound form. These
substances are divided into two subgroups: hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. In contrast to other
phenolic compounds, the hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids present an acidic character owing to the
presence of one carboxylic group in the molecule (Annie
& Jean-Jacques, 2003). Hydroxycinnamic acid compounds are mainly present as derivatives, having a C6C3 skeleton. Ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid and caeic
acid are some examples of this class. Hydroxybenzoic
acids (C6-C1) are found in various fruits and mostly
occur as esters. The most common phenolic acids found
in fruits in this category are gallic, vanillic, ellagic and
syringic acids.
Tannins are the third class of polyphenols that are
found in fruits and are mostly present as phenolic
polymers. Tannins are astringent and bitter substances
of dierent molecular weights, and some of them,
especially the hydrolysable tannins, are soluble in water.
They are a group of polyhydroxy-avan-3-ol oligomers
and polymers with carboncarbon linkages between
avanol subunits (Schoeld et al., 2001). Tannins have
the ability to precipitate proteins. The two main types of
tannins are condensed and hydrolysable. Gallotannin or
tannic acid is a type of hydrolysable tannin found in fruits.
Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) are the major
phenolic compounds found in grapes. Proanthocyanidins, when in contact with salivary proteins, are responsible for the astringency of fruits (El Gharras, 2009).
Stilbenes are a group of phenylpropanoid-derived
compounds characterised by a 1,2-diphenylethylene
backbone (C6-C2-C6) (Goyal et al., 2012). Low quantities of stilbenes are present in the human diet, and their
main representative is resveratrol, mostly in the glycosylated form (Delmas et al., 2006; Ignat et al., 2011).
Resveratrol is a phytoalexin. This substance is mainly
produced in grapevines in response to injury and fungal
infection (Atanackovic et al., 2012), and the main
dietary source of resveratrol in fruits is found in red
grape skins. Several studies have indicated that resveratrol has the ability to prevent cancer and coronary,
neurological and degenerative diseases (Anekonda,
2006; Saiko et al., 2008; Das & Das, 2010; Gresele
et al., 2011). Resveratrol present in red wine is directly
linked to the French paradox, in which French
people suer a relatively low incidence of coronary
heart disease even though they have a diet relatively
rich in saturated fats (Ferrie`res, 2004). Furthermore, the
incidence of heart infarction in France is about 40%
lower than in the rest of Europe (Renaud & Delorgeril,
1992; Saiko et al., 2008). It is believed that the continuous and moderated ingestion of grape-derived products, especially red wine, plays a key role in preventing
heart disease.
The fth group of polyphenols comprises the lignans,
a large variety of individual structures mostly consisting
of two phenylpropanoid moieties connected via their
side chain C8 carbons (Davin & Lewis, 2003; Aehle
et al., 2011), usually occurring as glycosides. Lignans are
one of the major classes of phytoestrogens, which are
oestrogen-like chemicals. In the gastrointestinal tract,
these molecules are converted into compounds (enterodiol and enterolactone) that have both oestrogenic and
anti-oestrogenic properties (Meagher & Beecher, 2000).
Fruits are not the main dietary source of lignans in food
and low concentrations are found in strawberries and
cranberries (Meagher & Beecher, 2000). The highest
amount of these chemical compounds is found in
axseed. According to data from the Food Composition
Panel of the Spanish Ministry of Environment and
Rural and Marine Aairs, the average intake of lignans
from fruits and vegetables is estimated to be
233.6 lg day)1 (Moreno-Franco et al., 2011).
The composition of phenolic compounds in fruits
varies considerably. Fruits are a particularly rich source
of avonoids (especially avonols, avan-3-ols and
anthocyanins) and hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids. As previously stated, a large amount of
scientic evidence shows that the regular consumption
of fruit is directly linked to the prevention of various
diseases, and the majority of polyphenols that might
account for this are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1 Main dietary source of polyphenols in fruits

Main class
Sub-class
Name
Phenolic
acids
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
Hydroxybenzoic
acids
Flavonoids
Flavonols
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
p-Coumaric acid
Orange, Black
currant
Kelebek & Selli (2011a)

and Gavrilova et al. (2011)
Caffeic acid
Star fruit, Papaya,

Peach, Avocado
Fu et al. (2011) and Golukcu &

Ozdemir (2010)
Chlorogenic acid
Blueberry, Pear, Kiwifruit,

Passion fruit, Peach
Gavrilova et al. (2011) and Fu

et al. (2011)
Ferulic acid
Mango, Red Araca, Orange,

Papaya, Pineapple
Poovarodom et al.(2010), Vidal

et al. (2006), Medina et al. (2011)
and Fu et al. (2011)
Gallic acid
Banana, Pitaya, Avocado
Fu et al. (2011) and Golukcu &

Ozdemir (2010)
Vanillic acid
Avocado, Strawberry
Poovarodom et al. (2010) and

Russell et al. (2009b)
Syringic acid
Strawberry, Black grape
Russell et al. (2009b) and Obon

et al. (2011)
Quercetin
Passion fruit, Jackfruit,

Pomegranate, Camu-camu
Fu et al. (2011) and Akter

et al. (2011)
Kaempferol
Fig, Cambuci
Vallejo et al. (2012) and Goncalves

et al. (2010)
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Table 1 (Continued)
Main class
Sub-class
Flavanones
Flavan-3-ols
Flavones
Anthocyanins
Name
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
Myricetin
Apple, Papaya
Medoua & Oldewage-Theron

(2011), Rinaldo et al. (2010)
and Lako et al. (2007)
Rutin
Red Grape, Prune,

Bluberry
Fu et al. (2011) and Gavrilova

et al. (2011)
Hesperetin
Grapefruit, Orange
Zhang et al. (2011) and Plaza

et al. (2011)
Naringenin
Grapefruit, Orange
Ribeiro & Ribeiro (2008),

Goulas & Manganaris (2012)
and Zhang et al. (2011)
Epicatechin
Avocado, Yellow Araca
Golukcu & Ozdemir (2010) and

Medina et al. (2011)
Catechin
Red grape, Sweet cherry
Iacopini et al. (2008) and Kelebek

& Selli (2011b)
Apigenin
Mango, Durian, Bilimbi fuit
Poovarodom et al. (2010) and

Miean & Mohamed (2001)
Luteolin
Lemon, Pineapple, Plum,

Watermelon, Orange
Fu et al. (2011) and Fuzfai &

Molnar-Perl (2007)
Delphinidin
Grapefruit, Blackcurrant,
Blueberry
Fu et al. (2011) and Obon

et al. (2011)
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Table 1 (Continued)
Main class
Stilbenes
Sub-class
Name
Chemical structure
Fruit material
References
Cyanidin
Raspberry, Pomegranate,
Acerola
Fanali et al. (2011) and Mamede

et al. (2009)
Malvidin
Blueberry, Myrtle fruit,

Red Grape
Wang et al. (2008b), Messaoud &

Boussaid (2011) and Lambert
et al. (2011)
Peonidin
Blueberry, Black Currant
Obon et al. (2011) and

Bakowska-Barczak & Kolodziejczyk
(2011)
Pelargonidin
Strawberry, Raspberry,
Mangosteen
Obon et al. (2011) and Zarena &

Udaya Sankar (2012)
Petunidin
Apple, Blueberry
Kahle et al. (2006) and Fanali

et al. (2011)
Resveratrol
Red Grape, Cranberry,

Strawberry
Granato et al. (2011) and Huang

& Mazza (2011)
Extraction of polyphenols
The extraction of phenolic compounds is inuenced by

several parameters, and the initial step of a preliminary
experiment is to select the most appropriate extraction
conditions. Sample preparation plays an important role
in the quantication of phytochemicals from plant
material, and it is the rst and usually the most
important process, which greatly inuences the repeatability and accuracy of the analysis (Zhao et al., 2011).
To achieve maximum extraction, it is recommended that
several dierent parameters are tested, such as the
solvent, agitation, extraction time, solute solvent ratio,
temperature, eciency of mass transfer and particle size,
for example (Luthria, 2008; Hurtado-Fernandez et al.,
2010; Haminiuk et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2011). Ideally,
the extraction of polyphenols should be performed using
fresh fruit samples. However, because of seasonality,
perishability, shelf-life and quality, many researchers
have used freezing and drying processes to preserve the

plant material. These processes are often a necessary
step for preserving the fruit sample against dierent
types of degradation, for avoiding microorganisms and
for concentrating the antioxidant compounds. Some
authors have reported that the freezing process and
long-term frozen storage cause important losses in the
amount of phenolic compounds and vitamins found in
fruits (de Ancos et al., 2000; Chaovanalikit & Wrolstad,
2004; Turkben et al., 2010).
Dierent techniques are available to preserve plant
material, and in the last few years, lyophilisation has
been widely used. Lyophilisation is a process that
removes the water from materials such as foods, drugs
and biological samples, and it has been recognised as an
important and well-established technique for improving
the long-term stability of a product (Kasper & Friess,
2011). In the literature, several authors have reported
the use of lyophilisation as a drying technique for
2012 The Authors

preserving fruit samples (Marques et al., 2007, 2009;

Hurtado-Fernandez et al., 2010; de Torres et al., 2010;
Ignat et al., 2011; Kotikova et al., 2011; Rockenbach
et al., 2011).
The utilisation of nely powdered plant material
enhances the extraction of phenolic compounds by
increasing the surface area of the sample and promoting
disruption of the plant cell wall (Kim & Lee, 2001).
When the fruit sample is obtained (fresh, frozen, dried
or lyophilised), the next stage is extraction, per se. The
most commonly used step for extracting phenolic
compounds in fruits is the use of organic solvents. The
choice of the most appropriate solvent depends on its
selectivity, miscibility, density, recovery, price, vapour
pressure, viscosity and chemical and thermal stability.
Various solvents and conditions have been used to
achieve optimal extraction. The application of acidied
methanol, ethanol, acetone and ethyl acetate, and the
combination of these solvents with water, has been
widely reported in the literature (Luthria & PastorCorrales, 2006; Durling et al., 2007; Luthria, 2008;
Wang et al., 2008a; Russell et al., 2009a; Annegowda
et al., 2012; Haminiuk et al., 2011; Prasad et al., 2011;
Ramful et al., 2011). Solidliquid extraction (SLE) is an
important, simple and ecient technique of mass
transfer used for the recovery of polyphenols from fruit
tissues. It allows soluble components to be removed
from the plant matrix and these compounds migrate
into the solvent up to the point of equilibrium (Corrales
et al., 2009). This process can be improved by changing
the concentration gradients, the boundary layer and
diusion coecients (Corrales et al., 2009; Ignat et al.,
2011). In addition, to enhance the extraction process,
some authors have combined the SLE technique with
ultrasound. This method has been successfully used to
extract bioactive compounds (Herrera & de Castro,
2005; Ma et al., 2009; Casazza et al., 2010; Prasad et al.,
2010; Wang & Zuo, 2011).
Ultrasound-assisted extraction is a quick and ecient
method for extracting phenolic compounds from fruits
(Kim & Lee, 2001), being an eective way of extracting
analytes from dierent matrices in a shorter time than
other extraction techniques (Herrera & de Castro, 2005).
The increase in polyphenol extraction by this technique
is because of the disruption of cell walls, a reduction in
particle size and enhancement of the mass transfer of cell
contents to the solvent, caused by the collapse of the
bubbles produced by cavitation (Paniwnyk et al., 2001;
Rodrigues & Pinto, 2007). One of the disadvantages of
the solid-extraction process is the co-extraction of
substances such as proteins, sugars and organic acids
(Ignat et al., 2011) that might interfere in the quantication of polyphenols, especially with the Folin-Ciocalteu method. To remove these interferences, the use of
C18 Sep-Pak cartridges is highly recommended. This
purication technique separates the non-polyphenolic
substances from the polyphenolic extract of the fruit,

producing more accurate results.
In the last decade, the use of supercritical uid
extraction (SFE) of bioactive compounds in fruits has
been investigated and is gaining popularity. Carbon
dioxide is the most commonly used uid in SFE
(Quitain et al., 2006). This type of extraction is considered an emerging technology (Casas et al., 2009) and it
presents some advantages over classic solvent extraction
methods, because it is a more selective and less toxic
technique (Alpendurada, 2003). Other advantages of
SFE include free-solvent products and the prevention of
oxidation during processing (Vatai et al., 2009; Herrero
et al., 2010). One disadvantage of this technique is the
need for expensive equipment and high pressures, which
increase the costs compared with conventional liquid
extraction. Therefore, SFE will only be used when
signicant advantages overcome these disadvantages.
Vatai et al. (2009) showed that the pre-treatment of
fruit samples with carbon dioxide (CO2) removed the
non-polar substances, making the polar polyphenols
more accessible in grapes and elderberries. However, the
amount of extracted anthocyanins in these fruits was not
signicantly inuenced by SFE. In another study, SFE
with CO2 EtOH showed similar results for the total
phenolic compounds (TPC) in guava seeds compared
with the Soxhlet SLE method (Castro-Vargas et al.,
2010). Supercritical carbon dioxide was successfully
used to extract resveratrol from grape pomace by Casas
et al. (2010). In this study, SFE with CO2 EtOH
(400 bar and 35 C) presented the highest resveratrol
recovery (49.10 mg per 100 g of dry sample) when
compared with conventional extraction [methanol HCl
(0.1%) for 30 min in an ultrasonic bath], where 3.10 mg
of resveratrol per 100 g of dry sample was obtained.
Quantification of phenolic compounds by
spectrophotometric techniques
Fruits are an important source of polyphenols in the

human diet and the proper quantication of these
substances is of fundamental importance. The main
methodologies used to quantify the bioactive compounds in fruits, which are widely described in the
literature, are the colorimetric method of Folin-Ciocalteu that estimates the total polyphenols (TPC), the
aluminium chloride colorimetric assay that quanties
the total avonoids (TF) and total anthocyanins (TA)
estimated by the pH dierential method, which is based
on the structural change of the anthocyanin chromophore between pH values of 1.0 and 4.5 (Granato et al.,
2010; Haminiuk et al., 2011). Table 2 shows a brief
summary of the total polyphenols, total avonoids and
TA in dierent fruits.
The quantication of phenolic compounds is mainly
carried out by spectrophotometric analysis. Generally,
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Table 2 Summary of total phenolic compounds, avonoids and anthocyanins of different fruits as quantied by spectrophotometric measurements
Fruit material
Aca
Acerola
Banana
Blackberry
Cambuci
Fig
Grape
Kiwifruit
Mulberry
Orange
Plum
Raspberry
Strawberry
Uvaia
Sample
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Lyophilised powder
Fresh
Fresh
Fresh
Lyophilised powder
Fresh
Solvent
Methanol acetone
Methanol acetone
Acetone water acetic
Phosphate buffer
Ethanol
Methanol HCl
Methanol HCl
Water
Phosphate buffer
Water
Ethanol
Total phenolics
Total flavonoids
acid
acid
acid
acid
454.00
1063.00a
475.00c
226.00a
3414.00e
463.00a
2348.00e
112.00c
1515.90a
243.00c
311.00c
267.00a
363.70a
373.40e
Total anthocyanins
b
0.70d
30.16d
45.60f
0.40d
250.10d
6.10d
3.00d
14.60d
58.72d
111.00
18.90b
0.00b
153.30b
19.44b
27.30b
99.08b
0.00b
0.00b
102.00b
197.20b
4.77b
References
Rufino et al. (2010)
Rufino et al. (2010)
Kevers et al. (2007)
Wang & Lin (2000)
Haminiuk et al. (2011)
Solomon et al. (2006)
Orak (2007)
Lin & Tang (2007)
Wang & Lin (2000)
Lin & Tang (2007)
Haminiuk et al. (2011)
mg GAE 100 g)1 of fresh weight.

mg 100 g)1 of fresh weight (expressed as cyanidin 3-glucoside or malvidin-3-glucoside).
c
mg CAE 100 g)1 of fresh weight.
d
mg of QE 100 g)1 of fresh weight.
e
mg GAE l)1 of fresh weigh.
f
mg CE 100 g)1 of fresh weight.
GAE, gallic acid equivalent; CAE, chlorogenic acid equivalent; QE, quercetin equivalent; CE, catechin equivalent.
a
the visible region of the spectrum is used to quantify

total phenolics, avonoids and tannins, among other
substances.
The most common and widespread methodology used
to quantify the total phenolic compounds in foodstus
originated from the methodology developed in 1927 by
Otto Folin and Vintila Ciocalteu for the measurement of
tyrosine (Folin & Ciocalteu, 1927; Everette et al., 2010),
and it was adapted in 1965 by Vernon Singleton and
Joseph Rossi for the evaluation of total phenolics in
wine (Singleton & Rossi, 1965). This methodology is
based on chemical reduction by a mixture of tungsten
and molybdenum oxides (Waterhouse, 2001). Upon
reaction with phenols, a blue colour is produced, which
absorbs light at 765 nm (Everette et al., 2010). The
intensity of light absorption at this wavelength is
proportional to the concentration of phenols (Waterhouse, 2001). It is noteworthy that this reagent does not
only measure total phenols but it will react with any
reducing substance. For this reason, the total reducing
capacity of a sample will be quantied and not only the
level of phenolic compounds (Ikawa et al., 2003). The
average time for this test is 2 h; however, this time can
be reduced by heating the sample. The main disadvantage of heating is that it aects the reproducibility of the
assay because heating causes instability of the blue
colour over time (colour loss).
Several articles reporting the total phenolic composition of fruits estimated using the Folin-Ciocalteu
method (Singleton & Rossi, 1965; Singleton et al.,
1999) are available in the scientic literature: kiwifruit
(Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009), grape (Yang et al., 2009),

mango (Prasad et al., 2011), pomegranate (Cristofori
et al., 2011), cranberry (Cote et al., 2011), banana,
guava, peach and pear (Contreras-Calderon et al.,
2011), lemon, orange, passion fruit, pitaya, plum,
avocado and papaya (Fu et al., 2011) and apple (Zheng
et al., 2012). In a recent study, a wide variation in the
contents of the total phenolic compounds of sixty-two
Chinese fruits was found, where the total phenolic
compounds ranged from 11.88 to 585.52 mg gallic acid
equivalent (GAE) per 100 g, with a dierence of 49-fold
and a mean value of 71.80 mg GAE per 100 g (Fu et al.,
2011). Pear (honey) and Chinese date presented the
lowest and the highest amounts of total phenolic
compounds, respectively (Fu et al., 2011). High contents
of TPC can be found in fruits: 1063 mg GAE per 100 g
of fresh weight (FW) in acerola (Runo et al., 2010),
1365 mg GAE per 100 g of FW in cambuci (Haminiuk
et al., 2011), 1797 mg GAE per 100 g of FW in camucamu (Genovese et al., 2008) and 2167 mg GAE per
100 g of FW in Andean blackberry (Vasco et al., 2008).
Flavonoids are mainly accumulated in the outer tissue
of fruits because their synthesis is stimulated by sunlight
(Manach et al., 2004; Rosa et al., 2010). The total
avonoid content in fruits is mainly estimated using the
colorimetric method with aluminium chloride. In this
methodology, the fruit extract is added in a methanolic
solution of aluminium chloride at a determined concentration. In some methodologies, the extract is mixed
with NaNO2 before mixing with AlCl3 (Sun et al., 2011).
After a short period of time, the absorbance is measured
2012 The Authors

and compared with a avonoid standard (catechin,

quercetin or rutin). The disadvantage of this methodology is that it only gives an estimation of the total
avonoid content (Ignat et al., 2011). Nevertheless, this
is a simple and ecient methodology for quantifying the
total content of avonoids in fruits and it can be very
useful when more advanced equipment, such as HPLC,
is not available. The avonoid concentration in fruits
varies by many orders of magnitude and in most of
fruits these compounds are present in the skin. Berries
are in the group that presents one of the highest values
of total avonoids among fruit (USDA, 2011). Blueberry, among another nineteen Bulgarian fruits, was
found to contain the highest amount of total avonoids
with 190.3 mg of catechin equivalent (CE) per 100 g of
FW, followed by sour cherry with 138.6 mg CE per
100 g of FW (Marinova et al., 2005).
Anthocyanins are water-soluble glycosides of anthocyanidins (aglycones) (Vermerris & Nicholson, 2006).
These compounds are benzopyrylium and avylium salts
(Belitz et al., 2009). They are divided into anthocyanidin
aglycones (sugar free) and anthocyanin glycosides. These
substances are particularly evident in owers and fruit
tissues. Anthocyanin is derived from two Greek words,
anthos and kyanos, meaning ower and dark blue,
respectively (He & Giusti, 2010). This class of phenolic
compounds is recognised as being the most important
group of pigments in nature and they contribute to the
attractive colours of fruits. Anthocyanins are pigments
dissolved in the vacuolar sap of the epidermal tissues of
fruits, to which they impart a pink, red, blue or purple
colour, and they exist in dierent chemical forms, both
coloured and non-coloured, according to the pH (Mouly
et al., 1994; Manach et al., 2004). Over 635 anthocyanins
have been identied in plants to date (Wallace, 2008; He
& Giusti, 2010), although only six are commonly found:
delphinidin, cyanidin, pelargonidin, malvidin, petunidin
and peonidin.
The pH dierential method is the most commonly and
widely used assay for quantifying monomeric anthocyanins. This methodology measures the absorbance at
two dierent pH values, and it is based on the structural
transformation of the anthocyanin chromophore as a
function of pH (Giusti & Wrolstad, 2001). It was initially
developed to evaluate pigments in strawberry jam
(Sondheimer & Kertesz, 1948). The methodology has
undergone some modications over time (Fuleki &
Francis, 1968; Wrolstad et al., 1982; Giusti & Wrolstad,
2001). In this methodology, basically the pigments
reversibly change colour with a change in pH. The
samples are diluted with aqueous pH 1.0 and 4.5 buers
and absorbance measurements are made at the wavelength of the maximum absorbance of the pH 1.0
solution (Wrolstad et al., 2005). The pH dierential
method is based on this reaction and the dierence in the
absorbance of the pigments at 520 nm is proportional to
the pigment concentration. The results are mainly

expressed on a cyanidin-3-glucoside basis.
The group of cherries and berries has been extensively
reported in literature as containing the fruits with the
highest levels of anthocyanins per serving. Berries with
red, blue or purple colours constitute one of the most
important sources of these phytochemicals (Kahkonen
et al., 2003). Grapes are one of the major dietary sources
of anthocyanins (Munoz-Espada et al., 2004), being
widely obtained from wine, juices and jams, for example. Some hybrid grape cultivars can reach up to 603 mg
of anthocyanins per 100 g of FW (Mazza, 1995; Yang
et al., 2009). Raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, chokeberry and bilberry, among others, are very rich in
anthocyanins. Plum and elderberry are also among the
richest sources of anthocyanins in fruits (USDA, 2011).
Identification and quantification of phenolic
compounds by HPLC
Liquid chromatography is an important physical separation technique carried out in the liquid phase where a
mixture of compounds can be easily and rapidly
separated. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) is the main method used for
the separation of phenolic compounds in plant-food
material, in which the stationary phase is less polar than
the mobile phase. The stationary phase is generally
made up of hydrophobic alkyl chains, where there are
three common chain lengths: C4, C8 and C18 (Guzzeta,
2011). Silica-bonded C18 columns are widely used to
separate phenolic compounds. In RP-HPLC, the retention time of phenolic compounds is higher for substances that are less polar (myricetin, quercetin,
kaempferol); meanwhile, polar molecules are eluted
more easily (gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, epigallocatechin).
Owing to their chemical complexity and similarity,
polyphenols in fruits are usually identied and quantied by RP-HPLC using a gradient elution instead of the
isocratic mode, where the mobile phase is generally a
binary system (Merken & Beecher, 2000; Kim & Lee,
2001). Usually, gradient elution is carried out with high
quality ultrapure acidied water (phosphoric, acetic,
formic acids) as the polar solvent; meanwhile, acetonitrile and methanol are usually used as less polar solvents
(Kim & Lee, 2001). A small quantity of acid is added to
the solvent system to suppress the ionisation of phenolic
and carboxylic groups, which will improve certain
parameters such as retention time and resolution
(Hakkinen, 2000).
Polyphenols have a maximum absorbance (kmax) in
either the ultraviolet or visible regions and, thus, determination of the optimum absorbance for each substance
plays an important role in the identication, quantication and accuracy of the analysis. The ultraviolet
2012 The Authors

2031
2032
spectrum in the region of maximum absorbance of gallic

acid, resveratrol and quercetin is shown in Fig. 3.
High-performance liquid chromatography systems
can be equipped with a wide range of detectors
(refractive index, uorescence, electrochemical, lightscattering, mass spectrometric and UV Vis) (Thompson
& LoBrutto, 2006), which can be used to detect and
quantify polyphenols with and without chromophore
groups, depending on the methodology used.
Among the dierent detectors available, UV Vis with
a photodiode array is one of the most widely used to
elucidate polyphenols in plant-based materials. The
main advantage of diode array detectors (DAD) is that
several results can be obtained from a single run, mainly
because of its collection of UV Vis spectra (Kim & Lee,
2001), thereby increasing the throughput of the HPLC.
In addition, it is possible to determine the correct
wavelength in one run, to detect multiple wavelengths
and to evaluate peak purity, among others (Dionex,
2003).
Sophisticated systems of liquid chromatography
coupled with modern detectors such as UPLC-DADMS MS (ultra-performance liquid chromatographyDAD-tandem mass spectrometry), UPLC-DAD ESI-MS
(ultra-performance liquid chromatography-DAD and
electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry), HPLCPDA-MS ELSD (HPLC-photodiode array-mass spectrometry and evaporative light-scattering detector),
UHPLC-MS MS (ultra- HPLCtandem mass spectrometry) and HPLC-ESI-TOF MS (HPLCelectro-
(a)
spray ionisation-time of ight-mass spectrometry) are

currently available, which are able to determine the
chemical structure of a wide range of compounds.
However, these systems are still expensive, which
generally limits access to these types of equipment by
most researchers. In this context, the system of liquid
chromatography coupled with DAD-UV Vis is the most
utilised, especially in the identication of phenolic
compounds, because of its low cost, sensitivity, separation eciency, exibility and identication potential. A
compilation of recent papers published about the
separation and identication of phenolic compounds
in fruits using RP-HPLC-DAD UV-Vis is summarised
in Table 3.
The methods of extraction, separation and the analysis of phenolic compounds in plant-food material were
recently reviewed (Ignat et al., 2011). The applications
and advances in the liquid chromatography analysis of
polyphenols have evolved considerably over the years
(Kalili & de Villiers, 2011); however, these advances are
not considered in the present review.
Antioxidant activity of fruits
Many methods have been used to evaluate and compare

the antioxidant activity of fruits owing to the complexity
of the substrate analysed (Kaur & Kapoor, 2001; Szabo
et al., 2007). The antioxidant capacity is mainly evaluated through chemical tests and more recently through a
cell antioxidant test. The antioxidant activity using
(b)
(c)
Figure 3 Maximum absorbance of (a) gallic acid 271.7 nm, (b) resveratrol 306.2 nm and (c) quercetin 370.6 nm.
2012 The Authors

A (5% formic acid in water), B

(acetonitrile solvent A
60:40), 1.0
A (2% acetic acid in water), B
(methanol), 0.8
A (0.5% acetic acid in water), B
(methanol), 0.8
A (0.1% formic acid in acetoni
trile), (B) acetonitrile water
formic acid (5:92:3), 1,5
A (4.5% formic acid in water), B
(acetonitrile), 1.0
A (acetic acid in 2 mM sodium
acetate, final pH 2.55), B
(acetonitrile), 1.0
A (0.1% formic acid in water), B
(80% acetonitrile in water), 1.0
A (acetic acid in water pH 2.74),
B (acetonitrile), 0.8
A (2% acetic acid in water), B
(water acetonitrile acetic acid,
78:20:2), 1.0
Sweet cherry
2012 The Authors
Grape skin
Guava
Bayberry juice
Apple juice
Strawberry
Kiwifruit
waste
Grape
pomace
Mango
A (0.1% phosphoric acid in

water), B (methanol), 0.8
Mobile phase (gradient) flow

rate (ml min)1)
Raspberry
Fruit material
278
Agilent Eclipse XDB C18

(250 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 30
Merck Lichrospher C18
(250 4.0 mm length, 5 lm) 40
Phenomenex C18
(250 4.6 mm length, 4 lm) 45
Diamonsil C18 (250 4.6 mm

length, 5 lm) 30
Phenomex Luna C18
(250 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 38
Waters Nova Pack C18
(250 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 20
Phenomex C18 (250 4.6 mm

length, 4 lm) 30
Agilent Zorbax SB C18 C18
(150 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 37
280, 316, 365 and 520
Beckman Ultrasphere ODS C18

(250 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 25
210360
280, 320 and 370
360 and 520
280, 320 and 360
280,320, 360 and 520
280, 320 and 370
254, 280, 320 and 365
280, 360 and 520
Wavelength (k) nm
Varian Omnisphere C18

(250 4.6 mm length, 5 lm) 20
Column type and

temperature ( C)
Rutin, luteolin, apigenin and

kaempferol
Quercetin, kaempferol and
myricetin
Quercetin, kaempferol and cyanidin
Proanthocyanidins, (+)-catechin,
p-coumaric acid and pelargonidin
Chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid,
cinnamic acid
Chlorogenic acid, gallic acid

and (+)-catechin
Gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, ellagic,
mangiferin and rutin
Caffeic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid
and syringic acid
Ellagic acid and (+)-catechin,

())-epicatechin, quercetin and
cyanidin
Neochlorogenic acid, ())-epicatechin,
rutin and cyaniding
Major compounds identified
Table 3 Summary of the methodologies used for the separation and identication of phenolic compounds in fruits by RP-HPLC-DAD UV-Vis
Obreque-Slier et al. (2010)
Kubola et al. (2011)
Fang et al. (2009)
Torres et al. (2011)
Oszmianski et al. (2009)
Sun-Waterhouse et al. (2009)
Hassan et al. (2011)
Sagdic et al. (2011)
Kelebek & Selli (2011b)
Jakobek et al. (2009)
References
2033
2034
chemical methods is primarily evaluated through: (I)

hydrogen atom transfer methods (HAT) or (II) electron
transfer methods (ET) (Prior et al., 2005; Badarinath
et al., 2010). ORAC, lipid peroxidation inhibition
capacity, total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter
(TRAP) and ABTS radical scavenging are the most
commonly used hydrogen atom transfer methodologies,
and TEAC, FRAP and DPPH free radical scavenging
are the main ET tests (Badarinath et al., 2010). These in
vitro methodologies have been frequently used to
estimate antioxidant activity in fruits. As these antioxidant assays are based on dierent mechanisms using
dierent radical or oxidant sources (USDA, 2010), the
results obtained are expressed in dierent units and,
therefore, cannot be directly compared (USDA, 2010).
Antioxidants are molecules that are able to inactivate
free radicals and their action (Halliwell, 1996; Devasagayam et al., 2004), providing an important role in the
body defence system against reactive oxygen species
(Noipa et al., 2011). Phenolic compounds are considered natural antioxidants, and fruits are very rich in
these phytochemicals.
The DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) assay is
the one of the most popular methods used to evaluate
antioxidant activity in fruits; it was originally introduced
by Marsden Blois in 1958 (Blois, 1958). The principle
behind this assay is based on scavenging of the stable
DPPH by an antioxidant (reduction of DPPH to
DPPH2) (Mishra et al., 2012). The absorbance is monitored in the range of 515-520 nm (Noipa et al., 2011),
where the purple colour of the solution changes to yellow
and a reduction in the absorbance is observed (Mishra
et al., 2012). This antioxidant assay has been modied
over the years (Brand-Williams et al., 1995; Mensor
et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2005; Chien et al., 2007) because
the original methodology was somewhat oversimplied
(Molyneux, 2004). This test was recently reviewed to
standardise the protocols (Sharma & Bhat, 2009). The
main ndings refer to the use of a 50 lm DPPH solution
in methanol or buered methanol, because of the accuracy of spectrophotometric measurements. In addition, a
time course of the inhibition process is also suggested.
A new approach for evaluating antioxidant capacity
using the DPPH test in aqueous solution using surfactant aggregates or micelles was recently proposed by
Noipa et al. (2011). It was found that the optimum
micelle system for determining the antioxidant capacity
is 2 mm cethyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) in
0.1 m acetate buer (pH 4.6), and it was suggested that
this new approach could be an alternative to the DPPH
assay using methanol. Moreover, the test showed a
shorter time of analysis because the rate constants
observed in the micelle system were signicantly faster
than those in methanol.
Another important assay that is widely used to
evaluate the antioxidant capacity of fruits is the ORAC
test. The ORAC assay measures the ability of antioxidants to protect proteins from damage by free radicals
(Awika et al., 2003), and it is the only chemical method
that takes free radical action to completion (Wang et al.,
2004). Furthermore, owing to its biological relevance to
the in vivo antioxidant ecacy, the ORAC is the
preferred technique of some researchers (USDA,
2010). This methodology was originally introduced by
Glazer (1990) and it was modied by Cao et al. (1993).
In the original methodology, b-phycoerythrin is used as
an indicator protein, 2,2-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) as a peroxyl radical generator,
and trolox as a control standard, where the results are
expressed as micromolar of trolox equivalent per litre or
per gram of sample (Cao et al., 1993; Prior et al., 2005).
The ORAC was improved in 2001 because of limitations
of b-phycoerythrin, such as: inconsistency from lot to
lot, photobleaching and interactions with polyphenols
(Ou et al., 2001). The authors proposed the use of
uorescein as the uorescent probe. Water-soluble and
fat-soluble antioxidant compounds can also be assayed
by the method described by Prior et al. (2003) for
hydrophilic (H-ORAC) and lipophilic ORAC (LORAC), respectively. One disadvantage of the ORAC
method in comparison with other antioxidant tests is
that it requires expensive apparatus (Awika et al., 2003).
In a comprehensive study, over 100 dierent kinds of
foods were evaluated using the ORAC test (Wu et al.,
2004). Among the fruits assayed, the berries, plums and
some varieties of apples gave higher values in the ORAC
test; these data were also conrmed in the USDA database
for ORAC of selected foods (USDA, 2010). In this
database, higher values of micromolar of trolox equivalent
per gram of fruit were found for dierent berries and some
other fruits such as: chokeberry, elderberry, black raspberry juice, raisins, raspberry and rose hip.
Despite the great popularity of chemical tests, these
methodologies fail to eectively predict the antioxidant
capacity in vivo. A more relevant method called cellular
antioxidant activity (CAA) was recently proposed to
measure the cellular activity of antioxidants (Wolfe &
Liu, 2007). This methodology considers important
aspects such as uptake, metabolism and location of
antioxidant compounds within cells (Song et al., 2010),
which are not considered by traditional methods. This
technique is performed using a 2,7-dichlorouorescin
(DCFH) probe in human hepatocarcinoma cells
(HepG2), which uoresce when oxidised by peroxyl
radicals to 2,7-dichlorouorescein (Wolfe et al., 2008).
The CAA methodology was used to evaluate the
inhibition of peroxyl radical-induced DCFH oxidation
by selected pure phytochemical compounds and fruits
by measuring the EC50 values (Wolfe & Liu, 2007).
Quercetin showed the highest CAA value among the
pure compounds assayed, and blueberry was the most
eective in preventing peroxyl radical-induced DCFH
2012 The Authors

oxidation among the fruits. The same research group

published another cellular antioxidant study where
twenty-ve fruits commonly consumed in the United
States were evaluated (Wolfe et al., 2008). The group of
berries (mainly blackberry) and pomegranate showed
the highest values of CAA. On the other hand, bananas
and melons showed the lowest values of CAA.
Health benefits of phenolic compounds
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases of a

long duration and generally a slow progression. Among
NCDs, the four main types are: cancer, cardiovascular
diseases (CVD), chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes (WHO, 2011). It is estimated that NCDs are
accountable for more than 63% of annual deaths in
the world (WHO, 2011). It has been speculated that
phenolic compounds, especially the group of avonoids,
contribute towards lowering the incidence of NCDs.
During the last decade, the number of studies relating
the benecial eects of polyphenols in human health has
signicantly increased. Epidemiological studies have
shown that the daily intake of plant-derived foods
possibly prevents some types of cancer, particularly
cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, CVD and even
lowers the incidence of diabetes (Liu et al., 2000; WHO,
2003, Bazzano et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012). In vitro
tests have shown that phenolic compounds inhibit
cancer cell proliferation, protect neurons, improve
insulin secretion, reduce vascularisation and stimulate
vasodilation (Ferguson et al., 2004; Silva et al., 2008;
George et al., 2009; Del Rio et al., 2010). Among the
common modiable risk factors, unhealthy diets play an
important role in NCDs. Several diseases are associated
with unhealthy diets, which are characterised by a high
intake of calories with absent or low nutritional value.
Fruits are of great interest as they are richer in
phenolic compounds than vegetables (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000; Rinaldo et al., 2010). The protective
eect from fruits can be attributed to multiple factors,
including phytochemicals, micronutrients, bre and
other anti-carcinogenic substances (Campbell et al.,
1999). Although there is evidence showing the benecial
eects of consuming fruits, data supporting a benecial
role of fruit and vegetable consumption against cancer
are conicting (Thompson, 2010). A recent study
involving 500 000 people in Europe showed a very low
association between the intake of fruits and vegetables
and the reduction in cancer risk (Boetta et al., 2010).
Despite this, the American Heart Association recommends eating at least ve servings of fruit and vegetables
per day (Liu et al., 2000). This recommendation is
reinforced by the World Health Organization (WHO),
which recommends the intake of a minimum of 400 g of
fruits and vegetables per day, excluding potatoes and
starchy tubers (WHO, 2003).
A wide range of studies has shown that the eating

habits have an important impact on health, quality of
life and longevity (Frazao, 1999). The interest in
polyphenols of dierent fruits (natives or exotics) by
dierent laboratories and research groups all over world
has increased signicantly during the last two decades.
Among the polyphenols, avonoids are the group of
phytochemicals that have received the majority of
attention in research. They are alleged to have healthpromoting eects because of their higher antioxidant
activities (in vitro tests), despite the fact that inconclusive
evidence of in vivo antioxidant eects of avonoids
(Halliwell et al., 2005) has been disclosed.
Polyphenols are extensively metabolized in the human
body, resulting in a signicant modication of the redox
capacity of these substances (Williams et al., 2004). It
has been reported that even after the extensive intake of
avonoids, the metabolites tend to have reduced antioxidant activity (Halliwell et al., 2005). The concentration of polyphenols can be 1001000 times lower in the
human body (LPI, 2011), rarely exceeding nm concentrations in plasma after normal dietary intake (Del Rio
et al., 2010). In vivo tests have shown that these
substances do not act as conventional hydrogen-donating antioxidants but they may exert modulatory actions
in cells (Williams et al., 2004). After an extensive
literature review, British scientists concluded that the
concentration of avonoids usually found in vivo is high
enough to have pharmacological activity at receptors
and on enzymes and transcription factors (Williams
et al., 2004).
Despite all of the evidence presented, conicting or
not, it is common sense that the consumption of plantderived foods, especially fruits, is of fundamental
importance for keeping the body in good health,
especially foods rich in polyphenols. Studies have
reported important health benets of fruit consumption,
including the anti-inammatory eects of aca , citrus,
bilberry, grape and pomegranate (Benavente-Garcia &
Castillo, 2008; Terra et al., 2009, 2011; Mueller et al.,
2010; Kang et al., 2011), the antitumor eects of
pomegranate and cranberry (Yan et al., 2002; Neto
et al., 2008; Sturgeon & Ronnenberg, 2010) and the
anti-allergic properties of strawberry (Itoh et al., 2009),
among other protective eects.
Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of antioxidant
compounds in fruits
A considerable number of studies describing the presence of many dierent types of bioactive compounds
with antioxidant properties in fruits have been published
over the last few years. However, food scientists have
only recently begun to evaluate the actual contribution
of these bioactive compounds, such as active antioxidants, after their consumption.
2012 The Authors

2035
2036
The ingestion of fruits containing a large amount of

polyphenols is not usually correlated with highest
concentrations of active metabolites of these polyphenols (capable of antioxidant eects) in the human body
(Manach et al., 2004; Palafox-Carlos et al., 2011). This
can generally be explained by dierences in bioaccessibility and bioavailability of polyphenols from fruits and
other foods, which directly inuence antioxidant eects
in vivo (Manach et al., 2004; Palafox-Carlos et al.,
2011).
The bioaccessibility and bioavailability of polyphenols from fruits and other foods can be dened as: (i) the
amount of the antioxidant compound that is released
from its food matrix after digestion, becoming available
for intestinal absorption (Hedren et al., 2002; Manach
et al., 2005) and, (ii) the proportion of the antioxidant
compound that is absorbed (i.e. reaches the bloodstream) and becomes available for metabolic utilisation
and exerts its eects at the site of action (Shi & Le
Maguer, 2000; Parada & Aguilera, 2007; Tagliazucchi
et al., 2010; Palafox-Carlos et al., 2011; Rodrigo et al.,
2011), respectively. Therefore, bioaccessibility and bioavailability are distinct concepts and the bioavailability
of polyphenols depends on their bioaccessibility from
the food matrix (Manach et al., 2005; Parada & Aguilera, 2007; Tagliazucchi et al., 2010).
Fruits contain complex mixtures of polyphenols that
are not evenly distributed throughout the peel, pulp and
seeds. Furthermore, these polyphenols are not all
absorbed with equal eciency (Manach et al., 2004).
Several factors can interfere with the release and or
absorption of polyphenols from fruits. In summary, the
main factors include the following:
1. The chemical structure of polyphenols and their interactions with different macromolecules such as proteins
and dietary bres affect their assimilation and metabolic
fate in vivo (Faulks & Southon, 2005; Parada &
Aguilera, 2007; Yang et al., 2008; Palafox-Carlos et al.,
2011). Most of the polyphenols in fruits exist as
polymers or in glycosylated forms. The content of
hydrolysable tannins and proanthocyanidins associated
with dietary bre and proteins in some fruits is about
vefold that of free polyphenols (Vitaglione et al., 2008;
Fogliano et al., 2011). Commonly, the aglycones, which
only correspond to a small portion of the polyphenols in
fruits, can be directly absorbed from the small intestine.
Most polyphenols in their native form (polymeric,
glycosylated or esteried) must be enzymatically hydrolysed before absorption (Walle, 2004). The type of sugar
linked to a polyphenol as well as the degree of
glycosylation aects the rate and extent of intestinal
absorption (Arts et al., 2004; DArchivio et al., 2010).
Acylation, conjugation, molecular size and solubility
also determine the absorption and metabolism of fruit
phenolics (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000; Yang et al.,

2008; Koli et al., 2010). Polyphenols with a high
molecular weight are predicted to be poorly absorbed
(Yang et al., 2008). The slow elimination of quercetin
metabolites from the body can be explained by the
existence of intermolecular bonds between the metabolites and serum albumin (Manach et al., 2004). The
interactions of polyphenols with bre (indigestible polysaccharides of plant cell walls) in the small intestine can
lower their bioaccessibility and, consequently, bioavailability (Palafox-Carlos et al., 2011). However, these
antioxidants may reach the large intestine and remain
in the colonic lumen, where they could contribute to a
healthy antioxidant environment (Saura-Calixto et al.,
2010; Palafox-Carlos et al., 2011). In general, polyphenols associated with dietary bre can be partially
bioavailable, although the bioavailability of polyphenols
is usually delayed by a high content of dietary bre
(Perez-Jimenez et al., 2009). Conversely, pectin might
enhance the bioavailability of quercetin from rutin by
altering the metabolic activity of the intestinal microora or intestinal physiological functioning (Tamura
et al., 2007). The role of dietary bre in the absorption
of antioxidants has been recently reviewed (PalafoxCarlos et al., 2011).
2. Fruit processing affects polyphenol contents and alters
fruit microstructure, resulting in the loss or enrichment
of some polyphenols and inuencing their access and
availability (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000; Manach
et al., 2004; Parada & Aguilera, 2007). Fruit peeling
can result in the loss of a signicant portion of some
polyphenols. Apple peels may present higher antioxidant
and antiproliferative activities than the pulp (esh)
(Wolfe et al., 2003), and avonols are not usually found
in peeled apples (Burda et al., 1990). The peel of peach
contains most of the avonols and cyanidins in the fruit
(Andreotti et al., 2008). Higher concentrations of resveratrol are found in red wines, which are fermented with
the skin (peel), than in white wines (King et al., 2006).
Industrial fruit juices usually present low avonoid
contents, because avonoids are frequently removed
during clarication or stabilization processes (Manach
et al., 2004). The oxidative degradation of polyphenols
can occur during fruit pulp processing as a result of the
release and action of cytoplasmic polyphenol oxidase
(Manach et al., 2004). Otherwise, the maceration or
pressing of fruits can result in the diusion of antioxidant compounds in the juice, including the solubilisation of polyphenols from unconsumed parts of the fruits,
such as skins and seeds (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000;
Gonzalez-Neves et al., 2004). Tannins from grapes are
2012 The Authors

mainly extracted during winemaking by pressing the

fruit and during fermentation (especially in red wines),
where these polyphenols can be extracted from the
insoluble matrix (Hazak et al., 2005; Parada & Aguilera,
2007). Suppression of the food matrix eect (reduction
of the interaction between polyphenols and carbohydrate polymers) increases the bioavailability of polyphenols (Parada & Aguilera, 2007). The fermentation
process in winemaking can result in the transformation
of polyphenols from grapes or the formation of new
structures (van de Wiel et al., 2001; Flamini, 2003), and
the presence of ethanol in wine may contribute to their
bioavailability (Duthie et al., 1998; Rodrigo et al.,
2011).
3. The biological interactions between polyphenols and
cells, enzymes and proteins from the gastrointestinal
system and colonic microora play an essential role in
their bioavailability. Many polyphenols from fruits are
only bioaccessible and bioavailable in the human body
through the action of intestinal and hepatic enzymes and
also via colonic microora. Approximately 48% of
dietary polyphenols are bioaccessible in the small
intestine and 42% become bioaccessible in the colon
(large intestine) (Saura-Calixto et al., 2007). These
polyphenols are then absorbed and metabolized. Most
of the biological activity of polyphenols from fruits is
believed to be elicited in the human body by their
secondary metabolites instead of the native compounds
(Kroon et al., 2004; Donovan et al., 2006). Several
enzymes in the human body are involved in the
metabolism of polyphenols. The specicity and location
of the enzymes can regulate absorption of the polyphenols. One of the rst steps in the metabolism of most
glycosylated antioxidant compounds is the removal of
sugars by enzymes. Polyphenols attached to glucose are
potential substrates for human b-glucosidases, but those
attached to rhamnose are not cleaved by b-glucosidases
and depend upon the action of rhamnosidases produced
by colonic microora (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000).
Polyphenols in the free form (aglycones) can be conjugated in the small intestine and later in the liver by
glucuronidation, methylation, sulphation or a combination of these. Conjugation deconjugation reactions of
polyphenols are mainly carried out by enzymes such as
cytosolic b-glucosidase (CBG) and lactase phloridizin
hydrolase (LPH), which are mainly located in the
epithelial cells of the small intestine, and catechol-Omethyltransferase (COMT), UDP glucuronosyl transferase (UDPGT) and phenol sulphotransferases
(P-PST), which are located in many different tissues
(Scalbert & Williamson, 2000). The conjugation reac-
tions signicantly interfere with the metabolic fate of

polyphenols (Manach et al., 1998; Scalbert & Williamson, 2000; Cano et al., 2002), either producing active
metabolites or increasing the excretion rate of some
polyphenols (DArchivio et al., 2010). The aglycones are
either absent in blood or present in low concentrations
(Scalbert & Williamson, 2000). The polyphenols that are
not absorbed in the small intestine can reach the colon
where they can be metabolized by the colonic microora
(DArchivio et al., 2010). The colonic microora hydrolyses glycosides into aglycones and also degrades them
into phenolic acids (Aura et al., 2005; DArchivio et al.,
2010). Esteried hydroxycinnamic acids require the
action of esterases of the colonic microora for the
cleavage of ester bonds because there are no esterases in
human tissues. The metabolism of chlorogenic acid is
dependent upon the action of enzymes produced by
colonic microora (Plumb et al., 1999; Scalbert &
Williamson, 2000). The colonic biotransformation of
polyphenols was recently reviewed by van Duynhoven
et al. (2011).
Some experimental procedures used to predict and

evaluate the bioaccessibility and or bioavailability of
polyphenols in vitro (digestive enzymes, Caco-2 cells,
gastrointestinal and colonic model systems) and in vivo
(either in humans or in animals) are reported in the
studies conducted by Fogliano et al. (2011), Tagliazucchi et al. (2010), Cilla et al. (2008, 2009), Saura-Calixto
et al. (2007), Bermudez-Soto et al. (2007) and Koli et al.
(2010), and Serra et al. (2010), Borges et al. (2010),
Perez-Jimenez et al. (2009) and Vitaglione et al. (2008),
respectively.
Finally, to understand the real contribution to human
health by ingesting polyphenols and also to develop
food products with relevant antioxidant properties, it is
important to consider the amount, the chemical structure and the source of polyphenols as well as the
biological interactions that polyphenols might have with
macromolecules, cells, enzymes and colonic microora.
All of these factors aect the absorption, tissue concentration, metabolic fate and action of polyphenols as
antioxidants in promoting health benets.
Conclusions
Phenolic compounds are a fascinating and unique class

of bioactive compounds widely spread throughout
nature. Studies about polyphenols have increased exponentially over the last two decades, mainly because of
the association between the consumption and health
benets of these substances. Fruits are excellent sources
of phenolic compounds, which impart health benets
beyond basic nutrition. The extraction, isolation and
quantication of polyphenols in fruits still present a
2012 The Authors

2037
2038
challenge. Therefore, the search for new methodologies is

essential for better understanding this class of phytochemicals. In addition, the establishment and consolidation of databases of polyphenols are of great importance
because they are key in assisting epidemiological investigations. The absorption mechanisms of phenolic compounds are still not well established. Further
investigations are necessary to better understand the
bioaccessibility bioavailability of polyphenols, focusing
on the action of colonic microora on the metabolism and
bioavailability of several polyphenols, the biological
properties of conjugated polyphenols and active metabolites besides aglycones and parent compounds, the eect
of dietary bre on polyphenol absorption.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the National Council for Scientic

and Technological Development (CNPq; Process Number 501535 2009-8) for nancial support.
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012, 47, 20232044

Phenolic compounds comprise a diverse group of

few (Theriault et al., 2006). Studies have suggested that

Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.

Research on phenolic compounds in fruits

The research on phenolic compounds in fruits has

Phenolic compounds make up a large and fascinating

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012

Figure 1 Number of publications on the topic of phenolic compounds

Figure 2 Share of publications about phenolic compounds in fruits

In the case of the avonoids group, when they are

2012 The Authors

Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.

distributed into six subclasses: avonols, avanones,

2012 The Authors

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012

Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.

Table 1 Main dietary source of polyphenols in fruits

Kelebek & Selli (2011a)

Star fruit, Papaya,

Fu et al. (2011) and Golukcu &

Blueberry, Pear, Kiwifruit,

Gavrilova et al. (2011) and Fu

Mango, Red Araca, Orange,

Poovarodom et al.(2010), Vidal

Banana, Pitaya, Avocado

Fu et al. (2011) and Golukcu &

Poovarodom et al. (2010) and

Strawberry, Black grape

Russell et al. (2009b) and Obon

Passion fruit, Jackfruit,

Fu et al. (2011) and Akter

Vallejo et al. (2012) and Goncalves

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012

2012 The Authors

Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.

Medoua & Oldewage-Theron

Red Grape, Prune,

Fu et al. (2011) and Gavrilova

Zhang et al. (2011) and Plaza

Ribeiro & Ribeiro (2008),

Avocado, Yellow Araca

Golukcu & Ozdemir (2010) and

Red grape, Sweet cherry

Iacopini et al. (2008) and Kelebek

Mango, Durian, Bilimbi fuit

Poovarodom et al. (2010) and

Lemon, Pineapple, Plum,

Fu et al. (2011) and Fuzfai &

Fu et al. (2011) and Obon

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2012

Phenolic compounds in fruits C. W. I. Haminiuk et al.

Fanali et al. (2011) and Mamede

Blueberry, Myrtle fruit,

Wang et al. (2008b), Messaoud &

Blueberry, Black Currant

Obon et al. (2011) and

Obon et al. (2011) and Zarena &

Kahle et al. (2006) and Fanali

Red Grape, Cranberry,

Granato et al. (2011) and Huang

The extraction of phenolic compounds is inuenced by