AC Circuits and Systems GBS

EE 101
Electrical Sciences
Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
EE 101
AC Circuits and Systems
AC Circuits - Sinusoidal Analysis
G. B. Shrestha
Visiting Professor
Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering

New Faculty Block - Room 13,
Ph. x3475, Email: gbshrestha@iitg.ernet.in
Sinusoidal Functions
A sinusoidal wave form is generated by the vertical component of a vector rotating
counterclockwise with uniform angular velocity as shown in Fig. 1
v V p sin(t ) V p sin(2 ft )
(1)
Fig. 4:
where,
v
Vp
is instantaneous voltage, and

is the peak or the maximum value (amplitude)
One cycle:
Period (T):
Frequency (f):
Angular speed ():
is a complete revolution
time required for one revolution
Number of cycles per second (f = 1/T)
2f
(s)
Hz
rad/s
Such rotating vectors are termed Phasors. It may be noted that the horizontal component of
the rotating vector will give the cosine wave.

Sinusoidal Functions
In Fig. 2, there are two sinusoids, denoting two voltages and the
corresponding phasors.
It is possible that the
sinusoids pass through zero

at different times, but it is
necessary for the two
sinusoids to have the
same frequency to be
included in the same diagram.
If,
Fig. 5:
v1 V p1 sin(t ) V p1 sin(2 ft )
(2)
v2 Vp 2 sin(t ) V p 2 sin(2 ft )
(3)
Then, is said to be the phase difference between v1 and v2.and

the phasor that passes through zero at t=0 is called the reference.
In Figure 2, v1 is the reference and v2 is said to lead v1 by .

Average Value of Sinusoids

A general definition of the average value of any function f(t) over the specified
interval between t1 and t2 is expressed as

1 t2
Fav
(4)
t1 f (t )dt
t2 t1
The average value of a cyclic function is
1 2
1 2
Fav
f
(
t
)
d
(
t
)
f ( )d (5)
2 0
2 0
Hence the average value of a sinusoidal voltage is:
2
vav 0 V p sin(t )d (t ) 0
(6)
The average value of a sinusoid over one complete cycle is equal to zero.
A finite and more meaningful average value can be found for the sinusoid for
the positive or negative half cycle. The half cycle average value for the
waveform shown in Fig.1 is given by
1
2
vav 0 V p sin(t )d (t ) V p 0.636V p (7)
The average value of either the positive or negative half of a sine function can
be found by multiplying the amplitude of the wave by 0.636.
Effective (RMS) Value of Sinusoids

Although the criterion of the average value of current works well in describing
the energy transferring capacity for direct sources, it is less meaningful for
symmetrical periodic functions.
A more suitable definition of the average value for a symmetric periodic
functions is effective current. It is expressed as

1 T 2
I eff I rms
(8)
0 i (t )dt
T
If the function I(t) in eq. 8 is sinusoidal then the effective value is obtained as
1 T 2
1 T 2 2
I eff
i
(
t
)
dt
(9)
0
0 I m sin t
T
T
1
Using the trigonometric identity sin 2 t (1 cos(2t ))
2
The effective value, called the rms (root mean squared) value, is obtained as
I eff
I m2 T
Im
(1
cos(2
t
))
2T 0
2
(10)
Instantaneous Power
Let v(t) and i(t) be the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current
across a network given by

v(t ) Vm sin(t )
(11)
i (t ) I m sin(t q )
(12)
The expression for instantaneous power is given by
p(t ) v(t )i(t ) Vm I m sin(t )sin(t q )
(13)
Using, sin( t q ) sin( t ) cosq cos t sin q ,
1
1
sin 2 t (1 cos 2t ), and sin( t ) cos t sin( 2t )
2
2
p (t )
Vm I m sin 2 (t ) cos q sin(t ) cos(t )sin q
Vm I m
V I
cos q m m cos(2t q )
2
2
(14)
It can be seen that for a given value of angle q the instantaneous power
consists of two components; a constant part and a time varying part.

The time varying part has a frequency which is twice that of the voltage
and current sinusoids.
Instantaneous Power
Vm I m
2
Vm I m
cos(q )
2
Fig. 6:
The shaded part of the power in Fig.6 refers to those time intervals when the
power is negative. The negative power in effect means that the circuit is
returning power to the source during these intervals.
It should be noted from Form Fig.6 that the time varying component
oscillates about the constant power axis, which gives the average power.
Instantaneous Power
As the angle q is made smaller and smaller, i.e. as the current I is brought
nearly in phase to the voltage v, the negative area gets smaller and smaller.
As q =0, the current and voltage are in phase, there is no negative area
associated with p(t) curve and all the power in consumed between the circuit
branch terminals. This circuit is purely resistive.
When q is increased, the negative area increases and less power is consumed
by the circuit and more returned to the source.

At the extreme value of q,
Vm I m
2
i.e. q=/2, the p(t) curve is

such that the negative area
Vm I m
cos(q )
2
is equal to the positive area.
In this case no power is

consumed between the
circuit terminals.
Fig. 6:
Average Power
The useful quantity in terms of the capability of the circuit to do work is the
average power.
The average power is given by
TV I
1 T Vm I m
Pav
cos q dt m m cos(2t q )dt
0
T 0 2
2
(15)
The second term in eq.15 involves the integration of a sine function over a
time interval of two period, hence its value is equal to zero.

The first term is independent of time t, the average power is obtained as
V I
Pav m m cos q
(16)
2
More commonly, the average power is written as:
Pav
Vm I m
cos q Veff I eff cos q
2 2
(17)
10
Power Factor
While the product of V and I (VI) gives power in dc circuits It should be
noted that this product (VI) does not give the average power when
sinusoidal voltages and currents are involved. In ac circuits, the product
(VI) is called the apparent power or Volt Amperes.
In ac circuits, Pav Vm I m cosq Vm I m cos q VI cos q
2
2 2
(18)
The product of V and I, or the apparent power must be multiplied by the
factor (cosq) to obtain the average power.

This important factor
P
Average Power
cosq av
VI
Volt Amps or Apparent Power
(19)
is called the power factor.

so that, Average Power = Apparent Power power factor.
(20)
11
Phasor Representation
Consider two sinusoids, denoting two voltages corresponding to two
v1 V p1 sin(t )
phasors as shown.
v1 Im (V p1e jt )
V1 = (V p10)
v2 V p 2 sin(t )
Algebraic treatment
v2 Im (V p 2e j (t ) )
V2 (V p 2 )
of sinusoids are made simpler by phasor
representation, eg,
v1 v2
(V p10 V p 2 )
(V p1 cos0 V p 2 cos j (V p1 sin 0 V p 2 sin ))
(Vt t ) Vt sin(t t )
where
(21)
Vt (V p1 cos0 V p 2 cos ) 2 (V p1 sin 0 V p 2 sin ) 2 , and,
t tan
(V p1 sin 0 V p 2 sin )
(V p1 cos0 V p 2 cos )
(22)
12
Phasor Addition - Example
v1 Vm sin( t )
V1 (Vm0)
v2 Vm sin( t 90)
V2 Vm90
Direction
of
rotation
Vm
V2
V3 2Vm45
V1
Vm
Figure 8b
Figure 8a
V3 V1 V2 Vm0 Vm90 2Vm45
v3 2Vm sin( t 45)
Commonly, the phasors use rms values for magnitude in frequency domain
(rather than the peak values) which are more convenient in circuit analysis.
Lower case letters like v or i are used to indicate instantaneous values
Normal letters like V or V or V are used to indicate vectors or phasors
Italic letters like V or I are used to indicate magnitudes of vectors and phasors.
13
Representation of Circuit Parameters in Frequency Domain

ie, I I q
If a current i I m sin(t q )
is made to flow through a resistor R, the voltage across R is:
vR i R RI m sin( t q ) VR RI q
Therefore, ZR = R
(23)
ie, I I q
If a current i I m sin(t q )
is made to flow through an inductor L,
di
the voltage across L is: vL L LI m cos(t q ) LI m sin(t q 90)
dt
VL LI (90 q ) j LI
Therefore, ZL = jL
(24)
If a voltage v Vm sin(t q )
ie,
V V q
is applied across a capacitor C,

dv
the current through C is: iC C CVm cos(t q ) CVm sin(t q 90)
Therefore,
ZC
dt
IC CV (90 q ) jCV
1
1
j
jC
C
(25)
14
RL Circuit Steady State Analysis (Revisit)

Consider the RL circuit
Let the input voltage be:

v Vm sin( t )
V V0 ref .
i(t)
v(t)
V Vm / 2
Impedance of the circuit is formed as:
Z
jX
Z R L Zq
q
L
R
where, Z R 2 (L) 2 and, q tan 1
Impedance Diagram
R
This is commonly depicted in the impedance triangle as shown.
V V 0 V
q I q ,
Z Z q Z
VR IR IR q ,
Then, I
and
VL IX I q j L I L90 q
V
jIX
-q
I
IR
The relationships between various quantities are shown Vector Diagram
in a phasor/vector diagram.
The current can be written as: i I m sin(t q ), I m 2 (V / Z )
15
Example 1
Question:
A voltage v(t)=220 sin(t) Volts is applied to a series combination of a
resistance of 15 W, an inductive reactance 10 W and a capacitive
reactance of 5 W.
R
C
L
i. Find the current in the circuit
ii. Sketch the phasor diagram
i(t)
v(t)
Solution
The applied voltage is : V(t) = 220 sin (t)
The phasor representation of the voltage is:
220
0 155.560
2
16
Solution
The impedance of the circuit is
Z 15 j10 j5 15 j5 15.8118.43
The current in the circuit is
V
155.560
9
.
84
18
.
43
Z 15.8118.43
The instantaneous current in the circuit is
i(t ) 2 9.84 sin(t 18.43 pi 180) 13.92 sin(t 0.32)

The voltage across the resistor is
17
Solution - The Phasor Diagram

The voltage across the inductor is
VL 1090 I 1090 9.84 18.43 98.471.57
The voltage across the capacitor

VC 5 90 I 5 90 9.84 18.43 49.2 108.43
The resultant voltage is

V VR VL VC 155.560
Im
Direction of
rotation
VL
The current is
I 9.84 18.43
V (reference)
Re
q18.43o
VC
VL-VC
VR
18
Multiplication and Division of Complex Quantities

In dealing with the sinusoidal steady state response of electric circuits the
need frequently arises to multiply and divide complex numbers.

As an illustration consider the phasors I Ie jq and
Z Ze j . The
product of these two phasors is

IZ Ie jq Ze j IZe j (q ) IZ q
(26)
Hence, the product of two complex numbers is found by taking the product
of their magnitudes and the sum of their angles.

To illustrate the division of the complex numbers consider the phasors
V Ve jq and Z Ze j
The division of these two phasors is given by

V Ve jq V j (q ) V
I j e
q
(27)
Z Ze
Z
Z
The division of one complex number by another involves the division of
their magnitudes and difference in their phase angles.
19
Power and Roots of Complex Quantities

The nth power of the complex quantity Z Ze j is obtained as
n
j n
Z Ze
Z n e jn Z nn
(28)
The nth power of a complex number is a complex number whose magnitude
is the nth power ot the magnitude of the original complex number and
whose angle is n times as large as that of the original complex number.
To find the root of a complex number the exponent n is made a proper
fraction in eq. 40. The angle of the original complex number is increased
by 2k in order to determine all the roots that satisfy eq. 28.
Accordingly, the fourth power of Z Ze j is
1
1
1
k
Z 4 Ze j ( 2 k ) 4 Z 4
4 2
(29)
Then the four distinct roots are,

1
Z4
1
Z 4 4 ,
1
Z 4 4 2
1
Z 4 4 ,
1
Z 4 4 34
for k=1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.

20
Complex Power
Consider the ac load shown in Fig. The voltage and current in the network
are:
v Vm sin(t )
(30)
i I m sin(t q )
(31)
The phasors in terms of rms values can be written as:

+
V
I
V m 0 V0, and
I m q I q
2
2
The complex power S absorbed by the ac load is defined as:
S V I* V 0 ( I q )* VI q
VI cos q jVI sin q S cos q jS sin q P jQ
The complex power may also be written as:
In terms of load impedance and V as:
*
V2
V VV *
S V I* V
2
Z*
Z*
Z
In terms of circuit parameters and I as:
(32)
(33)
S V I* IZ I* I 2Z I 2 (R jX ) I 2 R jI 2 X P jQ
Load
Z
(34)
21
Power Triangle
S
q
The complex power

S V I* V0 ( I q )* VIq
VI cos q jVI sin q S cos q jS sin q P jQ
jQ
P
Power Triangle
is commonly represented in the power triangle as shown.

where, S
= VI, is the apparent power,
= VI cos q is the real power
= VI sin q is the reactive power , and
cos q
= P/S is the power factor
It may be noted that the angle q in the power triangle, in the current, and
the power triangle is the same, except for the sign, when the voltage is
the reference.
22
3-Phase Systems
Dr. Govinda Bol Shrestha

Visiting Professor
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering
23
3-phase Systems- Introduction

A brief history.
Almost all electric power generation and transmission in the world
today is in the form of 3-phase
Most of the large industrial loads are also 3-phase
Small loads (such as residential loads) are 1-phase, but this is simply a
tap-off from a 3-phase system
A 3-phase system is an integration of three 1-phase systems
A 3-phase system consists of 3-phase generators, 3-phase transmission
lines and 3-phase loads
A 3-phase power system is preferred over a 1-phase power system for
the following reasons:
3-phase generators,
motors and transformers are simpler, cheaper
and more efficient

3-phase transmission lines deliver more power for a given cost or
for a given weight of conductor

Voltage regulation of a 3-phase system is inherently better
24
Generation of 3-phase Voltages and Currents

A 3-phase generator consists of three 1-phase generators
All three voltages are equal in magnitude but differing in phase angle from
others by 1200
Quantities of three phases (of a 3-phase system) are represented by using
subscripts a, b and c. They are called phase-a, phase-b and phase-c
Expression of Three Phase Voltages

Time domain
va (t ) 2V sin(t ) V
vb (t ) 2V sin(t 120) V
vc (t ) 2V sin(t 120) V
Phasor
Va V0 V
Vb V 120 V
Vc V120 V
25
Nature of 3-phase Voltages

Phasor diagram
Va
Va(t)
Vb(t)
Vc(t)
Vc
1200
Vb
1200
Va
1200
Vc
Vb
Three 1-ph generators
Voltage waveforms
26
Ia
Nature of 3-phase Currents

Each of these three generators can be
connected to one of the three identical
loads by a pair of wires.
Ib
The load impedance is considered as:

Z Zq W
Such a system is basically three 1-phase
circuits which happen to differ in phase
angle by 120
Z Zq
Va
Z Zq
Vb
Ic
Currents in the above circuits are:

Vc
Z Zq
Va V0 V
Ia
q I q
Z Zq Z
V V 120 V
Ib b
120 q I 120 q
Z
Zq
Z
V V 120 V
Ib c
120 q I120 q
Z
Zq
Z
All currents have the same magnitude (V/Z) but a phase shift of 120 from others
27
Integration of Three Generators

The above three 1-phase systems require six wires (two for each system)
In fact, three of the six wires are not necessary for the generators to supply
power to the loads
Consider that the three negative ends of the generators are joined together.
Similarly, the three lower ends of the loads are also joined together
Three return wires can now be replaced by a single wire called neutral wire.
Current can still return from the loads to the generators as shown in the
following figure
Ia
Such a system is called
3-phase, 4-wire system.

It consists of three
Va
phase wires and
a neutral wire
Ib
Ic
Vb
Vc
In
Generator
Load
28
4-wire and 3-wire Systems

Current in the neutral wire can
be written as (using KCL)
Ib
I(q 120) 0
Va
I n I a Ib Ic
I q I(q 120)
Ia
In
Vb
Vc
n
Z
Ic
As long as the three loads are

identical, the current in the
With a neutral line
neutral line is always zero

Ia
Thus, the neutral line can be

eliminated (as shown in the
following figure) and power can
still be transferred from the
generators to the loads

Such a system is called 3-phase,
3-wire system
Ib
Va
Vb
Vc
Ic
Without a neutral line

29
Balanced 3-phase Systems

A 3-phase source is called balanced if it consists of three voltages of equal
magnitude with phase shifts of exactly 1200 from others
Example:
Va V V
Vb V( 120) V
Vc V( 120) V
A 3-phase source is called unbalanced if the voltage magnitudes are not equal
and/or the phase shifts are not exactly 1200
A 3-phase load is called balanced if all three impedances are identical.
Identical means all impedances have the same magnitude and same angle
A 3-phase transmission system is called balanced if the impedances of all
three lines are identical
A 3-phase system is called balanced if the sources, transmission systems and
loads are balanced
In this subject, we will mainly concentrate on balanced 3-phase systems
30
Phase Sequence
There are two possibilities for the phase
sequence.
Vc
1200
(a) Phase sequence a-b-c
1200
In this case, a leads b, b leads c and c

leads a (in the sequence of a-b-c)
Va V0 V
Va
1200
Vb
Vb V 120 V
Vc V120 V
(b) Phase sequence a-c-b

In this case, leads , leads and leads
(in the sequence of a-c-b)
Va V0 V
Vc V 120 V
Vb
1200
1200
Va
1200
Vc
Vb V120 V
31
Connections of 3-phase Generators and Loads

A 3-phase generator or load may be connected in two ways
1. Star or Y (Wye) connection
In star or Y-connection, one end of each source (or load) is connected to a
common point called neutral point. In a balanced system, the voltage at the
neutral point is zero and sometimes it is connected to the ground
a
a
b
Va
n
Z
Z
Vb
Vc
Z
c
Y-Connected generator
Y-Connected load
32
Connections of 3-phase Generators and Loads

2. Mesh or (Delta) connection
In mesh or -connection, three sources (or loads) are connected in (or

closed form) as shown below. There is no neutral point in -connection
a
Va
Vc
b
b
Vb
-Connected generator
Z
c
-Connected load
Any number of Y and connected generators and loads may be mixed up in a

power system
33
General Representation of 3-phase Generators and Loads

3-phase
generator
( or Y)
a
b
c
a
b
c
3-phase
load
( or Y)
3-phase, 3-wire system

3-phase
generator
Y-conn.
a
b
c
n
a
b
c
n
3-phase
load
Y-conn.
3-phase, 4-wire system

In -connection, there is no neutral point and thus it is always 3-phase, 3-wire.
However, a Y-connected system can be 3-phase, 3-wire or 3-phase, 4-wire
34
Phase and Line Quantities

In both Y- and -connection
Voltage of each source or across each load impedance (inside the dotted
box) is called phase voltage

Current of each source or through each load impedance (inside the
dotted box) is called phase current

Voltage between any two lines (outside the dotted box) is called line
voltage. Exclude the neutral wire (if any)

Current through any line (outside the dotted box) is called line current.
Exclude the neutral wire (if any)

IA
Ia
IB
Va
Vab
Vb
Vbc
Vc
Ic
Vca
IB
Vb
c
Vab
Va
Ic
IC
Ia
Vc
Ib
IA
Ib
Vca
I C Vbc
35
Phase and Line Quantities

I
A
Ia
IB
Va
Vab
Vb
Vbc
Vc
Ic
Vca
IB
Vb
Vab
Va
Ic
IC
Ia
Vc
Ib
IA
Ib
Vca
I C Vbc
In the Above Diagrams

Va, Vb, and Vc are phase voltages and Vab, Vbc, and Vca are line voltages
Ia, Ib, and Ic are phase currents and IA, IB, and IC are line currents
Phase quantities are inside the dotted box (which may not be accessible) and line
quantities are outside the dotted box (which are always available)
By Inspection
For Y-connection
Line current = phase current
Line voltage phase voltage
For -connection
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current phase current
36
Relationship between VL and Vp of Y-connection

Let the phase voltages be (for phase sequence a-b-c) be:
Va V0,
Vb V 120,
Vc V120
Then, the line voltages are:
Vab Va Vb V0 V 120 3V30

Vbc Vb Vc V 120 V120 3V 90
Vca Vc Va V120 V0 3V150
The above voltages are shown in the following phasor diagrams
Vc
Vca
Vb
Vab
Vc
Vca
Va
Va
Vbc
Va
Vc
Vb
Vab
Vbc
Vb
Magnitude of line voltage = 3magnitude of phase voltage, and the line
voltages are shifted by 30 from the phase voltages.

37
Relationship between IL and Ip of -connection

Let the phase currents (for phase sequence a-b-c) be:
I a I0,
Ib I 120,
I c I120
Then, the line currents (using KCL) are:

I A I a I c I0 I120 3I 30
I B Ib I a I 120 I0 3I 150
IC I c Ib I120 I 120 3I90

The above currents are shown in the following phasor diagrams
IC
Ic
IA
Ib
Ic
IC
Ia
IB
Ia
Ia
Ib
Ic
IA
Ib
IB
Magnitude of line current = 3magnitude of phase current, and the line

currents are shifted by 30 from the phase currents.
38
Analysis of a Balanced 3-phase Y-Y System

Consider a 3-phase Y-connected generator
supplying power to a 3-phase Y-connected load
as shown in the figure.
Let,Va V V V
, b V( 120) V ,
Vc V( 120) V
, and
Z Zq
Add a fictitious neutral line between the

generator neutral point and the load neutral
point as shown in the following. Note that
addition of the neutral line has no effect

because it does not carry any current (under
balanced condition).
Thus, the 3-phase circuit can be analyzed as
three single-phase circuits, each consisting of
one phase and the neutral line as shown.
39
Analysis of YY system: Single Phase Equivalent Circuit

All three phases are identical except for a phase shift of 120 in the voltages.
Therefore, the results of all the phases will be the same, except for the proper
phase shift of 120.
For example, for phase a, I a V0 V q
Zq Z
And complex power of phase a is:

Sa V I a * Va I a q
Then, it can be easily seen that:

Ib
V
q 120,
Z
Ic
V
q 120
Z
And, Sb Sc Sa V I a * Va I a q
The complex power of all three phases: S3 ph 3V ph I phq
Thus one phase of the 3-phase Y-Y system adequately describes all three phases,
and it is called the Single Phase Equivalent Circuit of the 3-phase system.
40
3-Phase Conventions
In practice, the three phase supply comes from a large
number of 3-phase sources, many could be in Star

configuration and many in Delta.
a
b
VL volt
3-phase
source
Therefore 3-phase sources are commonly shown and

specified as depicted in the figure.
n
c
The source may be represented as a Star or a Delta as needed.

a
a
b
VL volt
3-phase
source
Va VL / 30
Vca VL120
b
Vb VL / 3 120
n
c
Vc VL / 3120
Vab VL0
OR
b
Vbc VL 120
41
3-Phase Conventions
Unless specified otherwise, the following convention is understood in 3phase systems:
Voltage of a 3-phase system is always specified as line voltage (only

magnitude or rms value)
Current of a 3-phase system is always specified as line current (only

magnitude or rms value)
Power (P, Q or S) of a 3-phase system is always specified as total power
However, the impedance of a 3-phase system can always specified as

phase impedance.
42
Example
A 415 V, 3-phase source supplies power to a balanced 3-phase Y-connected
load having an impedance of (16+j12) W per phase. Determine the current
and complex power absorbed by the load.
Solution
Since the load is in Y, it would be proper

to represent the source in Y also.
Here VL = 415 V
V
415
239.6 V/phase
Vp L
3
b
VL
3-phase
source
Va 239.60
11.98 36.87 A
Z (16 j12)
And, Sa Va I a* 239.60 11.9836.87
2870.436.87 (2296.3 j1722.2) VA
S p 2870.436.87
Ia
Ia
Ip = 11.98 A
n
c
Consider Va as the reference

Va 239.60 V
Finally,
Va
IL = Ip = 11.98 A, and
VA
ST 3S p VA
43
Example
A 415 V, 3-phase source supplies power to a balanced 3-phase -connected
load having an impedance of (16+j12) W per phase. Determine the current and
complex power absorbed by the load.
Solution
a
Vca
Z
Z
V
Since the load is in , it is possible
ab
VL
Vbc
to represent the source in also,
3-phase
b
and directly find the phase currents.
source
Z
c
Here VL = 415 V
V p VL 415
V /phase
Consider Vab as the reference

V
Vab 4150 V I ab ab
Z
Vca
Vab
Vbc
b
c
However, if you like to find the line current Ia,
I ab
Then, it should be noted that

I a I ab I ac I ab I ca
Vab
44
Example
A 415 V, 3-phase source supplies power to a balanced 3-phase -connected
load having an impedance of (16+j12) W per phase. Determine the current
and complex power absorbed by the load.

Consider that the line connecting the source to the load has an impedance
of j0.5 W per phase
j0.5 W
Solution
Vca
In the presence of tr. line

impedance, the Configuration
is not easy to analyze.
Vab
Vbc
j0.5 W
Z
c
j0.5 W
So, conversion to Y-Y system is preferable.

The general approach is to adopt the Y-Y configuration converting all s to
Y whenever required.
45
Delta Star Conversion for Balanced Systems

The equivalence between star and delta connected networks were shown to
be:
Z2 Z3
ZZ
Z Z
Z 23 Z 2 Z 3
Z1
Z1
Z31 Z 3 Z1
Z12 Z13
,
Z12 Z13 Z 23
Z2
Z2
Z12 Z1 Z 2
Z 21Z 23
,
Z12 Z13 Z 23
1
2
3 1
Z3
1 2
Z3
Z 31Z 32
Z12 Z13 Z 23
ZY
ZY
ZY
If the networks are balanced, it can be easily observed that,
Z 3ZY
and,
ZY
Z
3
46
Analysis of a Balanced 3-phase System

The general approach to solve balanced 3-phase systems is outlined below:
Convert
3-ph system to
Y-Y
configuration
Draw the
1-ph equivalent
circuit
Solve the
1-ph equivalent
circuit
Get the
3-ph results
Convert the system to Y-Y configuration converting all s to Y whenever

required.
Obtain the phase quantities to construct the 1-phase equivalent circuit
The balanced 3-phase system can be analyzed from its single-phase
equivalent circuit
At the end, results of the 3-phase system can be obtained from the results
of the 1-phase equivalent circuit using the standard relationships
47
Example
The general approach to solve balanced 3-phase systems is outlined below
using the system shown.:
Ztr
a
VL
3-phase
source
Z2
Ztr
Ztr
Z1
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z2
Represent the source in Y, and get the reference phase voltage.

The transmission line impedances are already in Y configuration
The load impedance Z1 is already in Y configuration.
Convert the load impedance Z2 to Y configuration (Z2Y = Z2/3)
Given: VL=433 V, Ztr= j0.1 W, Z1=1.4+j4.6 W, and Z2=4.2+j13.8 W

Find the current output of the source,
The phase currents in load 1, and load 2
And, find whatever you want, say pf and power output of source, etc.
Ans: 100 A, 100 A, 57.7 A, etc.
48
Power Measurement
For sinusoidal voltage and current, the average power is:
P = VIcos W
where V and I are the rms values of voltage and current,
respectively, and is the angle between voltage and current
Thus, a wattmeter needs the information of voltage magnitude, current
magnitude and the angle between the voltage and current
I
A wattmeter can be considered as an integration
CC
of a voltmeter and an ammeter with special calibration
It should have two measuring coils
VC
Voltage coil (VC) to measure voltage
V
Current coil (CC) to measure current
VC and CC of a wattmeter must be connected with correct polarities
Connect the terminal of the CC towards the source
Connect the terminal of the VC to the line containing the current coil
49
Example
In the following circuit, determine the reading of the voltmeter, ammeter
0.5W
j1.5W
and wattmeter.
A
Here 25 W resistor and j30 W
CC
25W
inductor are in parallel.
VC
240V
Equivalent impedance
V
j30W
of the parallel combination
is:
Z eq R // jX L
25 j 30
(14.75 j12.3) W
25 j 30
Total impedance isZT (0.5 j1.5) (14.75 j12.3) 20.5642.14 W
2400
11.67 42.14 A
ZT 20.5642.14
Voltage across the equivalent impedance is V I Z eq 224.13 2.3 V
Therefore, Voltmeter reading = 224.13 V
Ammeter reading = 11.67 A
Wattmeter reading = 224.1311.67cos(-2.30+42.140)= 2008.4 W
The current in the circuit is I V
50
Power Measurement in 3-phase Systems

Total power in a 3- system is the sum of three phase powers (for both
balanced and unbalanced systems)

PT = (Pa + Pb + Pc) W = (VaIacosa + VbIbcosb + VcIccosc) W
Three-wattmeter Method - One possible way of measuring the total
power in a 3- system is by using three wattmeters (one for each

phase), connected as shown in the following figure.
Total power is the sum of three wattmeter readings and is valid for both
balanced and
unbalanced
conditions
a
Wa
CC
VC
b
Va
CC
Vb
Vc
Wb
VC
n
Z
VC
CC
Wc
51
Balanced System
Pa = Pb = Pc and thus the total power is 3phase power
For such a case, power of only one of the phases measured by using a
single wattmeter may be sufficient.

To get the total power, multiply the wattmeter reading by 3 (because
the system is balanced)
This is called one-wattmeter method
Limitations
Three-wattmeter (or one-wattmeter) method uses phase voltages and
currents to measure the phase powers. However, the phase voltages and
phase currents are not always accessible
A better way of measuring the 3-phase power is by using the line
quantities (line voltages and line currents) instead of phase quantities
Line quantities are always available at the source or load terminals
52
Blondels Theorem
The minimum number of (single-phase) wattmeters needed to
measure the total power of a poly-phase system is one less than the
number of wires in the system
For a 3-, 3-wire system: 2 wattmeters are needed
For a 3-, 4-wire system: 3 wattmeters are needed
53
Two-wattmeter Method
It is very commonly used to measure the total power of a 3-, 3-wire
system
The reading of an individual wattmeter may not have any meaning but
the sum of two readings is always the total power of a 3- system (if the
wattmeters are connected properly)
The method is valid for both balanced and unbalanced systems as well
as for both and Y systems
W1
a
CC
One possible way of connecting
two wattmeters to measure

the total power is shown below
3-
3-wire
source
VC
b
CC
W2
3-
3-wire
load
VC
54
Let P1 and P2 be the readings of the
wattmeters W1 and W2, respectively

According to the connection,
the readings
of the wattmeters are
T
P1 1 vac (t )ia (t )dt W,
T 0T
P2 1 vbc (t )ib (t )dt W
T0
W1
a
CC
3-
3-wire
source
VC
b
CC
W2
3-
3-wire
load
VC
It can be shown that, (P1 + P2) is the total power of the 3-phase system
T
1T
1T
P1 P2 vac (t )ia (t )dt vbc (t )ib (t )dt 1 (va vc )ia dt 1 (vb vc )ib dt
T0
T0
T0
T
T
1
T
[va ia vbib vc (ia ib )]dt 1 [v i v i v i ]dt [(i + i ) = -i ]
a a
b b
c c
a
b
c
T0
T0
( Pa Pb Pc )
That is, (P1 + P2) ( Pa Pb Pc ) = total 3-phase power
55
The above derivations requires no assumption on
Phase sequence (a-b-c or a-c-b)
Waveforms of the voltage and current (sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal)
The nature of the load (balanced or unbalanced)
Example:
3-
source
b
A balanced 3-phase, 400 V, Y-connected
load has a phase impedance of
W2
c
(10+j8) W/phase. Two wattmeters are
used to measure the total power of the
load and their connections are as shown in the figure.
W1
CC
VC
3-
Y-con.
load
CC
VC
Determine the reading of each wattmeter if the phase sequence is a-b-c.
56
and
Solution
VL = 400 V, Vp = 230.9 V
Consider Va as reference Va 230.90 V
Vab 40030 V
Vbc 400 90 V
Vca 400150 V Vac 400 30 V
Current of phase a (as well as line a) is
V
I a a 230.90 18.03 38.66 A,
Z L (10 j8)
W1
CC
3-
source b
VC
CC
W2
3-
Y-con.
load
VC
I c 18.0381.34 A
Therefore, Ib 18.03 158.66 A,
and,
Wattmeter readings are
P1 Vac I a cos q V , I 400 18.03 cos(30 38.66 ) 7.13 kW
P2 Vbc I b cos q V
ac
bc , I b
Total power
Also
400 18.03 cos(90 158.66 ) 2.62 kW
PT = (P1 + P2)
PT = 3Ia2RL
= (7.13 + 2.62)
= 318.03210
= 9.75 kW
= 9.75 kW (checked)
57
Balanced 3 Phase System

Total reactive power QT as well as power factor (cos) can also be
determined from the two wattmeter readings

Consider Va as reference and is lagging power factor angle
Under this case (for phase sequence a-b-c), all voltages and currents
for Y-connected system are
Va Vp 0 ,
Vb Vp 120 ,
I a I L ,
Ib I L 120 , I c I L 120
Vab VL 30 ,
Vba VL 150
Vc Vp 120
Vbc VL 90 , Vcb VL 90
Vca VL 150 ,
Vac VL 30
58
Balanced 3 Phase System

the wattmeter readings can be written as
P1 Vac I a cos q V
ac , I a
P2 Vbc Ib cos q V
bc , Ib
VL I L cos(30 )
VL I L cos(30 )
VL I L cos(90 120 ) VL I L cos(30 )
Note that: cos(30 ) cos30 cos sin 30 sin
3
2
cos 12 sin
cos(30 ) cos30 cos sin 30 sin
3
2
cos 12 sin
Then: ( P1 P2 ) VL I L [cos(30 ) cos(30 )]
VL I L [ 3 cos ] 3VL I L cos
( P1 P2 ) VL I L [cos(30 ) cos(30 )] VL I L sin
3( P1 P2 ) 3VL I L sin
Therefore,
Total real power

Total reactive power
= P1+P2,
= 3( P1 P2 )
and,
59
Other possible connections of the two-wattmeter method

a
The general procedure is to
connect two wattmetters in

any two of the three lines and
the third line should be common
for the voltage coil of both
wattmeters.
3-
3-wire
source
VC
W1
CC
3-
3-wire
load
VC
CC
W2
W2
a
CC
VC
3-
3-wire
source
3-
3-wire
load
VC
CC
W1
60
Thanks !
61

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EE 101

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering

Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

counterclockwise with uniform angular velocity as shown in Fig. 1

is instantaneous voltage, and

the rotating vector will give the cosine wave.

sinusoids pass through zero

Then, is said to be the phase difference between v1 and v2.and

In Figure 2, v1 is the reference and v2 is said to lead v1 by .

Average Value of Sinusoids

interval between t1 and t2 is expressed as

Effective (RMS) Value of Sinusoids

functions is effective current. It is expressed as

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

across a network given by

Vm I m sin 2 (t ) cos q sin(t ) cos(t )sin q

consists of two components; a constant part and a time varying part.

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

by the circuit and more returned to the source.

i.e. q=/2, the p(t) curve is

is equal to the positive area.

In this case no power is

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

time interval of two period, hence its value is equal to zero.

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

The product of V and I, or the apparent power must be multiplied by the

factor (cosq) to obtain the average power.

is called the power factor.

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

of sinusoids are made simpler by phasor

Vt (V p1 cos0 V p 2 cos ) 2 (V p1 sin 0 V p 2 sin ) 2 , and,

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Phasor Addition - Example

V3 V1 V2 Vm0 Vm90 2Vm45

v3 2Vm sin( t 45)

Representation of Circuit Parameters in Frequency Domain

is applied across a capacitor C,

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

RL Circuit Steady State Analysis (Revisit)

Let the input voltage be:

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

The instantaneous current in the circuit is

i(t ) 2 9.84 sin(t 18.43 pi 180) 13.92 sin(t 0.32)

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Solution - The Phasor Diagram

VL 1090 I 1090 9.84 18.43 98.471.57

The voltage across the capacitor

The resultant voltage is

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Multiplication and Division of Complex Quantities

need frequently arises to multiply and divide complex numbers.

product of these two phasors is

of their magnitudes and the sum of their angles.

The division of these two phasors is given by

Power and Roots of Complex Quantities

The nth power of a complex number is a complex number whose magnitude

Then the four distinct roots are,

for k=1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.

The phasors in terms of rms values can be written as:

The complex power

is commonly represented in the power triangle as shown.

= VI, is the apparent power,

= VI cos q is the real power