Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
A Source Book
By
Marshall Clagett
Volume Three
Ancient Egyptian Mathematics
This One
F84-NHA-Q7SA
Copyrighlodmalorial
Memoirs
of the
US ISSN: 0065-9738
Jacket
ilhistratioiis:
Front top:
1).
page 379, Fi^. IV. 3). Back: Hieratic fragments from Berlin Papyrus 6619
(cf.
Fig. IV.200).
Copyrighted material
Copyrigtited material-
PREFACE
Preface
It
volume, and,
century.
However,
this
now
in the
Volumes One
in
became apparent
it
prefaces of
to
me
as
approached the
unwielcfy tome.
So
vohmie.
subjects
woik
Four-^e
One
fijll
As
in the earlier
volumes,
how
our knowledge
liberally
Griffith,
more
of Couchoud,
and
I,
pre-
primarily
an
which appear to be
Museum of
As
before,
acknowledge a
Neuge-
bauer for his help and encouragement, though he died just after the
completion of Volume
to include in
it.
had completed
to organize Vol-
how usefiil
R. J. Gillings'
much
^rts
how
The reader
will discover,
two vohmies
that I
vi
PREFACE
grams used
Three.
The
in
my
preparatioii
my own wi^
new system
for
Windows
and functions best with that word processor and its True Fonts.
Hence I have abandoned not only Fontrix but its correlative printiiig
program Printrix. However, I confess to missing the ease with
which new glyphs, or in &ct any kind of new fonts, can be created
with Fontrix.
Once more
must thank
my
secretary
Ann
Tobias,
who
re-
this
long support of
my
Herman
whom
have dedicated
owe
its
this
Goldstine,
who
has so consistently
and imaginatively helped in the publication of these volumes on ancient Egyptian science;
and
lastly
skillfol
Marshall Clagett
Professor Emeritus
Institute for
Advanced Study
Princeton, N. J.
vu
Table of Contents
Prefiicev
Part
I:
Old
Kingdom 1
Egyptian Measures 7
Systematic Mathematical Treatises and Tabular Aids 15
Other Tables
in
Aid of Calculation 42
55
Pefsu Problems 60
Ancient Egyptian Geometry: Areas 68
Volumes 80
Conclusion 93
Part
11:
Documents
Document IV. 1
Document IV. 2
Document IV. 3
Document IV.4
Document IV. 5
British
Document IV.6
Part
III:
Bibliography 281
Index of Proper
Names and
ix
Subjects 295
261
After 313
313
Part
One
QuqpterFoiir
Copyrighted material
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER FOUR
Ancient Egyptian Mathematics
Quantification in the Early Dynastic Period and the
Old Kingdom
of or
amples in Volume One of this work. Small and mid-scale measurements of length and ultimately of land areas and volumes of solid
common
vessels, as
silos
and
natural
phenomena
like the
The counting of
and
repetitious
light
of day
celestial risings,
measures of time
have shown
like
in considerable detail in
measure of long term time periods, which has also been pointed out
Indeed,
it is
prob-
It
was
this
king
(i.e.,
its
Sesostris),
moreover,
who
divided the
of equal
from the produce of which he exacted an annual tax.
Any man whose holding was damaged by the encroachmoit
of the river would go and declare his loss before the king,
who would send inspectors to measure the extent of the
loss, in order that he might pay in future a fair proportion of
size,
was
the
way
in
which geometry
(i.e.,
Perhaps
land measurement)
Greece....
we saw in
Volume One that the Egyptians used a different glyph for each
separate power of ten when counting items in the hieroglyphic form
mathematics by the ancient Egyptians. For example,
of writing:
'
=100,000,
and ^^= 1,000,000 (see Fig. 1.10 in Volume One and also the glyphs
in the leftmost column in each of the tables of Figs. IV. 1 a and
IV. lb below; various forms of their hieratic counterparts are found
in the other
Narmer, where, as
est
register
noted
in Vol. 1, p.
fruit
6 (see Fig.
oxen,
1.9), "in
the low-
1,422,000 goats,
and
northern Egyptians.
plentiful in the
Early
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
ermo Stone from one of the main fragments of that documeiit
(Document 1.1). From pemsing that document we find first of all
how crucial counting was in the administration of the kingdom fi>r
the biennial survey of the wealth of the kingdom, specified as the
**counting" (tnwt), and how that system of counting the wealth developed into a system of dating by regnal years; see Vol. 1, pp. 5053. We also see fix>m the veiy b^inning of that document, in the
reign of Aha in the first dynasty, that the years, the days and the
months have been numbered: **Year [X +7 (?)] [The last civil year
of the rdgn of the King, of which he reigned the first] sk months
and seven days** (Vol.
I,
p. 68).
?),
we note for
the
first
cording, for each year, the greatest height reached in the annual
rising
of the
we
Indeed, this
81).
In a later reigns
is
pal.,
know
of frac-
we
and
find the
as unit parts:
fractions in both hieroglyphics and hieratic writing, see Fig. IV. Ic,
Table CC. Only 2/3 and 3/4 appeared with numerators greater than
one, as
we
about the
skill
(We
some
shall
length in the
first
volume
of Nile
in
later
manipulat-
risings")
In the second
of a seasonal
cal-
Year that was used without refinement during the whole Phar-
kii^ in Egypt.
Volume One,
The
pp. S6-S7):
of land mentioned
gifts
in the
rmn
(a.
10-aroura measure^
st^t (unit-arouni
measure),
cubit-area,
area" [or
i.e.,
f?,
1/100 aroura).
so called from
its
If
we
start
meaning as
mh
"land-strip",] (i.e.,
an area
cubit
(a
with a "cubit-
~
=
=
In this system
^stem...
we
find
first in
is itself
unit-arouras in units.
We
also find
in units
is
itself
units.
But the
annalist
of the place-value
technique
There
of any
...
is
technique... and in
no reason to
was
subtraction,
and
multiplication, as
later
when Indo-
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
Arabic numerals with thdr carefully ddmeated decunal columns
came into use. Hence without any special calculating benefit evident in the early Egyptian system, thane
to develop
it
further
when
was no
particular stimulus
of numerals.
It
the ground
dynasty,
third dynasty
particularly to land
in
to measurement, and
measurement."
These examples
some measures
was given
at the
These
we
tell
us
much
about the date of the origin of the procedures of Egyptian mathematics, but they allow us not to be so pessimistic about the probability that a
good many
Even
so,
were
we
in
can
defective.
The
1,000,000.
was complete up
there
First
is
none.
Dynasty
..
IVth Dynasty
we
find in the
that
development
in
circle.
tri-
full
may
almost take
on
fiu*
finom
satisfiwtory.
fiilly
up of which are
entirely con-
Copyrighted material
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
Peet*s assumptioii about Egyptian knowledge of the area of
a rectangle in eaily times is surely correct in view of use of the
measures of cuUt-areas and arouras and their multiples and fiactions in both Document 1.1 and in in Volume One; see, e.g., Fig.
I.SO. But he is also correct in noting lack of evidence of mathematical tracts (with sample problems and tables) until the Middle
IQqgdonL And so we shall discuss shortly the cautious steps taken
fiom the practical measurements mentioned above toward some
simple general conceptions of numerical relationships or formulas
to serve as models for budding calculators and even toward the
concept of proof or at least of the testing of the accuracy of a calculation. But before we do this, we should discuss the various measures employed by the early Egyptians, which for the most part are
found in the mathematical documents that follow this chapter.
Egyptian Measures^
At
tian
this point
measures embraced
of ancient Egyp-
in the
Ij,
and
mathematical
20.6 inches
(i.e.,
52.3 cm.),'
ni-sH't). It
dividable,
was approximately
used for
field
more
The
flilly
cubit
was used
commonly
called
itr),
was
equal to 20,000 cubits (i.e., about 10.5 km.) was the longest
measure used for larger fields and for itinerary purposes (e.g., see
my Vol. One, pp. 492-94, 507 n. 1) and thus was similar to the
Greek schoems. The Egyptian cubit-rod was first investigated in
ure,"
detail
my Figs.
slate, basalt,
IV.24 (Tafohi
1-5).
He also
gave us
Copyrighlec m,
emended the
transliterations;
my
brackets:'
"royal cubit**
7 palms
28 digits.
- 6 pahns
= 24 digits.
=5
"upper arm"
shot]
aa [i.e.Jit S7
=3
[
or pd or shat\ nedjes
"great span"
1/2 palms
[fist,^
=>
^5,
>
>
55p\
digits.
pahns
12
digits.
-2 pahns -8 digits.
down]
''handsbreadth**
=14
[i.e. Jit
s3
digits.
= 4 palms = 16 digits.
'^^pt [or p4 or
palms = 20
=1
1/2 pahns
1/4 pahns
= 1 pahn
6 digits.
5
digits.
= 4 digits.
1/4
palm
1 digit.
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
Also of interest
is
it
87
is
It is at
the Lou-
the cubit-rod
more
(Tafd 2)
(a):
is
The
marked
side.
long, each
palm
being divided into four digits or fiqgers, and each digit fur-
and
such as that for the short cubit (six palms), the great
little
hand.
who
shat,
Along the
flat
digit.
On
She also mentions the existence of another cubit-rod belonging to Maya, which
is
now
in Turin.
in
my Fig.
This
division
of the cubit
is
is
IV.24 (Tafel
in
1) (b).
The
fact
of the square with a side of one cubit (i.e., 7 palms).^ From this
fiict, there have been exaggerated claims that the Egyptians had knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem, which is, of
empirical
I call attention
the remark of Ms. Doll's that the Parisian rod contained the
we
is
in
to
names
our account
in these
Among
was
IV.26):^
was
Our own
knowledge of
this
from the
relatively simple
[in
the Metro-
wooden
cubit
and other prominent officials of the New Kiqgdom. Two such cuUt rods, carved, respectively, of chert
and green slate, are each represented in our collection by a
architects
263 [Author: my Fig. IV.26]) comof the original rod but sufficing to
show the character of the monument and the nature of its
texts. Both rods belonged to a type which carried, in addition to all the duly labeled divisions and subdivisions of the
cubit, **such a bewildering amount of assorted information
that 'almanac' seems a better word than *cubit rod* by
which to describe them."" The firagment ilhistrated, for
single fragment (see fig.
10
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
example, preserves on the front edge of the rod the
second
two
"digits'*
of the
culrit
first
and
deities as-
sociated ^dth the imfividual digits (in this case Re** and Shu).
starts
off with
copper
fer to
third line
On
at different places
list
relative heights
of
of nomes
is
resumed
Nomes of Lower
the rod
..
Ludwig Bordiardt calls them, firom the Cairo and Berlin Museums
were noted to contain some information and tables that might also
pertain to water- and shadow-docks. They were long since discussed (but without daiming certainty) by tluit great student of time
measurement and are shown in my Fig. IV.27a,^^ and it is evident
that his discussion of the possible uses of the sacred cubit-rods in
11
more
we
scriptions in the
1000
sq. cubits
= lOx
10000
sq. cub.
10 cubits = 27.565
1 stit
"aroura," a
r/wi
1/2
= 2765.5
m.
as 10 arouras].
[or
Old King.:
sq.
rmn;
1/2 bsb.
m the Annals on
Document
below.
1 1,
but
it
later
will
my own in brackets;
The only problems
of measure
in these
which
is
100 royal
tat in
grain
is
The
units
the
[i.e., setjat,
The area of a
much
is
the
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
ume
tians
1/2, 1/4,
in the
[of a
and for these fincdons also th^ had special forms
[differing fiom those of the Horns eye finctions but which
eye** fiactions
hekail,
portions
thought of as a
wide.
strip
adopted also in
this volume].
is
cubit
name
is
setat,
with the
tion
is
graphs below].
which
strips.
and so
smallest
"Horus
eye'* frac-
is
20
Thus
in
cubit-strips,
Problem 54 we have
1/5
of a
setat,
is
1/2 cubit-strips,
on....
space
in cubic-cubits
liq-
in the
**khaf^ (ftir)
[i e.,
The
bin
sack
about 96
lit.
With
heqat,
we note that
largest
2/3 of a cubic-
5 4-heqat]
liter.^^
bin
Hence, in
Ids
vations
little
more than
half a peck.
i.e.,
This
was
di-
whose denominators
culiarly
down
to 1/64,
was pe-
are powers of 2
to be ligatures
little cir-
When
its
it]....
the
14
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
Also SO hekat and 25 hekat were put
The number of whole hekat was followed by Horns eye** fractions and by ro and fractions of a
ro \jkx example, see Problems 47, 68-70 in Document
down as
1/2
and
1/4.
the sign.
/leibtf....
is
e.g.,
see
tion in the
this chapter
and
ond.
It will
listed the
first
section
of
of the chapter
that the
domi-
first
Kingdom, numerous
in
one case
tracts
leather) with
model problems
IS
model problems.
Before considering
should like to
list
dates.
1
ten
Document
down
in the
IV.
we
Amenemhet
III (ca.
1844-1797 B.C.).
it
(ca.
1585-
We owe
As
I shall
translation
16
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
(see
il-
lustrate
2/3,
Document
IV.2: the
(finom about
it
1783 B.C. to
to be dependent
Its
chief interest
lies in its
also contains a
It
difficult to
is
much disputed,
tion
crucial for
our
is
Document
IV. 3: the
of the 12th dynasty through the 13th, as I remark in my introducThe document consists of two arithmetic
problems which are similar to finding by false position two unknowns when given two simultaneous equations.
5. Document IV. 5: the Mathematical Leather Roll of the
British Museum.
The authors of some laboratory notes on this
leather roll suggest
its
As I
of the document, it is an
vohmies of material removed in a
buildiog project and the man-days required in the undertaking.
Thus, as an accounting document, it contrasts sharply with the preceding documents that present model problems of calculation and
/or tables to assist in thdr preparation.
shall explain in the translation
Many
ers
of the above-mentioned
with
**auxiliary
used through-
18
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
approxiinatiiig fiactions
when
it is
efiforts
of mul-
tiplication
(Document IV.6 below) and in the table of the distribution of porof bread and beer at the temple of niahun in the Middle idngdom (see the end of the section called Tefiu Problems** in this
tions
fi)rm
being expressed as the sums of unit fractions; (b) the "Table of the
Division of the
Two;
first
Heqat"
{ibid.,
(f)
fractions
of a
a Table of Equalities of
of this chapter.
IV.
we
will also
be discussed below.
testing.
Throughout Document
i.e.,
to say,
it
is
common
practice in the
show
that
(5)
it
fits
in
order to
zoids, rectangular
19
will
be
dis-
on geometry below.
The concept of quadrature, that is the reduction of
curved figures in two or three dimensions to figures bounded by
straight lines or phmes. This b^ins a study that leads fixmi Egyptian mathematics through the brilliant eflforts of Greek geometry
(and above all in the works of Archimedes) to modem geometry,
and I shall have somethii^ to say of this teter in the diapter.
sections
(7)
Modem
arithmetical procedures
As
depend fimdamentally on
earlier, though the
have said
never became an essential part of their calculating proceHowever, addition and subtraction depended on shifting to
higher or lower powers of ten when the simple operations demanded. But multiplication (and division also, as we shall see later)
were accomplished by a series of fundamental multipliers, i.e.,
multiplying by 1, doublings, taking of 2/3, halvings, multiplying by
10, or taking of 1/10, using as many of these operations as were
needed to accomplish the calculation. These procedures are exemplified throughout the solutions of the various problems given in
Document IV. 1 In the course of solving Problem 32 involving an
tem,
it
dures.
unknown
cation of 12
X 12 completed as
12
2
\4
\8
24
48
96
Total:
144.
In this table
multiplier
we
follows:
we
see the
first
column
is
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
doubled
12
\2
24
10
120
144.
Total:
And
in this reconstruction
of Problem 43
we would
also see
Here we
9.
it
by taking
1/2
\1
of 2/3,
1/3:
9
6
2/3
\ 1/3
Total:
12.
Finally in
plications
i.e.,
by
10,
of 1/10 of 1/10,
Problem 44, we see a table in which occur multi(i.e., by 2 X 10), by 1/10 (twice), and by 2/3
by 20
i.e.,
by using
all
75
10
750
1500
\20
1/10 [of 1500]
1/10 of 1/10
2/3
1 1/3
of 1/10 of 1/10
of the fundamental
150
15
10.
21
multipliers:
used weie
fractions,
i.e.,
2/3,
1/2,
and
1/10.
Befisre
12
\2
\10
24
120
Total: 12
144.
a question
is
when
alike
midtiplication.
is
presented as a table,
from
different
that for
in the
second column (24 and 120) that are opposite the checked multipliers of the multiplicand in the first column (i.e., 2 and
up to the original given multiplier (12), as we were
cation of
(12) of the
2 X
two
2,
we
are
now
10),
which add
in the multipli-
multipliers (namely, 2
sum
sum of those products in the second column that add up to the dividend (144). As the Egyptians would say, we are "calling up 144 by
operating on 12"; thus we are finding the quotient (12) as the sum
of those multipliers of the divisor that added together produce the
dividend (144).
Let us
now
shift to
more complicated
amount of fat
i.e.,
10 x 320
of 3200 by 365
whole
we
1
start
in
heqat
with 10
0 heqat of
fat
complished as follows:
if
year.
= 3200, and
(that is getting
division involving
365 [conLj
22
is
ac-
EGYPTIAN MATIffiNfATICS
[\
2
4
730
1460
2920]
2431/3
36 1/2
\2/3
\ 1/10
\
Total:
1/2190
1/6
2920
by successive doubling), the
oilculator cannot even add the product of 1 x 36S without exceeding the dividend 3200. Hence he proceeds to the hugest allowable
fractional multiplier, which is 2/3. But that only gives him 3163
1/3, still short of the dividend 3200. Furtfaennore, he sees that he
cannot use the next biggest allowable fiaction, i.e., 1/2 as a multiplier of 365, because again he would exceed 3200. So he proceeds
to 1/10, the but of the standard fractional multipliers. But now his
product is 3199 S/6, still 1/6 short of the dividend 3200. To get the
It is
by using 8 as the
final multiplier
multipliers
multiplier (obtained
4 and
2,
i.e.,
in total, yield a
1/6,
So he
product of 2190.
enunciation into
produce
i.e.,
answer
is
heqat mentioned
will
earlier).
last
We
1/64
shall also
see
in
moment
that the
quotient
is
this
problem with
its
use of recip-
pressions as the
sum of unit
fractions.
Hence we
are
fractional ex-
now ready
23
to
Any
reader
see immediately
in
For example
ment IV.l, by
in
Docu-
some
all
is
in
symbols (see
passim
is
Table CC,
in Figs. IV.2a-aaa).
cols.
is
from
1/5 on.*'
The
were
special
and
did not follow the general practice for writing fractions, which I
special signs
on
frac-
ordi-
parts.**
Gardiner's observations
worth quoting:^
meamng;
r-5 means *part 5', i.e. 'the fifth part'
which condudes a row of equal parts together constitutiiig a
single set of S. As being the part which conqdeted the row
into one series of the number indicated, the Egyptian rfiaction was necessarily a fraction with, as we would si^,
unity as the numerator. To the Egyptian mind it would have
seemed nonsense and self-contradictory to write r-7 ^ or the
like for 4/7; in ai^ series of seven, only one part could be
nal
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
in the
would
it
view to
7,
row of seven
iiave written
r-
by 1/2 (+)
(e.g.) 4/7
still
more
common
mans.
Gardiner's explanation that 4/7
1/7
1/7
+ 1^ +
1/7
was
it
*'would...h8ve
unwieldy expression
avoid
of
this,
like 1/7
1/7
1/7
1/7
is
It is
To
obtained.
[it]
as a
sum
Roll) where,
in
is
involved,
In
volved.^^
fiurt, it is
It
is in-
one
in
CaUloutof
3 1/2 1/18.
3 1/2 1/18
1/2
\ 1/4
1/8
1/16
1/32
Total:
[for if we]
add
36
18
[we get
1.
Now]
when taken
as parts
That
tity.
This
is
to say, 1/4 1/32 is the value of the unknown quanshown by the author when he considers the smaller
is
common
given here
may be
in
bold type
(i.e.,
all of
Those numbers of parts
add up to 72.
But 72/576
is
1/8,
we add the larger fractions 1/2 1/4 1/8 to the 1/8 just
determined, we see that the list of fractions given in the total are
and thus
if
Thus the value of the unhe turns to the Example of Proof in Problem 37, that the table showing the multiplication of the computed unknown (1/4 1/32) by the numbers of the
known
is
1/4
1/32.
and 1/32.
The reader
will notice, if
26
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
"unknown
namely
3, 1/3, 1/3
of
and
1/3,
1/9,
of the problem,
8,
1/2 1/4.]
Example of completion
(tp n skmt):
of 28 these
are]
7 [and]
1/2
of 28 these
are]
1/4
1/4
1/2 [since as
Total:
It is
a part of 28
this is 14].
(i.e.,
red) auxiliary
given below
do the red
in
numbers
sums
as
unit
of 2 by 7
note 35.
arith-
should
now examine
the Table of
Two, occupying
27
auxiliaries,
the
first
we
part of
its
hiero-
modem
who have
given interesting
computer generations of
possible alternative solutions of the table) but hardly ones that add
much
Of the
Rhind Papyrus.
shall discuss
last
of the
Two
number of works
strictly limited
i.e.,
since the
first
in 1871
by
Eisenlohr.^^
LI.
Griffith's treatment
of
it
in
my additions in brackets:^
in
order
to
iStammbriiche
were not
1/15
in
satisfied
1/15
1/15
make
root
the
German)^'*
[or
serve the
unit]
same
fractions
end.
They
1/15
1/15
1/3,
to be equivalent to 1/10
be expressed as
1/3
+
+
1/10+1/30.
Now
that
it
any simple
by subdivision
into
Stammbriiche
28
(1 -fractions
Stammbriiche
[i.e.,
fractions
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
with numerator
1])
and 2-fiBCtions
[i.e.,
Rhind Papyrus
table in the
[corrected out
is
carried as
fiu*
last
as 2--101
entry in the
Table of Two]....
A good
series
of
numbers
might have been obtained firom the formula (put into alge-
bra)
2/nl/a + 1/na, where = (+ l)/2
and \la terms are later corrections by Peet out of
the misprints zin and 1/ (a/2) ],...
An easily used formula is of great value in calcula[the 2ln
tion,
made a
byai^fonmda.
The author of the
utilized according to
Ms
sys-
29
proving and presendqg the various diviskms of 2 by the odd numbers beyond the analyses and judgments given by Griffith,
we
knowledge of the language along with a thorough understandon Egyptian mathematics produced in the first
half-centuiy after the original publication of the Rhind Papyrus by
Eisenlohr. The first of them is T. Eric Peet.^ Peet first pr^ents the
entiy for l*! as given in the Table of Two, whidi I have rendered
rior
is] 1
1/2
3 1/2
\ 1/4
\4
1/2 1/4
28
1/4
2
4
14
28.
As
a proof this
is
satisfactory, but
it
on the one
problems^ namely the manner
noted,
all,
it
in
To
arrive at the
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
In the case of all... fractions
whose denominator
is
1/2
all its
the numerator 2
and since 1 1/2 di-
itself for
and
1/2,
1/2) /
1/6
was
at
1/18 [the
of91.
Similariy those fractions
25 * 1/15 +
and 85 were
1/75. In this
Thus 2/25
1/3.
way
(1
2/3
1/3) /
treated as multiples
no
fetters
trial.
An inspection of
Even in the treatment of
multiples of the lower prime numbers we have already seen
that there was some irregularity, and this is only emphasized
them
is
by formula but by
sufficient to
when we come to
show
this.
31
1.
mto
Resolution
three firactions
was
preferred to
+ Vbn + Mm,
l/ort
erwise that
was not
fifaction
was
MS,
but db/1,
aft
aft/4,
Oth-
chosen.
first
or
root-
aft/8
was
adopted.
3. Higli fiictors
of the
original
denominator were
avoided.
It is
tions given
these rules.
true that as a matter of actual fiict the resohiby the Egyptian do to some extent conform to
Thus the resolutions of 17, 31, 37, 43, 47, 59,
the case of 19, 41, 71, 79, and 83 the denominator of the
first
root-fraction
is
it
and
is
in
it is
ah/l, in the
the case of 61
it
is
The
fact
is
..
that
Eisenlohr
is
here
employing a
method of analysis which ought not to be applied to Egyptian mathematics. Even could we show that all the results
corresponded to a formula this would not prove that the
Egyptian worked by this formula, and if Eisenlohr means to
imply that he did he is undoubtedly wrong. The Egyptian,
far from employing a formula, probably had no conception
that
the resolution
method
in all cases.
He had
32
itself,
and
similarly for 5,
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
and even 11; but when it came to the higher prime numno fornndato hdp him.
His method was undoubtedly that of trial. He had
moped the fiict that the problem consisted in breaking up 2
into the sum of several quantities each of which would di7,
bers he had
tlie trial
This table
finally
method employed
in
have given as
hypotheses proposed for the construction of the Table of Two described below, is
still
diflferent
cases A, B,
= my
AD,
its
reciprocal as a multiplier;
shall illustrate
in the cases
first
[2dMdedbyl7][conL]
33
[i.e..
Get 2 by operating on
17
is ] 1
17].
is] 1/3,
1/68 [of 17
is] 1/4.
Procedure:
1
17
2/3
11 1/3
1/3
5 2/3
\1
1/6
21/21/3
\2
34
51
68
\ 1/12
we must find
17
1/3
1/4.
multipliera
of 17
1/4,
which he
first
by
and then by
To
2,
added together equal 51. Then, taking the reciprocal of 51, i.e.,
1/51, and multiplying it by 17 the author gets 1/3. In precisely the
division has
of 17
is 1/4.
Accordingly the
is
1/12 1/51
1/68.
The method of
1/4, is
Document IV. 1
As an illustration of the second
where the
by
first
step
is
is,
of 2
[2 divided by 1 3J
1/8 [of 13
1
1[3]
1/2
6 1/2
1/4
3 1/4
1/8
52
104
is] 1
1/2 1/8
34
is] 1/4,
1/104 [of 13
is] 1/8.
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
As
in
type A,
we
we
2,
1/2
The remamder
1/8.
of the
first
make
is
1/4
f2dMdedby25J
1/15 [of 25
2/3,
is] 1
1^5
[of 25
is] 1/3.
25
\ 1/15
2/3
75
\3
1/ 3.
first
in 1/15
[2 divided by] 31
1/20 [of 31 is] 1 1/2 1/20, 1/124 [of 31
is] 1/4,
1/lSS [of 31
is]
1/5.
[31]
1/20
1/2 1/20
124
1/4
155
1/5.
The
1/10,
\4
first,
that multiplier,
i.e.,
product below
2.
and
1/5.
was obviously
Then taking half of
1/10.
The remaining
is 1
multipliers to
ing the
umt
[2dMdedby21]
1/14 [of 21
is] 1 1/2,
1/42 [of 21
is]
1/2.
21
\2/3
14
\2
42
1/2
1/2.
all
All
was no
that there
be
have put:
first,
number
this
number
[i.e.,
little
36
less than
the odd-
of the answer,
2 that
is
little
less
produced
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
by
finally,
To
remainder necessaiy to
make
2;
and
the answer.
complete
this discussion
the opinions of
it is sometimes necessaiy to
must be added to a given sum
order to obtain 1. In the example (2:17)
of unit
fractions in
A] the given sum of unit fractions was 1/4 + 1/6, and the
supplement 1/3 + 1/4. In this case it was easy to see that
1/4 + 1/6 plus 1/3 + 1/4 is 2, but in higher cases it is not so
easy to find the required supplement.
section of the Rhind Papyrus
For
its
were
solution, auxiliary
is
Therefore, a whole
devoted to
equal to another
this
problem.
They
sum of fractions
is
sum effractions.
37
1/28
+
1/24 +
1/21
Van
1/48 =
1/42
1/14
1/30
1/16
1/6
by
8.
by
it
3,
by
left
(which
by
4,
5,
derived in the
is
by
denves
fi^ran
often used in
6,
by
7,
and
the equality
1/2+1/3 + 1/6*1.
(2)
The 2/3-group.
A.
wfaichif isamultiple of 3.
sequence
1/4 1/8
[i.e.,
.
.]
is
used.
The
...]
or the 1/2
results
sequence
of these divisions
[i.e.,
all
1/2
have
A?
\/x
l/kifj
n.
or 12 or 24, but
if the 1/2 -
If the 2/3
\lk2n
sequence
2.
Examples:
= 1/3 + 1/15
= 1/4 + 1/28
2:11 = 1/6+1/66
2:13 = 1/8+ 1/52+
2:5
2:7
38
Mkm
(3)
1/104.
is
used,
x \&2i, power of
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
To
this
(2:/i)
whh n -
5,
C.
divisioiis
of this group
1/3
all
de-
1/15
onedetives
2:25
1/15
1/75.
n=
95.
of the
results
The divisions of
is neither 2^ nor 3 times T.
group can only be undentood by assuming the use of
the algorithm of auxiliaiy numbers.
E. Three exceptional cases remain, namely it - 35
and /? = 91 and n 101. In the last case a '^trivial" decomnominator X
this
position is given:
2:101
1/101
1/202
1/303
1/606.
results
ment IV. 1.
He notes that
that auxiliary
of the three
in the text.
it is
Docu-
in the
terns of the 5 groups of divisions found in the 2:n table, van der
Waerden then
posed by Neugebauer, Vetter, and Vogel (in various of their accounts cited in note 29) and their motives for proposing such hypotheses. This account I leave to the reader, quoting here only van
der Waerden' s concluding remarks.^
The
kernel,
Egyptian multiplication,
in
39
the algorithm of
which the main operation was
doubling.
gets 1/7
1/7,
and
is
doubled, one
1/7
say 1/7,
ifthis is
1/7
1/7 is obtained.
method to rewrite
[it]
Tosvoid
as a sum
e.g.
1/7+1/7-1/4+1/28
which can be doubled again and again without any difficulty.
The Egyptian solution of this rewritiqg problem,
codified in the (2:it)-table, is based
on
three fiindamental
ideas:
Just so,
1/5
1/5
1/3
1/15 and
results like
1/25
tions to
1/25
1/15
1/75.
you want to complete a sum of fracor to rewrite a sum of fractions as another sum,
Third idea.
1
If
all given fractions by a conveniently choand afterwards divide again by D. This is the
sen integer
Z),
method of
"auxiliary numbers",
in the
1/35,
which was
certainly applied
and probably
in
many
other
cases.
The
first
idea
rangement of the
is
was
(2:w)-table.
whole
part
ar-
of n
its
equivalent "Call
terwards
of each
[i.e.,
2 out of
was only a
/?"],
even
in
verification af-
entry].
40
EGYPTIAN NfATIffiMATICS
The second
of
serial derivation
of a
made dear by many examples in the Leather RoU [i.e., our Document TV. 5],
The third idea is applied to many examples in the
sequel of the Rhind Papyrus [i.e., the part of Document
"whallt
sequence of equafities,
is
Thus,
2:ii^table].
it
as a whole is a unity.
was developed
table
ess, possibly
during
Bruins in the
article
in the course
many
centuries.
mentioned in note 29
(p.
was
able to construct the table within a veiy short time, in any case
within a day!**
of Two,
I shall
criteria that
Gillings:^
on
available to him.
in his choice
of values
Some previous
investi-
gested, to
Precept
The
fifth
believe
41
were the
numbers
none as large as 1000 [890 being the larg-
An
is
Precept 3
The unit fractions
of magnitude,
that
down
in
descending order
[i.e.,
denomina-
number,
if it will greatly
Precepts
Even numbers
reduce the
last
the main
larger first
number.
are preferred to
section.
Two
how
it
was developed,
in
first
it
is
easy to see
how
of
by 10
is
immediately obvious
if
we
multiply
it.
the ordi-
Division
by 10 and then
is
equally
evident, since 1/10 and 1/10 yields 1/5, as the author could
seen from a
that in
have
Document IV.S
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
(see Col. 2, line 4).
The
division
division
can be
first
of 5
easily
is
of 3/10
division
is
is
obviously the
of 4/10
is
sum of the
equivalent to the
The
rest
of the
The
entries
entries in the
8,
We should
Rdsner Papyrus
1,
Sect.
firactions in
Document IV.6
(i.e.,
Document IV. 1
is
table
of the
of 2/3
1/6 1/18; 2/3 of 1/6
The
multiplications: 2/3
is
1/3
is
is
is 1/6;
1/6
of 1/2
or [putting
it
in
is
of 2/3
1/12; 1/12
another way]
first
of 1/2
is
1/9, 2/3
1/24; 1/9
of it
[i
e.,
is
of it
is
it is
1/18 1/54
in
is
is
line:
1/5, 1/4
43
is
of it
of 2/3
of multiplications are
of
of 1/2
is
of it
is
of it
1/22 and
of it is
1/44.
renund the reader that the only "legitimate multipliers are 2/3 and
1/2, and fiactions obtained from them by halving.'*'^ In the prob-
lem
and whole numbers displayed in the documents (and parDocument IV. 1^') has prompted scholars to pose that
ticularly in
by
paragraph seems to indicate that such was the case for multiplying
the
tables
first
to Peet's
argument:''
Strange as
it
may seem
to take two-thirds of a
number by a
was accustomed
single process.
is
No
fact that
two
would do it
by taking one third and doubling it. So far was the Egyptian
from doing this that his sole means of finding one-third of a
quantity
to give two-thirds of 5
it.
But Battiscombe Gunn in his probing review of Peet's ediof the Rhind Papyrus doubts Peet's conclusions regarding the
use of a 2/3 table:'^
tion
44
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
That the Egyptian redconer used tables for the purpose of
taking
quite doubtfiil.
necessary. Secondly,
it
for
if it were
a reckoner to
parts,
provided that he
I think that
first,
he used
that
it
was
this
round-
less trouble
halve this
when
one-third
method has
and
this great
to acquire the
one-third mentally;
if
the total
we
consider the 2/3 and 1/3 entries in the table of Problem 61,
45
Two
and
in other
problems of the Rhind Papyrus that might have been drawn fiom
two-thirds and one-third tables, and the great convenience of having such tables, we can understand Peet's conclusion. Still it has to
be underlined, as Gunn notes, that no such complete tables for either fiBCtions or whole numbers are known before Byzantine times.
The reader may consuh in our Fig. IV.30 the 2/3 table that appears
in the Greek in the first part of the Papyrus m/Mmatique
d'AkhmUn about 1000 years after the Rhmd Papyrus that comprises
our Document IV.l. Obviously that table can hardly be used as
evidence for the existence of ancient Egyptian tables, despite the
veiy extensive Egyptian mfluence on the much teter Gredc work.
The inclusion in the Byzantine woik not only of a table of twothirds but of the succe^ng tables of multiplications by fi-actions
fix)m 1/3 through 1/20 is nowhere matched in the early Egyptian
documents. Nevertheless, R.J. Gillings discusses how 2/3 tables of
firactions (as well as similar 1/3 and 1/2 tables of fractions) might
have been prepared, if we accept the possibility that such tables
were in existence at the time of the Rhind Papyrus.^^ In reconstructing these supposed Egyptian tables, Gillings laces together
individual line solutions largely found in the
Fig. IV. 3
Rhind Papyrus.
See
Egyptian manner.
in
Document IV.
The first one
All three
is
numbered
its
Horus-eye fractions
(1/2,
ro = 1/320 heqat.
earlier discussion
It
1/4,
will
of volumetric measures
is
found
in the
The
Document
IV.
are labeled
Problems 80 and 81. The first of the two simply gives successively
the values in henu of 1 heqat and then its Horus-eye fractions. The
second is more complex. It repeats first the equivalence in hetm of
the simple Horus-eye fractions as given in the preceding table and
46
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
then follows that with a series of sub-tables that give the vahies in
henu of decreasing sums of Horus-eye fiactioiis phis some ro fractions, with all but the first sub-table giving, in an extra column to
the right, the vahies of the Hbnis-cye sums in rubricated regular
fractions of a heqat.
We should also lemnid the reader once more of the table of
equalities expressing reguUur finctional sums that consthute Document IV.S. The probable role they played in the composition of the
Table of Two has already been discussed in the preceding section.
Note that on the basis of the equalities given in lines 11, 13, 19 of
column 3 and lines 1-7 of cohinm 4, Gillmgs poses a hypothetical
rule, which was not in any Egyptian document so fiir as I know.
nile are of
But still Gillii^' prdunmaiy remarks concemiiig the
some interest and I give them in brief:^
An intdligent
scribe
relation existing
would
certainly notice
certain sunple
equalities
is
In
rule.
the
as fol-
lows:
G rule:
sum
is
If
one
nominator
is divisible
by
3.
The
is
it
Line
by
3.
1 1 ....
found
in the ancient
Egyptian mathematical
its
rule;,
extensions are
also
displays
form of 10
an extensive table of
sub-tables),
47
which
is
Two-Term
not present in
no
that
fiict
been constructed and what they would look like.^ Peet had eariier
said that ''though distinguished by a special name, whose literal
meaning is not certain (apparently connected with the verb sny, to
'pass by*) [squaring] was merely a special case of multiplication.'*^^
I quote the pertinent parts of Problem 1 1 of Document IV.2, ^^^lere
the squaring
is indicated:
[Coixxq
[Lin. 1]
in
logs.
man
in
logs;
[Lin. 3] the
[Lin. 4]
in logs
of 4 handbreadths section."
[Lin. 5]
these 5 handbreadths.
[Lin. 6] 25.
You
The
You
are to square
result is
4 handbreadths. The
re-
sult is 16.
[Col.
XXII]
"Behold,
[Lin. 4] this is the
handbreadths section.
[Lin. 5]
As
You
was
it is
correct."
Column XXII of
this
As Peet
notes/^
48
problem
will
of a proportion
handling
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
sum would be expected to state the proportion 16 25 ~ 100
and then either to multiply 100 by 25 and divide the resuft by 1 6,
or, like the Egyptian, to di^e 25 by 16 and multiply the result by
100" [though the btter would not use the symbolic letter x of a
this
jc;
unknown "a
quantit/* or
unknown
**a
numbeif*].
say
example of finding squares and the special term for that multi-
plicative procedure,
[i.e.,
"right angle"
of 6
in
l/4...[i.e.,
21/2]
1/2,
2 and
1/2.]
You
cal-
modem
of 1
1/2
inq>roper fiaction
1/16
(i.t.,
25/16,
we
when expressed
as
1/4
(i e.,
it is).
5/4).
Among
49
when
it
is
the
tity
(lit.
"heap,*'
i.e.,
or
1/5).
fl
fi-action
unknown
of it
(in fact,
quantity
is first
making
1/4,
namely
1,
[so that
\1
\ 1/4
Total:
5].
\2
10
Total:
3.
Multiply 3 times 4.
1
\4
12
50
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
This becomes 12. [And find
its 1/4:]
12
\l/4
Total:
15.
is
12 and
sum
its
was
originally
specified.]
As
sohitions
modem manipulation of
we
shall
its
solution,
our comparison,
51
and so
wording
we must
look at
how Ah-
[the scribe
Hau-
Aha-]calcul8tions.
[i.e.,
does
it
in
left
two ways
in
1/194 1/388 [rearranged in descending order in the bracketed conchision of Problem 31 of Document IV. 1 below]....
The second
x =
by
up two
first
possibilities: either
2 1/44
1/8,
one
So
it
is
in
into 19 to ob-
[in the second possibilone divides a/b into 1 and multiplies this quotient by C,
as is apparently done in Problems No. 28 and 29 [which see
in Document IV. 1 below for details].^^
ity]
interesting critiques
comments on
who
of Cantor's views, as
The
arithmetical
operations
here
performed
[in
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
But what is the thought-process behiiid this? Cantor
though that it was piteisdy that of the sohidon of the
equation (1 l/4)xlS;thatmStep A 1 1/4 was leduced to
an unproper fiictioa 5/4, m Step B the numerator S was divided into IS, and m Step C the resuh muhiplied by the denoniuiator4.
fit
It
on the
operation
15,
This
is precisely
to solve this
and
trial
it
result is
we diould
3.
follow if told
algebraic symbol x,
number 4 gives a
third
of the required
re-
As Peet goes on to
that are solved directly
Document
is S.
number
IV.
It
1.
by
embraces a
example Problem 30
division, as for
common
in
Egyptian phrasing of
quantity problems, namely, "If the scribe says to you 'What is the
quantity of which 2/3 and 1/10 will make 10?'" The answer, 13
1/23,
is
calculated
by an
indirect
method
still
is
number
unknown
show that
in his translation to
10.
The answer
quantity,
i.e.,
is
proved by multi-
10.
Problems 28 and 29
Chace
and 8 to get
1, 4,
It is
in the
false posi-
would have shown this were not included, and so he reconthem (see Document IV. I, notes 27 and 29). GilUngs, on
structs
S3
**the
very
eailiest
examples
later
tUgebn.
This assumption
made
is
at the
when
section
+ - 100
where >^ (3/4) x As we have already seen in discussiqg squares
and square roots earlier, the sides of the two squares (i.e., the
square roots) were determined as 8 and 6. This then is a problem
whose solution represents that of a quadratic equation.
The forgoing are some of the principal examples of Aha
problems that seem to resemble, in a limited way, algebraic equations and their solutions. And even when worded in terms of practical measures, they seem to represent model problems of arithmetic
parable to using fidse position to solve the equation
Van
der
Waerden
did) that
accept
this opinion,
while
at the
much
as
And
we began
some
so
we
it
The
can end
literal
this discus-
symbols that
letters representing
quantities,
given
and
still
54
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
tions that could
Problems involving both of the simplest forms of progreswere solved by the Egyptians. In a problem of the Kahim
Mathenutical Fra^nents (Document IV.3, Cols. 11-12) we find a
straightforward procedure for finding a series of 10 numbers m
sion
arithmetic progression
ence of terms
is
when the sum is 100 and the common differThe sohition is given in two columns as
1/2 1/3.
follows:
[Col. 12]
[Col. 11]
\ 1
1/3 1/12
2
4
\8
2/3 1/6
13 2/3 1/12
12/3
3 1/3
12 1/12
1/6 1/12
1 1
10 1/3
1/12
1/3
1/6
2/3
1/12
2/3 1/61/12
1/12
1/6 1/12.
1/12
ment IV.3,
n.
1).
was forced
we
Instead
namely h =
highest term
/?,
of the terms
(i.e.,
common
(S/n)
(n-1) (d/2),
100),
difference
i.e.,
1/3
Docu-
1/12,
5S
shows
that
(10),
and
Hence
when
it
is
d is
Col.
the
11,
multiplied
by
n-l,
i.e.,
9,
i.e.,
100/10,
The
final
be discussed
is
among
men
[in
such a
way
sum of]
two. What
is
the
The procedure
is
is
as follows, [if
sum
[equal to the
[common] excess
we assume
first that]
the excess
five
men
re-
ceive are]
23, 17 1/2, 12, 6 1/2,
many
is
1; total
60.
necessary to multiply 60 to
make
100, so
60
40
\1
\
Total:
2/3
1
2/3
100.
23
it
becomes
38
1/3
56
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
it
it
1/2
Total:
becomes
becomes
it becomes
it becomes
17 1/2
12
60
it
29
20
1/6
10 2/3 1/6
1
2/3
becomes 100.
1/6.]
It
this
problem cannot be
soh^ by
namely,
A and i Using
two unknowns
mh-
algebraic techniques^
fi)r it is
(n-l) (d/2),
the
sum of
tenns): [h
is
equal to the
two lowest
predecessor is S
1/2.
sum 60
many
times as
sum
it
is
100, so
57
its
predecessor
that
it
series,
first
common excess.
It
should
be immediately evident to the reader who has read this fiu* that the
simplest of all geometric series, namely that produced by doubling,
such as 1, 2, 4, 8..., i.e., where the ratio of any teim to its predecessor term is 2, lay at the heart of the Egyptian system of multiplication and division, since one could easily make up any intervemng
whole number multiplier by selectively adding these terms and
thereby produce a final product from the addition of the partial
products produced by all of the terms making up the total multiplier.
We have also seen that another simple geometric series
helped to provide unit fractional multipliers:
series
reciprocals
....
This
unit-fraction series
46).
term
is
58
is 7.]
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
house-inventory [shows
term as a product
[Multiply 2801^^ by 7:]
find each
2801
2
4
5602
11204
how
in
by 7 to
a series].
19607.
Total:
[The same procedure is followed to multiply each tenn in the following series of five numbers by 7, which then nu^ be summed.]
houses
49
cats
heqat
343
2401 {corr, ex 2301)
16807
Total:
19607.
mice
malt
its
predecessor
it
multiply
1, 2, 4, i.e.,
is also 7.
It
it
by 7
is
in the Egyptian
confirmed as the
the
sum of the
by 7
series, i.e.,
way,
we
sum of the
19607.
The
difiSculty in this
problem
is
first
table
of Problem 79
indicates, yields
7,
before multiplying
that 2,801
it
by
7.
before...."^^
But, since
it
table... prepared
long
pro-
59
we
have no documen-
Pefini Problcnis
Pefiu
is
it
is
of
mathematical agqiression as
Pefiu
qats of grain).
Hence the higher the pefiu number, the weaker the bread or
beer.
cooking potency].
10
\20
\2
31/2
35
70
7
60
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
2
\2/3
1/3
\ 1/21
1/6
\ 1/7
1/2.
1/7 1/21.
[Proof:]
\1
222/3 1/71/21
4S 1/3 1/4 1/14 1/28 1/42
111/3 1/141/42
\2
\l/2
[Total
80].
[3 1/2 heqat
for]
\1
160
\l/2
Total:
1120ro.
MO
\
160
320
Total: [14]
1120.
So the amount of meal in one loaf [is 14 ro or] 1/32 heqat 4 ro.
[ProoC with the Honis-eye fractions given here in Italics:]
1
J/32 [heqat] 4 ro
2
4
2 ro
\16
\
32
64
The
ro
result is
ro
specified].
The
first
is
61
80 are the ones that add up to 22 2/3 1/7 1/21, which is the pe&u.
Then there follows a table verifying the preceding division by multiplying 22 2/3 1/7 1/21 by 3 1/2 to get 80. In the next table the
scribe converts the 3 1/2 heqat of meal into ro by multiplying 320
(thenumberofroinl heqat)by3 1/2. The result is 1120 lo. Then
since there are 80 loaves, the scribe must then multiply 80 so as to
get 1120. The resuh is 14 and thus the amount of meal in 1 loaf is
14 ro, i.e., 1/32 heqat and 4 ro of meal [since 1/64 heqat - 5 to].
Finally a calcuhitiqg proof is given to show that the multiplication
of 1/32 heqat and 4 ro by 80 does indeed result in 3 1/2 heqat of
meal produciqg the 80 loaves. Problem 70, which follows the
problem we have just analyzed, is the same kind of problem, as the
reader will readily see. Another problem of this sort is Problem 20
of Document IV.2 and it need not be repeated here since it uses a
bread of given pefsu and a given number of loaves of bread to find
the quantity of grain. This allows us to move on to a somewhat
different problem concerning the pefsu of a diluted beer, namdy.
Problem 71 of Document IV. 1.
From
What
is
luted beer?
with fruit?)
away
1/4
of
it,
(i.e.,
is
The remainder
[heqat].
is
in
2/3,
It is
[heqat].
is
Take
1/4 1/8
The
result
beer].
1 by 1/2, namely, 2.
Now if 1/4 of the beer is drawn
from the des-jug and the empty 1/4 of the des-jug is refilled with
water, the amount of besha has been reduced by 1/8, leaving 1/4
the division of
scribe says,
is
modern
notation).
by 1/4
1.
di-
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
Some
sort
pefsu problems in
of
but
why
IV.2.
Problems
It
beer
Document
is found in 8 of the 10
seems to be designated "1/2
Document
It
is
so designated
is
usually seems to be
made with a
It is ordinarily
of course, 10
The next
is specified
as 10 heqat, yield-
1-des-jugs.
are
IS.
ber
amount of wedyet-fiour in these 100 loaves; it
Muhiply 10 by IS. This is ISO. Reply [then] that
this is [the number of loaves for] the exchange.
The procedure is as follows: 100 loaves of [pe6u] 10 would
be exchange with ISO loaves of [pefsu] IS. [It takes] 10 heqat.
Calcuktte the
is
[10] heqat.
many
pe6u
reflect
was
diffirait.
Its
procedures
m modem terms.
First let
me
present
Eiample of czcluinging
told that there are 100 loaves
of
You
are
be exchanged for
4S. (How many of these will
[pefiu] 10 to
[pefsu]
there be?]
The
original
thought of as 100/10
formed
into
which
proportion,
= unknown
we
no./45,
miglit
was
suppose he
apparently trans-
(i.e.,
100 by 3
1/2, getting
350.
To
He
then multiplies
We
can see
from the
it
left
side,
350 on the
64
left side,
thus leaving
EGYPTIAN NfATHEMATICS
the term
(unknown
left side
ecpiala the
whole procedure
certainly
finally
to get 450,
the
addiqg
nvliich
aut^
thus
This
we
number of loaves
in
each
set.
is
(1/20
l/30)x;
i.e.,
But here
is
the solution
^ven by the
scribe:
[One loaf of each Idnd will take] 1/20 and 1/30 [of a heqat].
[As parts of30] 1/20 isl 1/2 and 1/30 is 1. [Added,] tiie total is 2
1/2.
Multiply
21/2
\10
\2
25
5
Total: 12
[Therefore
1/12.
Two
heqat will
The
loaves,
make
tiie result is
63
1200, which
is
is [the
100 heqat.
number of
i.e.,
for loaves
40 heqat of wedyet-flour].
Another problem
that
problems and
[Col.
its
solution:
XXXVIII]
Example of calculating the mixii^
[Lin. 1]
bread.
[Lin. 2] If
fiiu:tion]
(i.e.,
[Horus-eye fraction]
[Lin. 3]
You
(?) [as
Horus-eye
(i.e.,
is 1/8.
1/2.
1/16 of 40 because
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
is 1/16.
The
result is
1/2.
You
are to calculate
[Un. 6] the
You
total
is 5.
[Col.
[Lin.
XXXIX]
1]
Then you
of these
[initial
The
result is 60.
It is
1/16 of the
by no means a clear
last line
ex 1/16).
[that
text
it is]
is
correct.
now
Peet's interpreta-
give
it
is
same
all
size.
in
connection with
this
interpretation,
its
possible re-
is
the har-
67
of beer of [pefiu]
2, [reason
as foOows to find
Say then
it
is
in
100 loaves of
it makes 20.
amount of beer it
10 [heqat]. Multiply 10 by 2;
that this
\t.t.,
20 des]
is [the
and
Ludwig Borchardt
table
of the
distribu-
1 15 1/2
jugs of
^im^-beer in 41 2/3 portions to various priests, scribes, and ofSdals ofthe temple at Olafaun*' (see Figs. IV.33-34 betow, the 41 2/3
beiqg the addition arrived at by multiplyii^ each pair of items of the
first
Hence,
was apwhUe
proximated as 2/3
of
that
2/3)
1/10, for
division
of 115 1/2 by 41
1/750.
It is
measurement
on
shows
late third
in return
for compensation
people.. .[and]
is
section,
first
68
EGYPTIAN MATHEN4ATICS
is
an obvious reference to
its
1, p.
152).
[Lin. 1]
Example of caknlating a
rectangle.
[in area]
Take this 12
se^l
1/3 times.
its leqgith;
of it is 3 for
[Lin. 6] the breadth. The correct procedure is as follows [see the
rectaqgie in line 6 of cohmm
in Fig. IV.6c, marked with the
area of 12 in the center, the length of 4 above, and the breadth of 3
on the left side. The figure ilhistrates the problem and represents a
kind of proof Then follows the calcutodon of the area, which
[and] 1/2 1/4
Vm
showsthat
\1
\2
[Total: 12].
As
suggest in
my
all
of the
all
it
first line.
is
also
Eianple of producing
triangle (spdt) of land. If H
of 10 khet on the
triangle
is
(i.e.,
nifyt
odcnlating) [the
said to you:
(most
"What
is
am oQ a
the area of a
the ^height* or
likely,
in
Its
[cubits, i.e.,
4 khet]
2 khet]
[cubits.
10 khet]
[cubits, i.e.,
1000
2000.
i.e.,
area is 20 se^at.
Take
1/2
of
4,
namdy,
2, in order to get
its
of the rectangle]
the area of the rectangile and thus of the
times 2; this
is its
area
[i.e.,
triangle].
was
and examined
the
first
Egyptian mathemati-
above-quoted Problem 51 was the first Egyptian treatment of the area of a triangle
studied by historians of Egyptian mathematics. It was first believed
that the triangle as drawn (see Fig. IV.2kk, Plate 73) was a scalene
triangle but almost an isosceles triangle (which it was meant to be
but not drawn careftilly), with one of the almost equal sides marked
on its outside as 10 khet and the base labeled on its outside as 4
cal tract published
khet, these
two
in detail, its
Hence it
was approximated as the
as the mryt and the tpr and translated as "side" and "base."
was thought
product of one-half
its
of the
triangle
base and a
side.
Two
say
in that
Gillings,
in a
1,
Gunn, and
later
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
ogical explanation for rendering mryt as "height" or "kathete" in
its
is
expressed as a rectangle
whose
sides
altttiide.
[Lin. 1]
Example of caknlating a
triangle.
"[There
20
the ratio
[setjat]
and 'bank'
{idb,
i.e.,
is]
mr
Double the area. The result is 40. Take it 2 1/2 times.
The result is 100. Take the square root; the result is 10.
Calluplfipom21/2.
[Lin. 5] The result is 1/3 1/15. Apply this to 10. The resuh is 4.
[Lin. 6] [Hence it is] 10 [khet] in the length (i.e., kathete) and 4
[Lin. 3]
[Lin. 4]
Now if we get
of 2 1/2,
and if
instead of 1 we get 10, as the oonditk>ns of the jMroblem denumd,
then we must multiply 1/3 1/15 by 10 and the answer is 4, the
length ofthe base, and so the height is 2 1/3 times the base, or 10.
Hence it u now obvkHis that the key step beariqg on our
discussion of detemmuog the scribe's formula finr the area of the
triangle was to double the gh^ area of the triangle by constructing
computed as
10.
that multiplier
must be
by
finding
71
multiplier
modem
parlance),
this problem,
however,
was so crudely drawn that it cannot be affirmed to be a rigiht tdangle. The height or kathete was perhaps also called the 'length** in
these two problems because in that tipped position the longer side
of the equivalent rectang^ was probably also called its "lengtiL**
Hence some such simple graphic observations were in all
it
the triangle.
BEFC
initial
triangle
ABC. And
right triangles is
so that
initial
triangle
i.e.,
half the
product of the
latter' s
Needless to say,
the editor of the
if
and 17
in Figs.
Problems 7 and
Moscow Papyrus
of Problems 7
si-
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
multaneously be the "height" and a "side" of the
initial
triangle
and
Example of a tmncated
to you: "What
m its height
triangle
(i.e.,
a trapezoid). If it
is said
is
[or, side?],
4 khet
in its truncating
liner
Add
i.e.,
its
5, in
base to
its
truncating line;
it
its
makes
10.
Take
1/2
[equivalent] rectangle.
it
of 10,
Mul-
makes 10 (10
1/2
\4
2000
4000
8000
Total:
10,000
\1
2
Its
1000 [cubits,
500
i.e.,
10 khet]
[cubtt-strips as in the
precedmg problem].
concluded
is *'height",
height].
translation
In this case
of mryt as
we would
"side".
Peet's
said:^^
73
comments concerning
this
[in
Problem 52]
we
halve the
only have
come from
4 [Author =
in Fig.
my
sum of thr
parallel sides
Fig. IV.35b],
silly
(assumed in
sum not
this case
can
shown
it is
slant sides
parallel sides
by the
sum of the
its
to be
by one of the
it
of the
some
of the chaotic
to straighten
text,
efifort
The hut area problems needing discussion are those concircle, in many wi^ the most interesting
Their interest
fiict,
lies in
the
a
a square) equal to a drde. Thus the
is
finding
of Archimedes) their solution demands attention. This oftof the circle equated the area of a circle of diameter
9 with that of a square of side 8. To generalize it we can say that it
involved finding the area of a circle by subtractiiig 1/9 of its diameter fi'om the diameter and then squaring the remainder, which, as
has often been pointed out, achieves an approximation 256/81
all
praised solution
modem
proximation 3.1416.
To
symbol
put
it
as compared to the
in another
circle
modem
of diameter 9 khet,
setjat, while, if
we
used the
i.e.,
the
modem
ap-
is in
error
74
ap-
by
setjat,
of one per-
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
cent."
Let
tion that
is
me now
found
in
knowledge) of
its
area
the remainder
is 8.
(?Ar)?
Take away
1/9
Multiply 8 times 8;
area
is
64
makes
1;
[Therefore,] the
64.
amount of
it
in
setjat.
The procedure
this
it
is
1/9
1;
as follows:
2
4
\8
8.
8
16
32
64.
setjat.
As Gillings notes,^^ the assumption by the author of a diameof 9 khet was "a matter of arithmistical convenience and not because it is a really practical problem,** since it results in an area of
over 40 acres and a "drcun^ference of nearly a mile." The procedure given here is also found in the course of Problems 41 and 42
of Document IV. 1 and of Problem 10 of Document IV.2, all devoted to volumes. The principal question raised by this good approsdmation is: How did it arise? Problem 48 of Document IV. 1
ter
and
its
an octagon equal to
circumscribing square.]
[Square of side 9]
setjat
16
setjat
\1
2
75
9
18
setjat
setjat /ayt/.y
328e^at
[Total:
64
368e^at
72 setjat
81
Total:
8etjat]
The bracketed
ments which
brackets)
648etjat
setjat.
have added
below).
nuuk
in
Vogel and
later
of
Gillings.
Vogel's pro-
show
that
setjat;
is
no
trace of this calculation in the Egyptian text (except for the poorly
drawn octagon
fiUher
more
By drawing
a diagram as that
would conclude
lef^]
that the
shown
in Fig.
13.6 [=Fig.
scribe
some
in
portions of the
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
circle are outside the
dfawiog aO the
or visualize
way he
number of them
my
Fig. IV.37,
in
up-
right]).
we
Nowhere
first
authentic
it
drde-
history!....
tion,
Take away
does
m the four other Problems 41, 42, 43, and 50, for this
is
where he
is
rule.
77
his
now classical
graphical sohition
by
(didtfy ''showily
of unit square
kliet,
he
is certainly
not ex-
rule.**
None
of the three diagrams in Fig. IV.37 is given in the papyrus or anywhere but in Gillings' fisrtile imagination; still a later drawing of an
ellipse and an approxunately equal rectangle at the temple of Luxor
(see Fig. IV.42) gives some evidence of a graphic procedure like
that suggested by Gilliogs for the quadrature of the drele (compare
Borchardt's siiggestions in note 67, and particuhuly Coudioud's
brief analysis there). Theonly thingwecanbefiuriy sureofisthat
the author of the Rhind Papyrus does assume in Problem 48, for
some unspecified reason, that the inscribed octagon is equal to a
square of side 8 and is as well equal to the inscribed circle of diameter 9, which then becomes a geometrical illustration of his dassical
rule for the measurement of a circle.
But Michel Guillemot, in the article cited in note 66, rgects
the assumption made by Vogd and Gillings that the octagon intended in Problem 48 is a symmetrical and semi-r^^lar octagon of
the form they suggest (again see note 66) He proposes instead that
the inscribed octagon as figured in that Problem was drawn by cutting off, from the circumscribed square of side 9, two diagonally
opposite corner triangles each equal to 9/2 and the two other corner triaqgles each equal to 8/2 (see Fig. IV.40). Such a proposed
octagon was in fact much closer to the octagon drawn in the papyrus, and furthermore its area is actually 64 rather than some approximation thereof, as was the case in the former explanations of
Vogel and Gillings. Even more important, he suggests that Problem 48 was not an effort to show how the Egyptians geometrically
discovered their rule that the area of a circle of diameter 9 was approximately equivalent to that of a square of side 8 but rather was
an attempt to show that the previously discovered rule satisfied
Egyptian knowledge of the geometry of the areas of squares and
rectangles. As for the prior discovery of the quadrature rule for the
circle.
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
tion arising
ric
ways by
42), he claims,
**lieiiristic
say,
excellent to have
been obtained by a
sions about the rule's discovery (see Fig. IV.41 below) are
pre-
Document IV.l
it
is
of
interest that,
(Problem 42) gives a circle of diameter 10. But in all four cases the
procedure is so geneiBlized that the first step is ahways specified as
it was even mistakenly added to
Problem 43, as is suggested by GiUings* version, the third of the
versions of this proposition which I have given in Dpcument IV.l
bdow.) So it is evident that the area of a circle is one more case
(like those of the rectangle and triangle) where the scribe gave
specific illustrative problems, all of which were exemplifying a general rule of calcukrting a specific Idnd of area.
In conchiding our section on the quadrature of a circle, we
should note that there is some evidence of a similar interest by ancient Egyptians in the quadrature of an dlipse, as the result of the
discoveiy by Borchardt of an ellipse and an approximately equal
rectangle scratched on a wall of the temple at Luxor (Fig. IV.42),
although it is not certainly known whether the rectangle was given
as an aid to constructing the ellipse or as an effort to calculate its
area, and furthermore it is later (at least after the time of Ramesses
III), and perhaps much later, than the texts we are considering.^^
Still there is no doubt that the use of ordinate measures (i.e., simple
vertical straight lines) to help represent or to give the proper form
Volumes
The
simplest
kind
bin,
in
the
follows:
Example of reckoning
length being 10,
its
[the
volume
height 10.
What
is
the
into it?
The reader will readily see that the scribe's calculations follow the fiMmula K / x & x A, each of which is given as 10 [cubits].
Actually, what is being determined first is the number of cubic cubits in the gnmaiy by the above fomnda; then is found the number
of khar (this being calcdated by muhiplyiqg the number of cubic
cubits by 1 1/2, smoe the khar is 2/3 the cubic dibit); then finally
the number of khar is converted imo the so-called quadruple heqat
by taking 1/20 of the khar, and finally nultiplyiqg the number of
quadruple heqat by 100. In this wi^ the autiior shows how to find
tiie number of heqat of ^rain that can be installed m the cubical
granaiy. The foltowing problem (No. 45)
the number of heqat of grain filing a cuUcal bin and determines the dimensions of
tiiebia I am not interested at this point m the gram measurements
g^
themselves since
I have already spoken of the fractions and multiof heqat used in granaiy problems in the eariier section on
measurements in this chapter and since I shall give further uiforma-
ples
80
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
gular
volume was
and
need not
now
present
my
Document
later treatment
of it that
IV. 6 below
is
found
in
Hence the Egyptian determination of the volume of a parallelpiped was probably their initial and
most fundamental contribution in the field of solid geometry.
Though I have presented the rectangular faced volumes first
44
Eiample of making
(Le., cyiindrical)
(i.e.,
calcuiatiBg the
volume of a) round
[height] 10.
is
on
tiie
first
finds
the vohmie of the cylindrical granaries in cubic cubits and then converts
them
the cubic
ciibit)
Kahun
fi:agment IV.3
cubits:
81
the
is
volume
ter is 12 cubits
in
is
i.e.,
operations of Col. 14
5 1/3, to
8 cubits?
is
As
is
itself;
produce 1365
1/3 khar.
put the
first.]
[Col. 14]
[\1
12]
2/3
1/3
Total
16.
16
10
160
Total
80
256.
[Col. 13]
\
2
\
\ 1/3
Total
256
512
1024
85
1/3
136S 1/3
[khar].
V^
(3/2)[h{ci - d/9f]
and
in the
Kahun problem
+
Both fomndas reduce to F =
nmda would be F= (2/3)
(32/27) htf. Note further that in the Kahun problem, with its
skeleton text of numbers* the volume in khar is not then converted
into heqat of grain as in the problems found in Document IV.l.
Incidentally, I shall not discuss here the corruption of the text of
Problem 43 presented as the first version of that problem in Document IV.l (with its difficulties mentioned there). But, like the Kahun problem, it also seems to have had as its objective the determination of the volume of a cylinder in khar directly, despite its su82
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
perfluous mention of taking 1/9 of the diameter from the diameter.
In fact,
in the
we
Kahun problem,
that,
[ColXXVn]
[Lin. 1]
[Lin. 2] If
[square] pyramid.
i^twti)
[Lin. 3]
the top
[Lin. 4]
[Lin. 5]
[Lin. 6]
[Col.
(i.e.,
XXVIII]
[Lin. 1]
[Lin. 2]
16
of 6; the result
resuhisS6.
[Lin. 5] Behold, [the
vohune]
is
56.
You
correct.
[Col.
XXIX]
83
It is
volume of
(i.e.,
the arith-
metical steps specified by the problem's text are precisely those one
would take when using the correct formula). That they should have
been able to discover such a formula is not surprising in view of
their great activity in buikiing pyranuds with the consequeiit need to
know the quantity of blocks required for their constniction. But
how
is
not
known. StiU the method of discovering the fonnula has been mudi
specuhtted on by modem historians of mathematics, as Feet and
Gillings indicate^ and my quotations here in the text and in the
notes ittustrate. Let us look at an ingenious sohition proposed by
OunnandPeet:^
detennine
How
when
accomplished,
Fig.
The
firustum will
now
downward
parts,
PI).
84
EGYPTIAN MATHE^fATICS
(b)
wedge,
in section
9A,
(...[Fig.
y]).
Each has
6, 7, 8, 9.
ones;
it
terminates at
its
the proportions of the frustum, has the side equal to half the
difference
of the frustum
(...[Fig.
9 A,
6]).
fit
same height and base as one of the wedges (...[Fig. 9A, e]).
The other two wedges being similarly fitted together, and
joined to the first pair with all the wedges in single file, we
obtain a rectangular solid having a base double that of one
of the wedges and equal
To
this
part
No.
for,
same breadth as
that
of the
have
now
Q.
[i.e.,
will
have
in
of
We
height to the
frustum, and standing on a base the sides of which are respectively equal to the sides of the lower
of the frustum
(...[Fig.
Turning
now
9A,
pushed together
by the artows
[Fig.
in...
rj]).
in the directions
IV. 9 A, a] until
all
we
shown
their vertical
faces are hidden and in contact with each other, they constitute a true pyramid having the height of the frustum, and a
8S
tween the
sides
is
surfiices
of the
fius-
tum(..[Fig.IV.9A,e])
By
a rectangular
pyramid.
solid
To find
[i.e.,
above
[at the
made
b^inning]),
similar but
same
reserve,
later
An
matics
where A
is
upper base.
It is
empirically.
It
how? By
basis
of a
4
two [right] prisms
and a pyramid (see Fig. 5 [Author * my Fig. IV 9B, a]), one
finds, the volume of a pyramid being assumed as known, the
theoretical argument;
formula
(2)
h/3
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
sumption that the Egyptians were able to make such an
gebraic transformation?
was
wonder whether
in this
al-
calculate with
This
Or should we
sup-
pose that (1) was obtained from (2) by a geometric argument? One might imagine the following deduction.
For convenience,
let
is
(Author:
= my
Fig.
Fig.
is also
transformed
1/3
Moscow
is
the
87
is
73
ing:
Now
there
is
no
direct evidence,
knew
volume of a pyramid;
yet
it is
Being accustomed, from the Third Dynasty onwards, to construct large pyramids in stone and brick, and it
did not.
know
in
advance the
we
attempt to find
88
If,
it
mud and
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
and combining these, no useful results follow, be-
into parts
up
pyramid of some
lar solid
of
its
fairly soft
substance
on a square base
downward
slanting
make two
it
in...
The
it,
as
shown
in ...[Fig.
we
four sides
result will
on a square
b],
[Fig.
at
of the
Resting against
shall
in. ..[Fig.
base, and
original parallelepiped.
in
XX'
IV.9C,
[Fig.
OPX'B^
00'
00".
its
a].
right angles to
visible
to take a rectangu-
prism,
is
(parallelepiped)
IV. 9C,
make
IV.9C,
b].
Between
another tetrahedron
is
is
(e.g.,
one of the
whose base
OPX'B\ forming
a square
is
a quarter of the
^^'is
these
from.. ..[Fig.
tetrahedra
four
IV.9C,
Now
OPX'B%
be
imagined
its sides.
it is
etc.,
easily
c],
dra attached to
can
can be
fitted
of the
parallelepiped.
lelepiped into
rahedra.
We
This result
may
left in
the centre
tet-
89
of the
original parallelepiped in
way
is
V^
X base)/ 3.
vohmw, or
on his
recommend that the reader read the critique of the
Ounn and Peet article made by K. Vogel m the same journal.^
We mentioned above that the Egyptians were mterested in
covered, which I suggest that the reader might pursue
own.^^
I also
us quote the
first
my
volume),
IV.l below:
is
that I
know
(i.e.,
(i.e.,
slope).
[See Fig.
1/2
3 1/2
1/5
1/50
1/3 1/15
1/10 1/25.
90
EGYPTIAN MATHEhlATlCS
The seqed
If
is
we
5 1/25 palms.
my
is,
of
slope
is
the ratio
we would
what
GF/GD
call
in Peet's figure.
GFD. The
Of course,
the slope
i.e.,
which
umn
is
in this
said to
(twn)
Document
my
may well be
or col-
pillar
[In]
We
(sntt) [or
[cubits],
what
Take
1/2
of 15;
result is 1/4,
it is
which
is
1/2.
Operate on 30 so as to get 7
1/2.
The
the seqed.
is
a column or
pillar.
There
is
one
final
m the realm of
It
Problem 10 of Document IV.2 and has caused considerable discussion, for the editor of the Moscow Papyrus, W.W. Stnive, believed it to be the correct sohition for the area of a hemisphere. Let
me first quote the text of that problem as reconstructed by Struve:
is
[Col. XVffl]
[com.]
91
[Lin.
nbt) [assumed
1,
by
of 4 1/2
(i.e.,
"A basket
a diameter of
this size) in
[surface] area
Oht)"
good condition
m, oh
[Lin. 4] let
me know
its
[Lin. 6] 1/2
[Col.
is
The result is
1.
of an ^-shell (?
inr?).
XIX]
remainder as
of 8.
[Lin. 3]
The resuh
[Lin. 5J taking
[Col.
is
8.
away those
The result is 7
1/9.
XX]
[Lin. 2]
[Lin. 3J
[Lin. 1]
part the
is
correct.
all
of the
critics
being so
tors.
all
note cited
further
one which
92
fiur
fipom sure, as I
interprets the
dif-
problem as
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
finding the surface area of a half cylinder
cally)
has some
plausibility,
and thus
(i.e.,
a cylinder
have included
it
split verti-
as a second
we show toward
lings,
Conchision
I have attempted to illustrate and analyze the main features
and procedures of ancient Egyptian mathematics in the forgoing
The reader will no doubt have been unpressed by the predominance of calcuhttion eveiywhere in the ancient papyri,
calculation that was often brilliantly executed within the limits of
their arithmetical and notational conventkms. The dominance of
calculation is true of the problems whether th^ refer to the simple
arithmetical procedures or whether they are concerned with plane
or solid geometiy. Such arithmetical practices^ whether or not they
pages.
vailing
apparently general procedures (which they were for the most part in
show the
some mod-
of geometric problems.
solutions
in this realm
of
common pboe.
The use of graphic tedmiques to find the general procedures
so often implied in the mathematical problems we have discussed in
some
propriate,
In the next and concluding vohmie of my work, I shall attempt to examine this canon and its formation fiar the ligiht it throws
on a general investigation of Egyptian modes of viewing and depicting nature.^
I
erality,
"invisible*'
are
all
about.
There simply
is
who wished
to
or "implied." Neverthe-
we
dififered.
Problem 6 IB of Document IV. 1 was in fact a general rule for taking 2/3 of an unitary odd fi^ction, i.e., of the reciprocal of an odd
munber: take the reciprocals of the products of 2 times the odd
the
way
unit fractions
Document
IV.
"You
shall
Con-
proceed in
this
sideration
Egyptians came.^'
how
close to
modem
"science"
EGYPTIAN NfATHEMATICS
these pages, but
my
and indeed
in
divergencies as existed.
Most of
all,
in
com-
Notes to Gi^terFour
'
claim that no one surpasses him "in the construction of lines with proofs, not
p.
15.
As
note in the
and
it
is still
who
consults
it.
B.C dncnments
by James Ritler, "l/ktaxAoBf and the PnUsloiy of FkactioiiSk** HIsMre de fractions, fractions d'histoire, coordonni par P. Benoit et al. ^asd, Boston, and
count on the the metralogical units fbond inrthiid millcamhim
1,
pp. 25-34.
*T.E. Peet, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus {London, 1923), pp. 9-10.
^The section on measures has been based on the documents that accompany
duller and sevenl important dirnisiOM: CR. Lepsius, ZMe alu^ypUache
in PMhh^adu tmd Ustorisdie AMBOuBm^m ekr
kOniglichen Akademie der Wissenschajten zu Berlin. A us dem Jahre 1865
(Berlin, 1866); pp. 1-63, 64*-64****. and 5 Tafeln; F LI Griffith. "Notes on
this
Egyptian Weights and Measures," PBSA. Vol. 14 (1892), pp. 403-.S0, Vol. 15
(1893), pp. 301-16; Feet, op. cit. in the preceding note, pp. 24-26; A.B. Chace,
et
al..
1 (Obel^ul,
34; Gaidiner, Eiyptian Grammar, pp. 197-200; and the cxceedingjly usefld articles of W. Hdck and S. Vlendng on ''Masse nnd Gewichle,** Lexikon der
95
Aaiplob^, Vol 3
Demotic
texts in Ptolemaic
in the last
two
articles.
For other estimates, see the measurement 52.5 cm. quoted in the
article by
HelGk given in mNe 4, Vol 3, c 1200. and the diacaite in the ^loik
lingik MatkemattcM /n the Time of the Pharaohs, p. 207, n.*. As Griffith obMfves in op. cit. in note 4 above, p. 406: "According to Mr. Petrie, the cubit
shown in the marvelously accurate work of the Great Pyramid is 20.62 inches,
'
is
20.65."
and Measures
(Wamdnner, Wlllihire, England, 1926), pp. 38-41. Also lee note 8 bdow.
' Ai lewoihed in Englidi by GrifBth, op. dt in note 4, p. 404, fiom Lepiiiis,
op.
cit.
The
cit.
in note
4 above,
p.
my
next note.
*W.C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, Part II (Greenwich, Conn., 1959), pp.
These fiagments mentioned by Hayes and other cobit-iods were the
ol|ject of some inteiesting remarks by O. Saiton, "On a curious nbdivision of
the Egyptian cubit,** Isis, Vol. 25 (1936), pp. 399-402. He says (pp. 401-02)
concerning the division of the digit into 16 parts in the examples of cubit-rods
412-13.
*'What
strange siMivision?
Why
was it necessaiy to have reailb^ scales in fictions of a digil-fim the half ID tte
sixteenth? This
Ttiere rulers
made
it
96
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
an eaqxcssioii as one cubit jdus one fifth, one ciglith and one foiutoenth, yet the
same pmpoae might have been attained in a simpler manner.
"The use of such rulers for the graphical solutions of arithmetical
problems cannot be countenanced, for the divisions were not precise enough.
Indeed as Lq)sius remarked (1866, 18) the subdivisions of the cubit are some^|i>^^pM|i fpti^ tfi^
ftii fh^ ffwwg
hffvy
In tibe sdifliiiatic
tffl
fimff
example on
its
last four,
served in our
museums
IV.24
are 18.75
mm.
long, the
museum of Torino
[see below],
is
"II cubito di
J56 [=Figs. IV.27b and lV.27c below]). Noi lo trovammo fasciato con una
benda di fme e soffice tela in fondo al cofano nel quale erano stati riposti i sette
vasi di alabastro pieni di olio.
ad aWwndanti cend di
tela,
vedemmo
lucocaie qualoosa, ed
simopiodoltodeUaoicficeriacgiziana.
tenuta intonamente
tate,
che
rilievo
il
da anima di l^no:
^ come
si
si disBe di
mezzo
en qneslo beilis-
tes-
odd)ra
contro
le vittorie di
{Fig.
la
prima accenna
After
97
oM was prefMied
"OltrecM per
principalmente per
for the
la ricchezza della
Ph^^
materia e per
la
m yen mom m n
Fanone e
Out, h a
le iscrizioni
il
to, di
ma
t evi-
pertiiienza del
Schiaparelli
cubit-rod of acacia
p.
it
Presumably
its
this
"
"Scott,
p. 73.
shadow ckxdEs at
on
of the year because of the thinness of the evidence for Borchardt's speculati<is. But, the argument runs, variation of volumetric quantities of the outflowing water in the case of the tables which perhaps
pertain to water clocks was assumed because the measures expressed were in
terms of the repeated use of the three sums of some Horus-eye fractions (i.e.,
1/4-1-1/8
different times
and 1/4+ 1/32 + 1/54; Ibr Horns fiactions see beDocument IV.l, n. 46X and these firactions were ordinarily
i.e.,
usually of grain but perhaps also of a liquid like water. Furthermore, there is
Adistinct reference to
word of register
1)
tion of a jar (?) "filled with water." In the case of the tables suggested as apply-
months ofthe year (e.g., see Fig. IV.27a again, but this time to cobit-iod no.
just befiire the middle of register
1).
98
2,
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
addHkm
to those quoted
htxt, Helck gives other less frequently used measures. Note that
cit.
Stone) as 10 arouras,
i.e.,
who
maiks that h
more
said, in the
op.
fidly written as
^ff.
i.e.,
Annals on
ti,
^ as a lO-aioani measure.
is
have
Griflfitfi,
i.e.
1000
in note
cit.
He
also re-
lOOO-cobit-strips or "lOOO-
cubit-areas."
I
rmn
One
of
my work.
and a cubic
= 1/100
strip or ti
siit.
1 (Obeilin,
Ohio,
liters
p.
op.
dt, VoL
1,
op.
cit.
in note
4,
c.
1201.
liters.
"Chace,
from Helck,
pp. 31-32.
it is
given as 20 heqat.
On pp.
op.
cit.
"I caU to the reader*s attentioa the detailed list of measures given by Helck in
The esact value of many of these in
See K. Sethe, Von Zahlen and Zahlworten bei den alten Agyptem und was flir
ist (Strassburg, 1916), pp. 60-
and
^Gardiner, op.
dt
in note
4 above,
p. 196.
my comments in
comments suggest a co-
sible exception in
It is
See also
99
al.
how
(Basel, Boiloiu
and
the Egyptians*
"
cit.
oodcfn flBctbod of a gqbudob ^BBOP^^wf^ff to aixiuuplsdi tfic additiott of fisotioos; and bis somewhat critical jndgmem of the viev^
mente der agyptischen Theilungsrechnung. Erste Abhandlung," Abhandlungen
der philologisch-historischen Classe der KOniglich-Sdchsischen Gesellschqfi
der Wissenschaften, Vol.
pr^ndus probl^mes
17, no.
d'algebre
du manuel du
and
L. Rodet,
"Les
RhindX" Journal Asiatique. Series 7, Vol. IS (1881). pp. 196-215 (whole article; pp. 184-232, 290-4S9X which attempt to difibentiate the Egyptian and
modon
same.
techniques.
When
Problem
which at
the
is
seem to be lednoed
common denominator
all unity.
"These, however, arc distinctions of mere detail, and despite them the
we
we
This
is
of some
unit,
and
is particularly
deceptive
sinoe all the complicated additions there used are in the nature of praoft,
the result is
known
to be
20
i.e.
and
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
10-45.
cit.
Hbenem
still
md erkUn,
on the
title
later discussions
article
page).
Hultsch, op.
dt
used in varioos
ofttitftxti
sodi ai in
The manner
**coiiqrielioo'*
in
which red
pRMem and
at
(full
32; Vol. 14 (1891), pp. 26-31; Vol. 16 (1894), pp. 164-73, 201-08, 230-48,
particularly pp. 201-08 of Vol. 16,
One
text above.
Two
and
in the
should also read the early and able treatment of the Table of
by Hultsch, op.
cit.
Griffith
first
was
gen-
here adopted.
^Peet, op.
cit.
^^Chace, op.
"The
cit.
Egyptian
wud
is
^ir,
1,
pp. 16-22.
wMdi means
"wanaindrT or *1)ahuio^ or
"deficiency.**
^Chace,
op.
cit., p.
20.
Vol
Qber Geschichte der antike matkematisdien Wlsaensdu^len, Vol 1: Vorgriechische Malhematik (Beriin, 1934), pp. 137-65, and Q. Veder, *'EgypldG6
Ddieni," Sociiti Royale des Sciences de Bohime, Classe des Sciences, 192122, No. 14. See also E.M. Bruins, "Ancient Egyptian Arithmetic: 2/N, " Kort.
Nederland Akademie Wetanschappen, Ser. A, Vol. 55 (Amsterdam, 1952), pp.
81-91; K.
Vogel,
I:
Vorgeschichte
und
Agyplen (Humover, 19S8X pp. 38-44; Vogd, GnmeBagen dor Ogyplisehefi Ar^
ithmetik (Munich, 1929); Gillings, op. cit. in note 5, pp. 45-80; and B.L. van
der Waerden's older paper, "Die Entstehungsgeschichte der dgyptischen Brucbrechnung,"
QSGMAP.
*B.L. van der Waerden, "The (2:n) Table in the Rhind Papyrus," Centaurus,
Vol 24 (1980), pp. 259-74. This is a shorter version of the author's earlier paper mentioaed in the pieoediQg note. Note that van der Waaden expnssa unit
fractions in the manner proposed originally by Neqgebauer, i.e., the reciprocal
form with a bar or macron over the denominator as a replacement for the unit
numerator, and two bars over 3 to replace the numerator 2 in 2/3.
substitute the ordinary fractional
But
shall
do not continually
from
member
to 1/14
1/13.
265-67.
^ Gillings,
While
op.
dt
in note 5, p. 49.
and diacones
this
ostnoon
briefly in his
Oslraca and
Name
by 1,2, and
4.
to the division of 2
by
7, yields the
Two.
1/7,
which
is
equivalent
dt
in note 5, p. 87, notes the differing solution and discusses the compulation of it as an example of the use of fed auxiliaries. I give
Gillings, op.
here the computation, with the red auxiliaries in bold face as usual (see Fig.
IV.32 for a photocopy of the ostnoon and its hieroglyphic transcription below):
1/7
1/6
1/14
1/21
31/2
11/2
1/2
1/14
10 1/2
1 1/2.
Gillings explains this by suggesting the steps that the scribe followed (once
moxe
change Gillings' notation of unit fractions by a macron over the denominator into unit fiadions with numerator 1 and a slant bar befixre the de102
1
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
the
means 'Take
others.
The
give 6
3)
by his multiplier
1,
[3] to
ref-
"The
ing that 3 1/2
scribe of the ostracon then referred these auxiliaries to 21, findis 1/6
of 21,
and
is
2 + 7 = y6 1/14
Still
the
1/21.
with the same red nmhiplier 3 and the tame icfieienoe mmdMr 21,
mnlti|riied
we note
was paititioiied
reftieooe munber 21 in integers 2 and
by 3 giving 12
wliicii
We
7=1/2
have no way of
14,
was
It
1/14.
telling
how
the scribe
whidi in
The
could be that Gillings has the order of the procedure backw ard.
least
We
i.e.,
It
is
supplied
the
numlm
had
halved the product of 4 x 1/7 = 1/2 1/14. he would have found the answer 1/4
1/28 that appeared in the Table of Two for the division of 2 by
7.
ences in Antiquity
effivt
the calculator is abandoning the natural fiaclioolM in the sequence 1/2, 1/4,...
in favor of 1/3 belonging to the sequence 2/3,1/3,1/6,
^ Among
half of the
Akhmim
is written
first
103
Mathematical
in Greek
and
dates from mote tium two millcnnM later in the Byzantme period, say about the
J.
Baillet, **Le
Papyrus math^matiqpie
x9=
^'
cit.
in note 4, Vol.
cit.
1, p.
100.
Document
cit.
The
table in
Problem 61 of
229. In
(
CoL XXI,
lines
5 and 6 the n
) is missing.
Op.
cit.
"An
(ter
dem
nadi nichis andefcs sind, als was die heutige AlgdMca C?ck*ff"gfff! erstett Oisdss But cmer UDbdEanfltcs iiBODt....Das HVtcscn euef Oiei^^wn^ bestdtt
nun allerdings weit weniger in dem Woithmte als in der Anflfliwng, and so
miissen wir, um die Berechtigung unseres Vergleichs zu prOfen, zusehen, wie
Ahmes seine Haurechnungen vollzieht. Er geht dabei ganz methodisch zu
Weilce, indem er die Glieder, welche, wie man heute sagen wurde, links vom
fllflirhliBili/ifficiiBB sIdiCB, zonldist in eins voeinigL
Fipcdidi tut cr das in
<ip|ipriHiBr Weia^ bald so, dass die Vereinignng im Mf^?ffffftifl nf|fflB'h iiabeii der
betreffenden StammbrQche bestehend nur eine fimneiie ist, zJB. No. 31.: (1 2/3
1/2 1/7) X 33; bald so^ dass durch ZurOckfiihning anf einea Genenlnemier
Inhalte
104
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
wiiktiche
(10/9)
vidiert...d.
h.
man
vervieiaitigt
2/3
1/2
33
herauskommen und findet...Wert des Haufens 14 1/4 1/97 1/56 1/679 1/776
1/m 1/388.... Der zwdteFaUertOtaetirifiderzwdM^^
Entweder
man IM ("o^^ X C indem die Divisioa C/a volb^^
b vervielfacht wird; so in No. 24, wo zuerst 8 in 19 als 2 1/4 1/8 mal ?titfl^ilffn
und dann 7 mal 2 1/4 1/8 als 16 1/2 1/8 gefiinden wird. Oder aber man dividiert mit a/Z> in 1 und vervielfacht diesen Quotienlen mit C; so wahrscheinlich in den Aufgaben No. 28 und 29."
^Cantor in the next paragraph (on p. 76) suggests the pontbility here of the
usage of the so-called Ifindn method of False Pootion, as if hideed widdy
cepted by interpreters of the calculating method involved in the solutions of
Problems 24-27.
He says that when the intermediate text is missing it is
"almost a matter of taste (Geschmackssache) whether one will recognize the
suitable]." But, as
shows, in PioUems 24-27 the method of fidse position was in all likelihood
used by the Egyptian author, even thoogh the actual fidse assmnptions were not
specified as such and only appear as numbers in the tables of multiplications.
Influenced by Chace, I have inserted
them as
brackets.
fiilly
cited in note
^Here
it
problems and returns to Cantor's theory that they are solved as equations, in
the nwdein manner, by nmlliptying the ahsoiule tenn (on the right in our mod-
em arrangement) by the inverse of the coefficient of x (on the left). The unthe *'h*' or 'quantity', and in one case, M.25 [= MMP.25,
Problem 25 below], where the equation is 2x + x = 9,
Document
1V.2,
name
''/ft''.
9; result
The words
3 times. 3
this
unknown
is explicitly
is
the mmteieqnited.*
if
we ac-
cept the curious wording of the text here in spile of the suspidoo thrown
by the occurrence of a
fm'' is
vital
it
sum
on
it
(the preposition
unknown and the solution of an equation in the modem style, it does not follow
that the same method was used in other cases. Indeed it is by no means a merit
105
pfedsdy
MMP
27
[i.e.,
terms)
trial,
RMP
is
the
trial
number chosen
coefiBdeotoffx; namely
namely
on
to operate
Egyptian turned
19 by dividing
sin^
19liy
Yet he asks us
improper fraction, be
off
1/7, the
modem
this.
Where
that of R. 31-34,
noted),
in the papyri
and then
can we find a
it
^ Science Awakening,
"Peet's
reflect
last
words in
p. 29.
his
to
somewhat in
summary.
^ Whexe this mnnber came tnm is not dear, as I indicate in my text above this
note. The table is merely an escample of how to find the product of some number and 7 by the usual process of adding the products of doubling the multiples
that add up to 7. Hence each term in the following series that starts with 7 and
whose multiplier is 7 could be determined in the same way. There have been
efiforts to link the succeeding series with the old nursery rhyme tliat starts with
the line **As I was going to St Ives....** but all we have are die simple calcuhitions given here. Chace (op. cit.. Vol. 1, p. 30) gets more out of the bare calculations presented when he writes: "Problem 79 is a problem in which is calculated in two ways the sum of a geometrical progression. There are two columns.
The first column indicates, it seems to me, a numerical method for determining
the sum when the first term is equal to the ratio. This method may be stated in
matics, tlK)ugh to be sure bs seems to waffle
his
Ip the
iwnn-
same
and
Chace
result
(p. 1 12)
quotes the nuiaeiy rhyme and mentions Rodet*s cbseivations concerning the
106
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
203
p.
n. 109).
cit.,
p. 169.
l6ldL,
pp. 134-36^
^L.
Bofchaidt, "BeKddungsveifalltnisre
voo Metlem im
mittleraD Reidi,"
ZAS, Vol. 40 (1903/1904X pp. 113-17. Borehaidt believed that the scribe in
fact divided the bread and two beers into 42 portions, though the text lists only
41 2/3. This would have resulted in a jumble of scribal errors in the
umn
cit.,
final col-
pp.
124-27
accepted Borchardt's belief of the divisions by 42 and accordingly added a corrected last otdnnm on that basis. But if we assume, with Michd Guillemot,
OuqNer 3 of HIsMre de fracttons, fraettons dlOsMrt, cooidonn6 par P. Benoit
et
al.,
(Basel, Boston,
was by 41
istic
approximations,
seems
we have
to say,
and
Ill,
more
text.
real-
The
IV.35a].
This belief
is
= my
Fig.
(pp.
The
a tnmcaled triaogle is proposed Ibr soluwhole treatment of the area of the triangle
430-34) of inteiBSL
^ Ibid, pp.
432-33.
'^Jbid. p. 139.
of the inscribed octagon given in PnMem 48 and described briefly in the text
above following Gillings' prc^Msal, see his (Guillemot's) "A propos de la
'g^om^trie 6gyptienne des figures'," Sciences et techniques en perspective.
Vol. 21 (1992), pp. 138-40
below.
107
^L. Bofduudt,
Gstlichen
von der
spj't^ren
AugenhOhe in die Wand gdaabst die Ccntlniclion eines eUipi.schut Ovals (s.
TaC VI,rig.7[-nisrFig.IV.42]). Als Hfllfilinien iUr die Hentettong denelben sind die Seiten eines liegenden Rechtecks benutzt, denen Edcen dmdi
qmunetrisch angelegte Querlinien abgeschnitten
"Die Construction
ist
sind.
"Eine zweite Deutung der Zeichnung scheint jedoch auch nicht ausgeschlossen.
Ich halte es ndmlich nicht fur unmdglich, dass wir hier einen
Versuch vor uns haben, den Inhalt einer Ellipse mit den Radien 1 und 1 1/2
EDe zn ennitldn, analog der ans dem Londoner mafhematisdien Papyrus
dem
des Rechtecks
setzt.
[1
Seite
(3-2/7)
etwa
2 und 3 Ellen
Spanne (0.75 m)
- 4.65
1* 1 1/2
2/3 2 3/4
x 4.71 QaadM'
Es ware auch
Die Ellipse mit den Durch-
messem von
ist
gleich
ist:
1/78.
ist,
In
III.
ausgefuhrt."
[I
feststellen.
post quern
ist.
Sie
ist
eiawithRngiidi]
108
BGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
pas etrangere k
I'esprit ^gyptien,
On
["Un trace
^gyptien d'une voOle elliptique, "ASAE. Vol. 8 (1907) pp, 237-41] a era poiivoir leooonaltie, dans le dessin de construction d*une voOle, I'aic d*une ellipse."
We
Ramesses VI:
p. 241):
(Ibid.
renseignements:
nous
il
fait
connaitre un des
^gyptiens pour fooliter le travail des sculpteurs, nous fiiumit une valenr de la
coud6e sous Ramsis VI, et enfin nous apprend que mille deux cents ans avant
notre ttc Tellipse ^tait connue et employee pour les travBux d*art**
For
remarks of Bor-
chardt that immediately precede those on the ellipse in his section enititled
Edfii," op. cit. in note 67. pp. 74-75 and Taf. V, Fig.6.
Wolff, " Agyptisclie Mathematik in Knnst and Handweric,** Die deut-
" See G.
sche
Mhere Sckuk,
*Handbreiten" where
noted in the table
have given
in the section
on Eg>'ptian Measures
earlier in
this chapter, a
now
palm is
on the limestone fiagment surely intends the measure to be a
Sahn** (see Fig. IV.43 below). The difEteuhy is that now "handbieif* is usually
table, but
4,
and the
text
is
no evidence that
it
But
this
should be
represents an effort to
draw a
geometrical curve whose character has been expressed as a function either algebraically or rfadoricalfy. Perhaps
geometry
bom
many
building or
work
sketches that reflect this Egyptian descriptive geometry have been found. See
109
COM mis
micimmg
tne
"Mathematics
these efforts to
in
show how
the volume of a truncated pyramid. See also the multiple references to previous
cit., pp. 187-93 (wliicli of oome indodes his own
Gnnn4md-Peet*s and van der Waoden's snggesliflns
in
my
snoociCiding quotations.
geometry reaches
its
in other accounts.
at right
angles to the
base and to each other. Furthermore, both authors assume that the Egyptian
geneial fimnnla for the vohnne of a pyramid, namely V
But Vetter also assumed and specified that, in the special fiustnni,
the side of the upper surface is half the side of the lower, as in Problem 14.
first
Waerden was
to
do in the passage
text,
quadrilateral pyiamids,
F=
which
latter
If
we may
(b/3) iah/2)
ih/i)
(a^
{h/i)
+ fl6 + A^A/3.
= 4,b =
2,
and h =
6.
Mathenuh
'^Gunn and
Peet, op.
cit.
(p.
245
that
Vol. 16 (1930),
"[assuming that the volume of a pyramid
or cone can be worked out.] the volume of the truncated solid can be deter-
mined as the
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
and
fiiiitiimooiildbewoifcBd<mtbytaldiigtiieaveigerf
y and moltiplyiiig U
tf^
But of course in Problem 14 of the Moscow Papyrus we saw that the author did
not take
sum of
one-third of the
height Incidentally, regarding the discovery of the formula for the whole
pyramid Gillings,
me^
capabilities.
perpendicular height
is
right
pyramid
is
whose
then cut into fear eqnal oblique pyramids by two planes passing through the
vertex and the mic^wints of opposite base lines...[see Fig. IV.9E]. Then three
of these four oblique pyramids
the pyramid
(1/3)
W."
is
fit
Then
Gillings goes
on
the
is
whose
to present
still
found to be
F=
whibhlomithere.
^Vd.
1,
in
E.
h arson's
well
known
''For exanipie, see the discussion and citations of Peet, "Mathematics in Ancient Egypt," pp. 437-41.
nism
(at least
is
that of
VoL 21
en perspective,
He
Ill
Part
Two
Documents
DOCUMENT
IV. 1
in the introductory
passage by
its
scribe
Ahmose
as the regnal "year 33, month 4 of [the season] Akhet, [under the
the
It
of
first
matical Papyrus.
Museum
As
it
published by the
British
notes,
it
Museum
BM
in
visit
to Egypt, Rhind
two
modern
times.
New-
were once
were separated
in
113
housed by the Historical Society of New Yoik (where Neware now at the Brooklyn Museum. Detailed
also
(dimmished fioom fhe eariier ones) were occasioned by tiie oonservatkm work on the papyrus done durn^ recent years, these later
measurements are given in a note by T.G.R James:^
The
BM
vation
work
The
dhniniition in
18cm
measurements
carried out
two
BM
was
Museum
were mounted on a backing card with an unidentified adhesive under some pressure. The deterioration
of this card led to splitting and damage (but not loss) to the
pqyyrus. Only during the last ten years have techniques
been developed which have allowed the safe removal of
long documents fiv>m their backing. Using these new techr
tuques conservation staff in the British Museum have been
able suocessfiiOy to detach and remount the two sheets
without applying a permanent backing. The removal of the
backing and the reUncation of the stresses which had affected
the papyrus over more than one hundred years led to the
shnnkii^ of the fabric of the sheets. Further reduction in
length resulted from the closing of many small gaps where
the papyrus and its backing had split. The condition and apits
parts
significance
the
first
publication
and
translation
114
of the
hieratic text.^
The next
in
was
a series of ex-
by the
facsimile edition
it
British
And
"facsimile."
neither
fault.
In fact,
justified
rus,
new
in the
Shortly after their acquisition of the main [Rhind Nfathematical] papyrus the Trustees
of the British
Museum had
who
panying a
treatise,
in
until
the
simile appear,
by no means an improvement on
its
predeces-
While Eisenlohr's phites respect the divisions of the text, one miglit think that a blind
man had been entnisted with the division of the British Museum plates.) Eisenlohr's book, now neariy SO years old, is
sor.
(Plus
does
it
contain a quantity of
in treatment:
wrong
not only
readings, translations
and
interpretations,
its princi-
lis
is
now
ably
As
work and
the
Museum
facsimile edition
number of articles and books of varying significance for understanding the papyrus were published. We can note as very important
studies,
for example, F.
Theilungsrechnung^^
and K.
Sethe's
superb
monograph:
Von
Zahkn und ZaMworten bei den alien Agyptem undwas fir andere
VMer und Sprachen danms zu lemen isL Em Beiirag mr
GesdUchte von Redienhmsi und S^jnache (Strasbouig, 1916). In
addition to the somewimt hrter edition of Chaoe (SM
wludi is still by &r the best version of the Rhind Papyrus and wfaidi
be mentioned again and again in the course of presenting this
document, a whole host of other authors of more recent vintage
(like Neugebauer, Van der Waerden, Bruins, Gillings, Couchoud,
will
and Guillemot, to specify a few whose works are listed in my bibliography beiow) will be mentioned in the notes or in Chapter IV
when I consider their views to be pertinent.
Though I have discussed the Rhind Papyrus at some length
in Chapter Four above and certainly do not wbh to repeat that discussion here, it seemed appropriate to inchide here a brief outline of
the chief subjects of the papyrus m the order of their appearance:
Table of the Division of 2 by the Odd-numbers 3-101
(Chace'sPtetes2-33);
Problems
116
of
1, 2, 6, 7, 8,
PUites 34-38);
and
DOCUMENT IV.liRMP
Problems 7-20: Multiplication of some Fractional Expresnumber 1 and a sum of
still
(Prot>lein8 16-
Plates 42-43);
20,
tions to
Unknown
Quantity
{'^If)
Plates 44-45), or to
Problems,
when an
i.e..
Problems of
Plates 52-56);
Granaries and
otfaera
on various
aspects and
117
Papyrus
my
hieratic text
in Figs.
have
have
silently
have also
One
audiorB
distinction
is that I
of
my
state
of the
have bracketed
all
additions I have
made
m order
to darify the rather suocmct and syncopated Egyptian text. For instance, ui the
italicized
each of
many
Some of my
ahemate
transhttions
of
tiie
Still
of
author.
The use of bold-fiiced type m the transhdon indicates nibrim tiie papyrus. The estrones of words phrases,
and nunibera rubricated by the scribe are the followiqg: (1) the general title of the work at the b^innuig of it, (2) the word **CaII*'
cation appearii^
(ny) or the
division
0.e.,
denommaton
that efifect
118
of common denominators
that are being
added
slant
in the
checks
numbers used
in the
Egyptian version
( \ )
more
difficulty
work of Rdibiiis
and Sfaute (see note 2). I hsve not converted ibe lubricated check
marks to bold-fiioed type, but have done so, for the most part, in
the cases of other usages. I note fiirther that I have represented the
Horus-eye fi:actiona! signs for the following fractions of a heqat:
1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64, when they appear in the Rhind
Papynis and elsewhere, by Italic type (although Chace in his translation of the Rhind Papynis uses bold-fiioed type). I do this since I
have already usurped bold&ce for rubrication.
Finally I must explain why I have adopted the somewhat
ambiguous form of writing fractions with the numbers all on the
papyrus, in the recent photographic plates of the
same
Microsoft
Word,
Version
6,
is
when there
are
119
1+1/2+1/8 or
1/2
it
is in
of the
all
calculations are
unme-
diately obvious.
Notes
to the Introduction to
Document IV. 1
in note
cit.
'F. Lenormant,
d'un
traits
1.
Chace
on pp.
"T^lole relative
10-11.
de g^om^trie appliquee h
p.
903.
Given
in its entirety in R.
The note is quite brief and general. It speaks only of the secon the detenninakm of areas and the vohune of a pgnamid (i.e., the geometric probkms later numbered 48-60).
Birch, "Geometric Papyrus,** ZAS. VoL 6 (1868), pp. 108-10. Birch's description is a much better estimate of the papyrus' contents. Thus he says: "It is
Papyrus, p. 135.
tion
may be called treated aritihrnedeach case being a proposition considered separately, the dimension of
each square, circle, triangle or pyramid to be copied being given separately and
the area or contents superficial or solid thereby calculated, the object being to
of division
by drawing panlld
fields the
author of the
120
geometric proUems, othen of a nature moce purely arithmetical are also ghfen
so that the tieatiie in reality
the whole treatise at
is that
is
nothing in
all like
^
H.K. Brugsch, "Uber den mathematischen Papgnus im britischen Museum zu
London," ZAS, Vol. 12 (1874), pp. 147-49.
* A. Eisenlohr, "Berichtung," ZAS, Vol. 13
(1875), pp. 26-29.
^Ein mathematisdies Hmdbuch dor alten Agypter ^apyrva Bkbid da BrttUh
MusemH)
the
Museum
The
***Griffith,
RUnd Mathematical PSvynis," PSBA, VoL 13 (1891), pp. 32832; Vol. 14 (1891X pp. 26-31; VoL 16 (1894X pp. 164-73, 201-08, and 230-48.
Consult also Griffith's "Notes on Egyptian Weights and Measures," PSBA, Vol.
The relevance of
the latter
study for the Rhind Papyrus arises from the fact that there are 44 problems in
the papyrus in which weights and measures are referred
to,
and, as Archibald
in the
"
full
lung,"
Ablum^Bmg der
philologisch-hlstortadien
Clasae
Erste
Abhand-
der k/MgUdh-
sOchslscheH Geselbckqfi der WIsaenaehqfi, Vd. 17, no. 1 (189S), 192 pp. The
second part was never piddished, though another paper appeared in 1901: F.
Hultsch,
Mathematica, Series
3, Vol.
121
DOCUMENT
IV. 1
all
things, myster-
month 4
of Akhet, [under the majesty of the] King of [Upper and] Lower
Egypt, Awserre^ given life, from an ancient copy made in the time
of the King of Upper [and Lower] Egypt, [Nym]atre.^ The scribe
This book was copied in regnal year 33,
ies....all secrets.*
CaU 2 out of 3
[ i.e..
[2 divided by] 5
1/3 [of 5
is] 1
1/15 [of 5
2/3,
Procedure
i.e..
is] 1/3.
Working Out]:^
2/3
3 1/3
1/3
1/15
1/3.
2/3
[2 divided by 7
1/4 [of 7 is] 1 1/2 1/4, 1/2S [of 7
1/2
3 1/2
1/4
\4
28
is] 1/4.
1/2 1/4
1/4
14
28.
122
is] 2.
[2 divided by 9]
1/6 [of 9
is J
2/3
9
6
1/3
1/6
\
\
1/2,
1/18 [of 9
is] 1/2.
1/2
[2
1/2.
1]8
[2 divided by 11]
lie [of
1 1 is]
[1
1 1 is]
1/6.
11
71/3
32/3
12/3
2/3
1/3
\l/6
11
[1]
1/6]
[\2
2]2
[\4
4]4
[Total]
66
1/6.
pdMdedbylB]
[of 13
1/104 [of 13
is] 1/4,
is] 1/8.
1[3]
1/2
61/2
1/4
3 1/4
\ 1/8
\
is] 1
4
8
11/2 1/8
52
104
1/4
1/8.
[2 divided by 15J
ino [of IS
1
is] 1 1/2,
1/30 [of 15
is] 1/2.
15
\ 1/10
1/2
\ 1/30
1/2.
[2dMdedbyl7]
Call 2 out of 17
1A2 [of 17 is ]
[i.e..
Get 2 by operating on
1 1/3 1/12,
1/51 [of 17
123
7].
is] 1/3,
1/68 [of 17
is] 1/4.
17
2/3
11 1/3
1/3
5 2/3
1/6
2 1/2
\1/12
1/3
\1
17
\2
34
51
1/3
68
1/4.
is]
12 2/3
2/3
1/114 [of 19
19
1/3
1/6
3 1/6
1/12
Remainder
19
2
38
4
76
Remainder 1/6
1/3
1/2 1/12
1/4 1/6
19
\2
\4
Total 6
38
76
114
1/6.
[2 divided by 21]
1/14 [of 21
1/2,
is] 1
1/42 [of 21
is]
1/2.
21
14
2/3
42
\2
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by 23]
nil
[of 23
is]
23
2/3
15 1/3
1/3
7 2/3
1/6
3 1/2 1/3
1/12
Remainder
is]
\10
\2
1/12
124
1/12.
23
230
46
276
1/12.
is] 1/6.
[2 divided hy 25]
1/15 [of 25 is] 1 2/3, 1/75 [of 25
1
25
12/3
\1/15
\
is] 1/3.
75
1/3.
[2 divided by 27]
1/18 [of 27
is] 1/2.
27
\2/3
18
54
1/54 [of 27
1/2,
is] 1
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by 29]
Call 2 out of 29
1/24 [of 29
1/6,
is]
[i.e..
1/232 [of 29
1/6 1/24,
1/58 [of 29
is]
1/2,
1/174 [of 29
is]
is]
1/4,
1/155 [of 31
is]
is] 1/8.
Procedure*"
[29]
1
\
1/24
58
1/2
\6
174
1/6
232
1/8.
1/6 1/24
[2 divided by] 31
1/20 [of 31
1/2 1/20,
is] 1
1/124 [of 31
1/5.
1
\
[31]
1/20
1/2 1/20
\4
124
1/4
155
1/5.
[2 divided] 33
1/22 [of 33 is]
[1
1/2,
1/66 [of 33
is] 1/2.
33] [cont.]
125
2/3
22
66
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by] 35
1/30 [of 35
6 is
is]
2/3 1/6.
5"
[2 times 1/35
times
1/42 [of 35
is] 1 1/6,
210 gives
which are 1/30 and 1/42 of 210.]
is
7 and
12, or
S,
6;
and 2
35]
[1
\ 1/30
1/6
\l/42
2/3 1/6.
f2avUkdby37J
37
1/24
is] 1
1/2 1/24,
1/111 [of 37
is] 1/3,
1/8.
37
242/3
121/3
61/6
2/3
1/3
1/6
1/12
\2
\ 1/24
1/2 1/24
3
111
Remainder 1/8
1
37
2
74
148
4
8
296
Total
3 1/12
Remainder
37
74
\1
1/3 1/8
1/3
1/8.
[2 divided by] 39
1/26 [of 39
[1
\2/3
\2
is] 1 1/2,
1/78 [of 39
is] 1/2.
39]
26
78
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided hy 41]
Can2oiitof41
[i.e..
126
1/2M
[of 37
is]
is] 1
is] 1/6,
1/328 [of 41
is]
1/8.
Procedure:
41]
[1
2/3
27
1/3
41
1/3
13 2/3
\2
\4
164
246
1/6
328
1/8.
1/6
6 2/3 1/6
1/12
3 1/3 1/12
\l/24
Rmainder
Total:
2/3 1/24
1/6
1/8
[2 divided by] 43
1/42 [of 43 is] 1 1/42, 1/86 [of 43
1/301 [of 43
is] 1/2,
1/129
[of 43]
is 1/3,
is] 1/7.
43]
[1
Find (gm)
82
1/42
86
1/2
\3
129
1/3
\7
301
1/7.
1/42
[2 divided by] 45
1/30 [of 45
[1
1/2,
is] 1
is 1/2.
45]
\ 2/3
30
\2
90
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by] 47
1/30 [of 47
is] 1
1/2 1/15,
1/141 [of 47
1/10.
[1
Find
1/30
47]
1
1/2 1/15
\3
141
1/3
10
470
1/10.
127
is] 1/3,
1/470 [of 47
is]
is]
Find
1/196 [of 49
1/2 1/4,
is] 1/4.
49]
[1
1/28
1/2 1/4
\4
196
1/4.
[2 divided by] 51
1/34 [of 51
2/3
1/2,
is] 1
1/102 [of 51
is 1/2].
51]
[1
34
102
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by 55]
Call 2 out 53.
1/30 [of 53
is]
is]
1/6,
1/795 [of 53
1/15.
Procedure:
53]
[1
Find
1/30
\6
2/3 1/10
318
Remainder
1/6
10
\ S
1/15
Total
15
f2dM(kdbyJ55
1/30 [of 55
is] 1
rmd
\l/30
\6
is] 1/6.
55]
[1
12/31/6
1/6.
330
[2dMdedby]57
1/38 [of 57
[1
\2/3
\2
is] 1 1/2,
1/114 [of 57
57]
38
114
1/2
1/2.
[2 divkkd byj 59
128
is] 1/2.
53
530
265
795
1/15.
is]
1/236 [of 59
is] 1
is] 1/4,
1/531 [of 59
is] 1/9.
59]
[1
Find
1/36
\4
\9
236
1/4
531
1/9.
[2 divided by] 61
1/40 [of 61
1/8,
is]
is]
1/244 [of 61
is]
1/4,
1/488 [of 61
is]
1/10.
61]
[1
Find
1/2 1/40,
1/610 [of 61
1/40
1/2 1/40
\4
\8
244
488
1/4
10
610
1/10.
1/8
[2 divided by] 63
1/42 [of 63 is] 1 1/2, 1/126 [of 63
is] 1/2.
63]
[1
\2/3
42
\2
126
1 1/2
1/2.
f2 dMtkd by 65]
CaB2oi]tof6S.
1/39 [of 65 is] 1 2/3, 1/195 [of 65
is] 1/3.
Procednre:
65]
[1
rmd
12/3
\l/39
\3
195
1/3.
f2divUkdby]67
1/40 [of 67
is] 1
1/335 [of 67
is] 1/8.
[1
Find \ 1/40
67]
1
129
is] 1/5,
1^6 [of 67
335
536
\8
1/5
1/8.
[2dMdedby]69
1/46 [of 69
is] 1 1/2,
1/138 [of 69
is] 1/2.
69]
[1
46
\2/3
\2
138
1/2
1/2.
f2dMdedbyJ7I
1/40 [of 71
is]
is] 1
1/568 [of 71
is] 1/8,
1/710 [of 71
1/10.
71]
[1
Find \ 1/40
\
568
710
8
10
1/8
1/10.
[2 dMded by] 73
1/60 [of 73 is] 1 1/6 1/20, 1/219 [of 73
1/4, 1/365 [of 73 is] 1/5.
73]
[1
1/60
is] 1/3,
\3
\4
\5
1/6 1/20
219
292
365
1/3
1/4
1/5.
f2 dMded byj 75
1/SO [of 75 is] 1 1/2, 1/150 [of 75
[1
\2/3
\2
is] 1/2.
75]
50
150
1 1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by 77J
2 out of 77.
OA
1/44 [of 77
is] 1
130
1/292 [of 73
is]
[1
\l/44
Find
1/2 1/4
\4
3[08]
1/4.
[2 divided by] 79
1/60 [of 79
is]
is]
1/3,
1/316 [of 79
is]
is] 1/4,
1/415 [of 83
is]
is]
1/10.
79]
[1
Find
1/237 [of 79
1/4 1/15,
1/790 [of 79
1/4,
1/60
1/4 1/15
\3
\4
237
316
1/4
10
790
1/10.
1/3
[2 divided by] 81
1/54 [of 81
[1
\ 2/3
\2
1/2.
is] 1
54
1/498 [of 83
[1
Find \ 1/60
\
\5
\
(I
1/2.
1/3
mo,
1/332 [of 83
is] 1/6.
83]
1
1/3 1/20
332
415
498
1/4
1/5
1/6.
[2 tBvided by] 83
1/Sl [of 85 is] 1 2/3, 1/255 [of 85
1
Find \ 1/51
\
is] 1/2.
1/2
162
[2 divided by] 63
1/60 [of 83 is] 1
1/5,
1/162 [of 81
81]
is] 1/3.
85
1
255
2/3
1/3.
131
is] 1/2.
f2dMdedby89j''
Call 2 out of 89.
1/60 [of 89 is] [1 1/3] 1/10 1/20, 1/356 [of 89
89 is] 1/6, 1/890 [of 89 is] 1/10.
Praccdvre:
\4
\
10
1/534 [of
89]
[1
FmdM/dO
is] 1/4,
11/31/101/20
356
534
890
[2 divided hyj 91
1A70 [of 91 is] 1 1/5
1/4
1/6
1/10.
91]
[1
11/51/10
Find \ 1/70
Find \ 1/130
2/31/30.
[2dMdedby][9]B
1/62 [of 93
[1
is] 1 1/2,
\2/3
62
186
1/186 [of 93
is] 1/2.
93]
1
1/2
1/2.
[2dMdedby]95
1/60 [of 95
is] 1
1/2 1/12,
1/380 [of 95
1/6.
[1
Find \ 1/60
\4
95]
11/21/12
380
1/4
132
is] 1/4,
1/S70 [of 95 U]
1/6.
[2 divided by] 97
1/56 [of 97 is] 1 1/2
97
1/776 [of
is] 1/8.
97]
[1
Find
1/56
\7
\8
679
776
1/7
1/8.
[2 divided by] 99
1/66 [of 99
Find
1/2,
is] 1
1/198 [of 99
is] 1/2.
99]
[1
66
2/3
\2
198
1/2
1/2.
[2 divided by 101]
[Can 2 out of 101]
1/101 [of 101
is] 1,
is] 1/2,
is] 1/6.
Procedure:
\2
\3
\6
101
1]
202
303
606
1/2
1/3
1/6.
133
1-6]
is] 1/3,
[Problem I]
Example of Dividing
n psf)'^
{tp
loaf
(O among
10 men.
The procedure
[lit.
doing
(irt)] is
Do
loaf].
as follows:
1/10
Total:
total for
[loaf],
10
\2
1/5
4
\8
1/3 1/15]
which
the same
is
[i.e.,
the correct
[Problem 2]
Dividing [2] loavcf among [10 men].
Do
1/10 of it].
{Irt
my lipr)
1/5]
[1
\2
1/3 1/15
[4]
[Problem 3]
Dividing 6 loaves among [10] men.
Do
the multiplication of
1/2] 1/10
[ 1
[\2
1] 1/5
2] 1/3 1/15
[4
\8
134
DOCUMENT IV.1:RMP
Total: 6 [loaves],
which
is
The procedure
is
4
\8
Total: 7 loaves,
man
[The procedure
is]
1/15
which
is
[Problem 5]
Divide 8 loaves among 10 men.
1/30 times 10; the result
2/3 l/[30]
1] 1/3
\[2
each
of it].
is 7.
as follows: [1]
after
Do
1/2 1/10
men
of it].
1/10
is 8.
as follows:
\2
4
\
11/2 [1/10
3 1/5]
61/3 1/15
8 loaves^ which is correct.
Total:
[Problem 6]
Divide 9 ioavet among 10 men.
1/5
\2
4
\8
3 1/2 1/10
71/5
Total:
[Problems 7-20:
[Problem 7][canL]
135
1/2 1/4.]
Example of completion
(tp n skmt):
1/2
1/4
of 28 these
are]
1/4
Total:
of 28
this is 14].
[Problem 7B]
[Multiply 1/4 1/28 by
1
1/4 1/
1/2 1/4.]
28
1/2
1/8 1/56
1/4
Total:
1/2.
[Problem 8]
[Multiply 1/4 by
2/3 1/3]
of 1 8
this is]
4 1/2
2/3
of 1 8
this is]
1/3
Total:
of 18
[Problem 9]
[Multiply 1/2 1/14 by
1
1/2
1/41/28
1/4
1/8 1/S6
Total:
1/2 1/4.]
1/2 1/14
1.
[Problem 10
[Multiply 1/4 1/28
1
by
U/2 1/4.]
1/4 1/28
1/2
1/7
1/4
1/14
136
is] 1
1/2
this is] 9.
1/2.
[Problem 11]
[Multiply 1/7 by
\n
Ml
1/14
1/4
1/28
Total:
1/2 1/4.]
1/4.
[Problem 12]
[Multiply 1/14 by
1
1/14
1/2
1/28
1/4
1/56
Total:
1/2 1/4.]
1/8.
[Problem 13]
[Multiply 1/16 1/112 by
1/2 1/4.]
1/2
1/4
1/4
[and] 1/16
Total:
of 28 this is 3
1/2].
[Problem 14]
[Multiply 1/28 by
1/2 1/4.]
is] 1
1/2
is ]
1/4
1/1
Total:
12 [as a part of 28
1/2
[Pnbkm I5j"
[Multiply 1/32 1/224 by
137
is 1
1/2 1/4].
1/2
1/4
[and] 1/8
[and] 1/16
[and] 1/32
Total:
is 1
[Problem 16]
[Multiply 1/2 by
1
1/2
2/3
1/3
1/3
1/6
Total:
2/3 1/3.]
2/3 1/3.]
1.
[Problem 17]
[Miiltiiily 1/3
by
1/3
2/3
1/6 1/18
1/3
Total:
1/9
2/3.
[Problem 18]
[Muhi|dyl/6byl2/3
1
1/6
2/3
1/9
1/3
1/18
Total:
1/3.]
1/3.
[Problem 19]
[Multiply 1/12 by
2/3 1/3.]
of 18
2/3
1/3
1/36 [as
Total:
138
1/2 1/4].
[Problem 20]
[Multiply 1/24 by
2/3 1/3.]
is]
2/3
is]
1/2
1/3
is]
1/4
1/2 1/4
Total:
is 1 1/2].
Complete
said to you:
The total
is 1 1
is]
1/10
\l/5
\ 1/15
Total:
2/3 1/15 to
10 [and 1/15
1.
is] 1.
is 4.
get) 4.
(i.e.,
IS
1
1/2
3
1
4.
is
what
is
to be added to
it [i.e.,
the given
number].
(i.e.,
make)
1.
For [when
[^udimake
IS].
[Problem 22]
Complete 2/3 1/30 to
1.
[i.e.,
30 over 21]
1/10
\ 1/S
30
3
6 [cant.]
139
is 9.
1, 1
9.
is
to be added to
[in
it
order to
make
the
com-
pletion].
is
of 2/3
make
1,
and
[making 30].
[ProbkmZS]
Complete 1/4 1/8 1/10 1/30 1/4S to 2/3.
and
1 [which require
1/8
to 45, these fractions are equal to] 11 1/4, 5 1/2 1/8, 5, 4 1/2, 1 1/2,
1 1/8, 1,
and 15.^
[PRCBLEMS 24-29: QUANTITY C^^O PROKJEMS'^ ]
[Problem 24]
A quantity with 1/7 of it added to
is
it
becomes
ihpr) 19.^^
[What
the quantity?]
[Assume 7.]
\1
7
\\n
[Total:
8.]
8
16
\2
1/2
\l/4
\l/8
[Total
\ 1
4
2
1
1/4 1/8.]^
21/4
1/8
140
Do
it
4 1/2 1/4
9 1/2
as follows:
[Hence
1/8.
this
The
quantity
[is]
[is]
its]
1/7
[is]
2 1/4
19 [as originally
specified].
[Problem 25]
A quantity with 1/2 of
it
added
to
it
[What
becomes
is
the
quantity?]
[Assume
2.]
\1
\l/2
Total:
3.
\1
2
\4
12
2/3
\l/3
Total: 5 1/3.
1
51/3
\2
10 2/3
Do it
[Hence
as follows:
this
The quantity
[is]
10 2/3, [and
[is]
its]
1/2 is 5 1/3.
fied].
[Problem 26]
A quantity with 1/4 of it added to it becomes 1 S.^
[Assume 4.] [That is] multiply 4, making 1/4, namely
the] Total is 5 [proceeding in the usual manner:
\1
\l/4
Total:
5].
[cont]
141
1,
[so that
\1
\2
10
Total: 3.
Multiply 3 tunes 4.
\4
12
its 1/4:]
12
\l/4
Total:
IS.
is
12 and
sum
its
was
IS.
originally
specified.]
[Problem 27]
A quantily with 1/5 of it added to
it
is
the
quantity?]
[Assume
\1
S.]
\l/5
Total:
5
1
6.
\1
\2
12
\\I2
Total: 3 1/2.
\1
2
\4
3 1/2
7
14.
The quantity is 17
142
is
is
21.
originally
specified.]
[Problem 28]
[If a quantity] and 2/3 of it are added together, and from the
sum is subtracted 1/3 of the sum, 10 remains.^^ [What is the
quantity?] Make 1/10 of 10; this becomes 1. Subtract 1 fi-om 10
and the remainder b 9 [which is the deared quantity]. 2/3 of 9 is
6,
^cli
added to 9 makes
1/3
15.
it
of it (15)
is 5,
and
1/3
of 15
[Problem 29]
[A quantity and its 2/3 are added together, and 1/3 of the sum
is added; then 1/3 ofthb sum is talcen and the result is 10. What
is
the quantity?]^
\1
10
\ 1/4
\
Total
(i.e.,
1/10
quantity)
1/2
[is]
2/3
Total:
13
9
1/2.
221/2.
2/3
71/2
30
20
1/3
10.
1/3
Total:
2/3 1/10
\ 1
\n
1/5
[cont]
143
[i.e.,
so as to
3 1/15
6 1/10 1/30
Total: 13
1/30
[still
The making
(irt)
The
total
is
[it is]
13 1/23.
13 1/23
\2/3
\
1/10
Total: 10.
[Problem 31]
it
added
to-
\2
\4
\8
41/3 1/41/28
9 1/6 1/14
18 1/3 1/7
1/2
\ 1/4
The total [of multipliers is 14 1/4 and that muhiplied by 1 2/3 1/2
1/7] is 32 1/2 and a remainder of 1/2 [which is equal to the fiactions
1/7, 1/8, 1/14, 1/28,
termmed].
1/7, 1/8, 1/14, 1/28, 1/28 [taken as parts
6, S 1/4, 3,
1/2, 1 1/2,
[which
of 42
make
ate]
require 3
\l/2
21
\\n
1/2
1/4
is]
we
1/2 [of
99[siiouUibe91\l
[Since the total of the products of these multipliers applied to 42 is
97, hence 1/42 of 42, vAAxAi is 1, will be 1/97 of the total. And
Total:
144
will
This
produce that
fi-actional multipliers
final
which
product,
we
need
add up to 3 1/2
will
is
of 97:]
lent fi^actions
\
1/97
1/42 [or]
[as a part
of 42]
of 42]
1/194
1/388
unknown
quantity sought
when
1/776, which
fi-actions in
is
multiplied by
makes
the] Total 33
of the problem].
[Problem 32]
A quantity,
[What
is
1/3 of
it,
and
1/4 of
it
the quantity?]
[Multiply
228
1/18
[ditto]
1S2
\l/3
1/2 1/36
[ditto]
\l/6
\1/12
1/4 1/72
[ditto]
76
38
1/8 1/144
[ditto]
19
M/228
1/144
[ditto]
1/72
[ditto]
2.
\2/3
1/114
is] 1
12
24
48
96
Total:
lows:]'*
2
\4
\8
is]
144. [cont.]
14S
fol-
result
when we
relate
our fractions to
144]:
\1
144
48
36
\ 1/3
1/4
Total
[The
228.
first
initial
table
which
are opposite the checked fractions and which express the parts of
1/3
needed to
in that
total 288,
list
which
of numbers
is
that
last
is
To
unknown
value of the
two items
last two
unknown
unknown
end of the
in the
author substitutes
2.]
The
&yty)
\1
[2/3
\ 1/3
[1/2
\ 1/4
total is
series
of smaller
1/4.
1/12, 1/114, 1/228, 1/18, 1/36, 1/342, 1/684, 1/24, 1/48, 1/456,
and
which]
is
228,
i.e.,
1/2
912
456
1/4
228.
1/4 of 912.
For
146
and
1,
A quantity, 2/3 of
come 37.^ [What
[Multiply
it,
[1
1/2
\ 1/4
\ 1/28
1/7 of
it,
18 1/3 1/7
10 1/2
1 1/2.
The
1/21
of 42].
1
and
\2/3
1/2 of
the quantity?]
2
4
8
[Since
it,
16
is
checked products]
is
42 gives 97,^^
1/97
1/42 [or]
1/
2 1 [or] 2
is 2,
[or
[as a part
[as a part
of 42]
of 42].
[This last number, 1/21, with the product already obtained gives] a
total
tion
of 37 [which is equal to the number specified in the enunciaof the problent So the quantity sought is 16 1/S6 1/679
1/776.]
Eumple of proof
16 1/56
2/3
97
102/3
1/679 1/776
1/84
1/1358 1/4074^
642/3
1/2
1/7
48 1/2
21/41/28
1/112
12
(!,
1/1358
1/1552
31/2
1/4753
1/392
13) 1/2 1/4 1/14 1/28
147
1/1164
42/3
11/3
1 1/7
to:] /can/.7
1/5432
1.
2/3
1/4
3621 1/3
1358
1/84.
194
64 2/3
194
num-
bers].
5432
2/3
3621
1/3
1/2
2716
1/4
1358
194
1/28
5 1 73 1/3
Total:
And
remainder
is
258
2/3.
[Problem 34]
quantity, 1/2 of
10.^ [What
[Muhiply
is
1
it,
and
1/4 of
it,
the quantity?]
11/2 1/4
\ 1
3 1/2
\4
7
1/4
\ 1/7
1/4 1/28
\ 1/2 1/4
1/2
1.
1 1/4 1/8
1/7 1/14.
1/28 1/56.
The total [of whole numbers and simpler fractions (powers of 1/2)}
[The rest of the fractions
is 9 1/2 1/8; the remainder is 1/4 1/8.
fi)llow,
and
their applications to
56 are given
in boldfiice
bdow
them:]
1/7 1/14 1/14 1/28 1/28 1/56
148
[Problem 35]
I go down three times into the heqat-measure {hkit), 1/3 of me is
added to me, I return filled [i.e., having filled the heqat-measure].
1.
Multiplying by 3 1/3
we
have]:
\1
\2
2
1/3
\ 1/3
Total:
3 1/3.
CaUloutof3
1
1/3.
3 1/3
1/10
1/3
\l/5
2/3
Total:
[The answer
I.
is
1/5 1/10.]
Example of proof:
1
1/5 1/10
\2
1/2 1/10
1/10
\ 1/3
Total:
1.
**the part"),
vahie
is
transliterated re or ro,
sometimes
1/10
\ 1/5
Total:
320
32
64
96.
Eiample of proof:
\1
96
\2
192
\l/3
32 [conL
149
(i.e.,
of which the
Total:
[As expressed
Italics),
in
in
of 2 down to 1/64 and which were expressed by special notathe result makes of grain 1/4 1/32 1/64 heqat and 1 ro ]
tions,'*^
[i.e.,
in
rus-eye form:]
\
1/16 1/32
/3
a heqat
Total;
[i.e., 1
[ro]
[Problem 36]
I go down three times [into the heqat-measure'*^]; 1/3 of me and
1/5 of me are added to me, and I return having filled the measure.
What
[Assume
is
1.
1/3
[Get
have]
1/3
1/5
Total:
we
1/5
3 1/3 1/5.
by operating on 3 1/3
1/5.
Apply
this
106
53
\ 1/4
26
\ 1/106
\ 1/53
\ 1/212
1/2
1/2
Total:
[30,
[Proof:]
1
150
or] 1.
to 30;
h makes
106.
1/3
1/5
1/4.
In order to get
To
1/4.
we
should
get this
we
apply the smaller fractions to 1060, and beneath these fractions they
are written as parts of 1060 in red in the papyrus and thus here in
boldface type:]
1/106
1/53
20
10
35
1/3
3 1/3
1/159
1/12
1/795
1
1/53
10
[or in total]
70
[or in total]
100
[or in total]
60*
1/636
62/3
31/3
12/3
1/20
1/265
1/530
1/1060
53
[Grand
is]
35
1/106
20
1/3
1/318
881/3
[which
[or in total]
1/318
1/30
1/212
total
of parts:] 265*
1060
1/4
530
265
265
Total:
1060.
1/2
1/4
[Problem 37
I go dowB three tincf iato the heqat Measure, 1/3 of me is
added to me, 1/3 of 1/3 of me is added to me; and 1/9 of me is
added to me; I return having filled the heqat-measure. Then what
is it
[Assume
1.
You
1/3
1/3
1/9
shall
1/3
of 1/3
1/9
WfconLj
151
we have]
Total:
CaU lout of 3
1/2 1/18
3 1/2 1/18
1/2
\l/4
1/8
1/16
1/32
Total:
[for if we]
add
36
8
[are the values
when taken
18
[we get
1.
Now]
of 576. These
as parts
is
72 [which
parts] total
is]
1/8 [of
1/4 1/32.]
Example of Proof:
1
1/4 1/32
1/2 1/16
1/12 1/96
1/3
of
1/3
1/36 1/288
1/3
1/36 1/288.
1/9
1 [for if we]
Total:
add
1/2 1/4 1/32 1/16 1/12 1/96 1/36 1/288 1/36 1/288 [they equal
1.
Now]
9
18
when
written
[which
[We
is]
24
These parts]
can, as in
Total:
[1]
1/2
320
160
\l/4
80
1/8
1/16
40
20
\l/32
10
152
in ro:]
total
72
90.
Example of proof:
\1
90
\2
180
30
\ 1/3
of
\ 1/3
\
10
1/3
10
1/9
320.
Total:
[It
amounts
in grain to 1/4
1/32 heqat
in the
Italics:]
\ 1
1/4 1/32
1/2 1/16
1/16 1/32
\ 1/3
\ 1/3
\
of
1/32
1/3
1/32
1/9
Total:
fJ^oblem 38
I have gone down three times into the heqat-measure, 1/7 of
me is added to me. I return having filled the heqat-measure.
[What is it that says this?]
[Assume 1 Multiplying by the given expression we have]
\1
1
.
\2
\l/7
Total:
CaU
1/7
1/7.
out of 3
1/7.
3 1/7
1/22
1/11
1/41/28
1/61/66
Total:
22 is 3
1/7
1/21/14
1.
1S3
1/7
we
is
the expression
have obtained.
320
2/3
213 1/3
106 2/3
1/3
\
53 1/3
1/6
29 1/11
\1/11
14 1/2 1/22
1/22
1/66
4 2/3
1/6 1/66
Total:
ro]:
\1
\2
203
Total:
Making
14 1/2 1/22
1/7
[heqat,
of grain
(/r
i.e.,
n ii)
320
ro]
amount
[i.e., its
in
Roman
in grain,
using the
2/3 1/1
1/2 1/8
1/7
1/32
319 2/3
Total:
Ho-
type]
fiactions are] 1/11, 1/11, 1/22, 1/22, 1/33, 1/66, and 1/66. [They
total] 1/3, [for if
we
sively;] 6, 6, 3, 3, 2, 1,
and
in total are
[which
319
total]
22 [and 22
is
1/3
of 66;
make 320
ros,
heqat].
154
DOCUMENT IV.1:RMP
Example of making excess (tp n
when 100 loaves
for 4. What is the excess of shares
ference of share]
irt
twnw)
[or,
of making the
dif-
4
40
1
\
10
\2
\
Ml
Total: 12 1/2.
2
4
\8
12
\l/3
24
48
2
Total: 8 1/3.
men
men
in the
in the
group of 6 gets] 8
iwill
be
[in
such a
in arithmetical progression
way
and
that] 1/7
of
[the
sum oQ the hurgest three shares is [equal to the sum of] the smallest
two. What is the [common] excess [or diflference of the shares]?
The procedure is as follows, [if we assume first that] the excess
[or difoence] is 5 1/2." [Then the amounts that the five men receive are]
23, 17 1/2, 12,6 1/2, 1, total 60.
[As many times as is necessaiy to multiply 60 to make 100, so
many times must the terms noted above be multiplied to find the
correct terms of the series ] [com.]
155
\1
\2/3
Total:
2/3
100.
23
hbecomes
171/2 it becomes
12
hbecomes
61/2 itbeoomes
1
Total:
60
hbecomes
hbecomes
381/3
291/6
20
102/31/6
1
2/3
100.
is
[Prhkm4l]
Eiample of aiaking (i.e., calcuUtiBg the volume of a) round
(Lcn cyliadrical) gnuuuy of [diameter] 9 and [heiglit] lO.'*
Take awi^ 1/9 of 9, namely, 1; the remainder is 8. Multiply 8
h makes 64. Multiply 64 times 10; h makes 640 [cubic]
cubhs. Add 1/2 of h to h; h makes 960: the calcubitioa of [the
content of] it in khar (dlm^). Take 1/20 of 960, namely, 48. This
is what goes into h in [the number of hundreds of] quadrupleheqats, (4-^^0 [i e.,] in grains, 4800 heqnts.
Method of reckoning it (Jcy n iSmtf).
1
8
16
2
4
32
\8
64.
times 8;
MO
\l/2
64
640
320
1S6
Total:
1/10
96
1/20
48.
[Problem 42]
[Find the volume
of]
Take away
of
1/9
10,
i.e.,
remainder
1/9; the
1/324. Multiply
is its
Add
10;
of it to
59 1/4 1/108.
[Muhiplying
goes into
in
grains.
1/2
this
this
it
it; it
[We
is
makes 79 1/108
makes 790 1/18 1/27
makes 1 185 1/6 1/54,
it
quadruple heqat
is,
we
\2/3
\n
\
1/6
1/18
Total:
10
1/2
Total:
1/10
1/20
17 2/3 1/9
35 1/2 1/18
711/9
5 2/3 1/6 1/18 1/27
2 2/3
1
79 1/108 1/324.
79 1/108 1/324
790 1/18 1/27 1/54 1/81
395 1/36 1/54 1/108 1/162
1185 1/61/54
1181/21/54
59 1/4 1/108.
157
is
what
57
2
4
\8
of it
find
round
(i.e.,
ameter?) and 6
cylindrical)
in its
granary of 9
breadth
cubits in
height?),
(!
what
is
its
height
Add
it
to 8
its
makes 113
1/3;
455
height?).
1/9
the
is
goes into
of quadruple heqat,
it
i.e.,
amount
[of the
in khar; this is
grain to the
the
it
2/3 1/9.
di-
it?
(!
is its
volume]
amount
in
that
amount of 2200
ro.
Method of reckoning
\1
it:
2/3
5 1/3
\l/3
2 2/3
10 2/3.
Total:
10 2/3
\10
106 2/3
\2/3
7 1/9
113 2/3
Total:
1/9.
2
\4
227
455
1/2 1/18
455
45
1/9
1/10
1/9.
1/2 1/90
\l/20 221/21/41/45(1,1/180).
[Problem 4
Griffith,
reconstruction based
on
earlier discussions
by
A round
(i.e.,
a height of 6, what
is
the
amount
in grain that
158
of 9 cubits and
goes into
it?
Add
this
as follows:
is
makes
is
makes
Method of reckoning
\
it; it
12.
which
in khar, 576.
it:
\ 1
2/3
\l/3
Total:
12.
12
\2
\10
24
120
Total;
144.
144
2
\4
288
576.
[Problem 43
A round
(i.e.,
J^'
a height of 6; what
The procedure
Add
on the
first
is
is
the
of 8 cubits and
into it?
as follows:
to the diameter
its
1/3;
it
makes 10
2/3
[From
this point
i.e.,
the
here.]
[Problem 44]
Example of reckoning
length being 10,
amount of grain
its
that
[the
volume
goes into
height 10.
What
is
the
it?
159
the previous
page].
10
100
10
100
10
1000
1000
500
1/2
ISOO
150
1/10
1/20
75.
[Proof:]
1
10
\20
75
750
1500
1/10 of 1/10
2/3 of 1/10
of 1/10
150
15
10.
[Probkm45]
heqat of grain.
10
20
1
75
750
1500 [which is its contents in khar]:
1500
160
1/10
1/10 of 1/10
15
10"
[Problem 46]
1/3.
25
10
250
20
500
500
[its
contents in khar]
50
1/10
1/10 of 1/10
3 1/3.
by 3
1/3, as
here [noted].
[Problem 47]
If the scribe says to you, "Let
me know what
is
the result
its
when
multiples] in
5 quadruple
2 1/2
heqat
heqat
heqat 12/3 ro
heqat
heqat
161
heqat
3 1/3 ro
mi ro
1/80 becomes of grain
becomes of grain
1/100 becomes of grain
1/90
1/4
heqat
of diam. 9 (or
oct.
an octagon?^'*) and
= to
of side 8?)]
sq.
16
[Sq.
\1
2
4
8 setjat"
2
4
\8
its
setjat
32 setjat
64 setjat
of side 9]
9 setjat
18
setjat
\8
36 setjat
72 setjat
Total:
81 se^at
10,000
1/10
1/10 of 1/10
wide and
khet long
1000
]
This
[cubit-strips, i.e.,
each
strip
cubit
is its area.
[Problem 50]
162
DOCUNfENTIV.l:RMP
Take away
1/9
Multiply 8 times 8;
area
is
64
makes
1;
the remainder
[Therefore,] the
64.
amount of
is 8.
it
in
setjat.
The procedure
is
1/9
1;
this
it
as follows:
8.
16
2
4
32
64.
\8
The amount of it in area
is
64
setjat.^^
The Procedure
area
as follows:
[cubits,
i.e.,
4 khet]
[cubits,
i.e.,
2 khet]
1000
[cubits,
i.e.,
10 khet]
2000.
1/2
Its
is
400
200
is
Take
20
1/2
setjat.*^'
of
4,
namely,
2,
in
times 2; this
is its
area
[i.e.,
its
of the rectangle]
triangle].
163
base to
its
i.e., 5,
its
truncating
line;
in
20
ten-setjat).
This
is
of
its
it
its
makes
Take
10.
1/2
[equivalent] rectangle.
rectangle] times 5;
it
of
10,
Mul-
makes 10 (10
the area.
in
10 khet]
2000
4000
8000
2
\4
10,000
Total:
Its area is
i.e.,
100
setjat
[cubit-strips, as in the
pfceding problem].
(10 ten-setjat^ ).
1/2
\l/4
setjat
1/8
setjat
5 1/2 1/8
Total:
[1
1/10 of it is 1
Take away the 1/10 of it. This [i.e., the remainder]
[i.e., of the middle trapezoidal figure].
is
the area of it
\2
1/2
14
1/2
se^at
3 1/2
\ 1/4
Total:
altitude
1/2 1/4
setjat
setjat
15 1/2 1/4
se^.
11/21/41/8
angular dement].
164
is
trapeandal sections
\1
\2
\ 1/2
Total:
1/10
Its 1/10
se^at
9
2 1/4
se^at
setjat
IS 1/2 1/4
1
setjat
1/2
setjat [and]
7 1/2
cubit-strips.
i.e.,
is
tion
first set
[Problem 54]
[Muhiply 10 so as to get 7
1
10
5
\l/2
\l/5
setjat plus
165
1/2 cubit-strips.]
\2
4
\8
Total:
2 1/2 cubit-strips
2 7/2
setjat
5 cubit-strips
5 1/2
setjat
10 cubit-strips
setjat.
[Problem 55]
The
setjat
from
5^^
[i.e..
sum of these
What
areas
is
equal
to be
setjat?].'^
Multiply 5 so as to get
1
1/2
21/2
1/10
3.'*
1/2
[Expressed as parts of a
setjat
and
10
cubit strips.]
[Proof:]
\1
1/2
2
\4
setjat
1/8
11/4 1/8
Total:
10 cubit-strips
setjat
7 1/2
ciibit-strips
2 1/2 cubit-strips
3 setjat. Thus the area is 3
setjat
se^at.
ked),
( i.e.,
Take
slope*^
).
166
1/2
3 1/2
1/5
1/50
1/3 1/15
1/10 1/25.
The seqed
is
5 1/25 palms.
[Problem 57]
a pyramid whose base-side
[In]
is
palms
Divide
is
what
cubit
79
we
base-side,
we
is its
altitude?
[See
of 10 1/2
is
10
1/2.
Multiply 10
cubit; operating
is 7.
of 140
is 1
is
93
1/3,
and behold
on 10
is
the
this is its
altitude.*'
[Problem 58]
In a
it
Take
of 93
of 140, which
1/2
1/3 is
Operate on
palms
46
7: 1/2
finger.
Working
1/4
2/3.
of it
This
is
70. Multiply
of
23
1/3.
3 1/2; 1/4
of it
it
is
Take
is 1
1/2 1/4
93
the seqed.
1/3
46 2/3
1/4
23 1/3
3 1/2
1/4
Total:
[1/2] 1/4
5 palms
1 finger,
167
of a
cubit.
out:
\l/2
\
is
is
[cubits]
and whose
attitude
4
2
\l/2
\l/4
Total 1/2 1/4.
Take
1/2 1/4
1
of 7; this is a cubit.
7
3 1/2
\ 1/2
\ 1/4
The resutt is 5
1/2 1/4.
pafans
1 finger,
[Problem 59B]
If you construct a pyramid with base-side 12 [cubits] and with a
seqed of 5 palms 1 finger, what is its altitude?*^
Operate on the double of 5 [palms] 1 [finger], which is 10 1/2, so
as to get 1 cubit; a cubit is 7 palms. 2/3 of 10 1/2 is 7. Operating
on 1 2, [we find that] 2/3 of it is 8, and this is the attitude.
[Problem 60]
[In]
what
is its
Take
1/2
of
resutt is 1/4,
15;
it is
Operate on 30 so as to get 7
1/2.
1/2.
[Problem 61]
[Table for the multiplication of fi-actions]'^
2/3 of 2/3
is
1/3 1/9
of 2/3
is
1/6 1/18
1/3
2/3 of 1/3
is 1/6
1/18
168
The
DOCUNffiNTIV.l:RMP
2/3 of 1/6
is
2/3 of 1/2
is 1/3
of
1/12 1/36
1/2
is
1/6
1/6 of 1/2
is
1/12
1/3
1/12 of 1/2
is
1/24
of
l/[5], 1/4
of it
is
1/20
1/7, 2/3
of it
is
1/14 1/42
1/7, 1/2
of it
is
1/14
1/11, 2/3
of it
is
1/11, 1/2
of it
is
1/22, 1/4
of it
is
is
1/33
1/44.
[Problem 61B]
[Rule for] taking 2/3 of an uneven fraction
an odd number). If it
is
said to
you "What
5.
(i.e.,
is
the reciprocal of
2/3 of 1/5?"
You do
the
you take
same thing to
[Problem 62]
it
ver,
is
"A bag
said to you:
and lead
is
Add
it is
is
21.
is
what
is
the
it is
sil-
amount of
is
{S*^ty),
it is
3 shaty.
of each precious
result is 4,
which
is
the
number of
is
48
it
the bag).
[Multiply] 6 [by] 4; [the result
169
is]
24
the bag
is]
is]
84
[shaty, as
was
noted above].
[Problem 63]
[Example of
dividing]
[man], 1/2 to another, [1/3 to the third, and 1/4 to the 4th]. Let
(i.e.,
get
by operating on
1/2 1/4.
Call
up
is
me
out of
1/2 1/14.
Take
1/2 1/14
men]
of 400 for
1/2 of 400 for
266 2/3
200
of 400 for
1/4 of 400 for
133 {con. ex
100
2/3
1/3
Total:
13) 1/3
700.
[Problem 64]
Eiample of dividing (i.e., distributing) excess (i.e., differeaoe)
[or Example of determining an arithmetical progression]. ^ If it is
it 10 heqat of barley [to be divided] among 10
said to you:
men in such a wi^ that the excess of barley of each successive man
over his predecessor is 1/8 heqat [i.e., there shall be an arithmetical
progression with a common diffisrence of 1/8 heqat]," [What is the
share of each man?]
The average share is 1 {corr. ex 1/2) heqat Take 1 from 10, and
the remainder is 9 [as the number of dififerenoes, i.e., 1 less than the
number of men]. Take 1/2 of the [common] difference, namdy
170
1/16 [heqat].
Add
is
[this]
man
you
until
one.
last
The procedure
is
1/2 1/16,
reach the
is
becomes
as follows:
1/4 1/8 1/16,
1/4 1/16,
1/8 1/16,
1/16, 1/2
1/4 1/8 1/16, 1/2 1/4 1/16, 1/2 1/8 1/16, 1/2 1/16, 1/4 1/8 1/16.
The total
is
10 heqat.
[Problem 65]
Example of dividing
(///.,
The working-out of
Add
it:
Muhiply
say "This
is
the ration
(///.,
is
7 2/3 1/39.
7 2/3 1/39
of] the
is in
first
You
13.
is
men and
The
total is
100.
[Problem 66]
10 heqat of fat is given out for a
one day thereof (i.e., of the year)?
Reduce the
The procedure
2
is
365.
is
What
year.
is
as foUows^^
365
730
1460 [cant.]
171
[\8
\2/3
243 1/3
36 1/2
\1/10
1/2190
1/6
Total:
in
[Problem 67]
2/3
2/3
1/3
2/3
Get
1/3
of 1/3
is
1/61/18.
by operating on
1
\4
\l/2
Total: [4 1/2].
1/6 1/18.
1/6 1/18
1/3 1/9
2/31/61/18
1/9
1
2/3
315
210
1/3
105
2/3 of 1/3
70.
172
[Problem 68]
If a scribe says to you: "4 foremen have received their grain [in
is
the
first
3 1/3;
Take
2/3 ro.
this
man
amount 12 times
for
gang, 8 times for the second, 6 times for the third, and 4
[This table
is
2/3 ro
1/3 ro
2/3 ro
multiplications are repeated for the next three gangs, but with the
[Hence the
foremen
final] list
gang
tabulated,
[are
2nd gang,
and the
third^*'^
quadruple-heqat
great
of grain
The
first
3 1/3 ro (or)
26 2/3 heqat
The
6 [men receives]
20 heqat {repeated as\ 20 heqat
The fourth [foreman] with 4 [men receivesi
third [foreman] with
2/3 ro [or]
[or]
100 heqat.
173
13 1/3 heqat
[Problem 69]
3 1/2 heqat of meal
to
me
[i.e.,
is
made
into
80 loaves of bread.
Make known
cooking potency*^^].
10
35
\20
\2
70
7
\2/3
2 1/3
\1/21
1/6
\l/7
The pefsu
1/2
22 2/3
is
1/7 1/21.
[Proof]
\ 1
22 2/3
\2
45
\l/2
[Total
[3 1/2 heqat
\1
\2
\
1/2
Total:
1/7 1/21
80].
makes 1 120
320
640
160
ro, for]
1120ro.
120.
1120.
So the amount ofmeal in one loaf [is Hroor] 7/52 heqat 4 ro.
[Proo^ with the Horus-eye fiactions given here
174
in Italics:]
\16
\
The
[heqat] 4 ro
7/2 y/S
32
64
ro
[heqat]
of meal
ro
[for the
80 loaves, as was
Specified].
[Problem 70]
7 1/2 1/4 1/8'^ heqat of meal
What
is
the
amount of meal
in
is
made
into
is
their pefsu?
7 1/2
\4
\8
31 1/2
63
\2/3
The total
1/4 1/8
15 1/2 1/4
5 1/4
is
99
1/63
1/4.
1/42 1/126.
[Proof:]
\ 1
\2
\4
\ 1/2
\ 1/4
\ 1/8
[Total:
[Now 7
12 2/3
25 1/3
502/3
61/3
3 1/6
1
1/42 1/126
1/21 1/63
1/141/21 1/126
1/84 1/252
1/168 1/504
100.]
175
for
2
4
160
1/2
1/4
go
1/8
40]
Total:
2520.
100
10
1000
\ 20
\5
2000
500
20
1/5
25
[Total:
1/5, i.e.,
is
1/16
ro.
[Proof:]
1
10
100
[Problem 71]
From
is
is
(i e.,
1/2 [heqat]
[Problem 72]
Example of exchanging loaves for other loaves. You are told that
there are 100 loaves of [pefsu] 10 to be exchanged for some number of loaves with [pe&u] 45. ^ow many of these will there be?]
Calcutete the excess of 45 over 10; it is 35. Multiply 10 so as to
get 35; it is 3 1/2. Multiply 100 by 3 1/2; it is 350. Add 100 to it;
176
DOCUMENT IV.liRMP
it is
450.
[Problem 72]
If
it is
0 are to be exchanged
Multiply 10 by 15.
[10] heqat.
is
This
is
150.
15.
[It
[pefsu] 10
it
is
this
would be
takes] 10 heqat.
[Problem 74]
Another [problem].
What
is
pefsu 10 and
[i.e.,
how many
loaves of
[Pr6bkm75]
Another
changed
[for
[problem].
1S5 loaves of [pefsu] 20 are to be exa number of loaves] of pe6u 30. [What is that num-
ber?]
177
is
as follows.
made from
7 1/2 1/4 [heqat] of wedyet-flour [can be] exchanged for 232 1/2
[loaves]
of [pefsu] 30.
[It
[Problem 76]
Another [problem]. 1000 loaves of [pefsu] 10 are to be exchanged for a number of loaves of [pefsu] 20 [and the same number] of [pefsu] 30.
He
(i.e.,
num-
ber is].^^
is 1
1/2
and 1/30
is 1.
is
1/2.
2 1/2
1
\
25
10
\2
Total: 12.
[Therefore 2 1/2
Two
loaves,
is
will
will
i.e.,
heqat
in the
is
1000 loaves
1200, which
for loaves
is
is
[the
100 heqat.
number of
10,
1200
loafves
[heqat, totaling
[heqat]
and 15
[heqat, totaling
[Problem 77]
Eiamplc of exchanging beer for bread. If it is said to you: *'10
des of beer [of pefsu 2] are to be exchanged for [loaves of bread of
pefsu] 5" [reason as foitows to find the number of loaves].
178
the
Multiply 5 by
[heqat].
number of loaves
5
is
Proceed as follows:
10 des of beer taking 5 heqat of wedyet-flour can be exchanged
for
[heqat of
wedyet-flour].
[Problem 78]
for beer.
If
it
is
said to you:
"100
Reckon
the
[Problem 79]
a geometrical progression of five terms of which the
[Sum
term
is
house-inventory [shows
find each
term as a product
how
in
first
is 7.]
series].
2801
2
4
11204
Total:
5602
19607.
is
7,
49
heqat
343
2401 (corr.tfv 2301)
16807
Total:
19607.
mice
malt
179
[Problem 80]
[Horus-eye fractions of a heqat (given on the
low)
in
it is
left in
on the
As
ies
into
henu {hnW):
1/2
[ditto]
5 henu
1/4
[ditto]
2 1/2 [henu]
1/8
[ditto]
1/16
[ditto]
1/4 [henu]
1/2 1/8 [henu]
7/32 [ditto]
1/64 [ditto]
1/8 1/32
[Problem 81]
Another reckoning of the henu [from Horus-eye fractions of a
heqat]
Now
1/2 heqat
makes
henu
1/4
"2
1/2
118
1/4
"
1/16
"
"
1/2 1/8
1/32
"
"
1/4
1/16"
1/64
"
"
1/8
1/32"
[Table a]"^
Now
makes 8
1/2 1/4
1/2 1/8 1/32 "
1/4 1/8
1
2/3
"
1/4
1/81/16
it is
"
6 1/4
3 1/2 1/4
henu
6 2/3
3 1/3 ro
1/2 1/8
1/2 1/4
7 1/2
3 1/3
2 1/2
180
2/3
of a heqat
1/2 1/8
"
-
1/3
**
" 1/4
**
DOCUMENT IV.1:RMP
-
y/5 y/ii
3 1/3"
12/3
" 1/6
[Table b]
Now
1/81/16
"
"
"
1/161/32
"
**
1/321/64
"
1/2
"
"
"
"
1/4
"
""1/5
""1/10
""1/20
""1/40
"
11/3""
2/3
"
"
1/16
" 1/15
[Table c]
1/32
"
2/3"
"1/3
"
1/64
"
1/3"
"
1/6
"
y/2
"
"
"
2 1/2
"
7 1/2
"
""1/30
""1/60
""1/2
""1/4
""1/2 1/4
8 1/2 1/4
"
"
1/4
"
y/2y/^
1/21/41/8*"
"
M
M
M
[Table d]
1/2 1/8
"
"6 1/4
"
y/^y/<^
"
"
"
""
3 1/3
1/41/161/64"
12/3"
"
3 1/2 1/4
*
*
6 2/3
"
"
" 2/3
3 1/3
"
""1/3
""1/8
""1/16
"
""1/32
""1/64
**
"
"
"1
1/4
"
1/16
"
1/2 1/8
"
1/32
"
"
1/4 1/16
"
1/64
"
"
1/8 1/32
"
y/5
""1/2 1/8
""1/41/8
[Table e]
f'^
[Problem 82
Estimate of the food for a fowl-yard,
wedyet-flour]
10 birds,
made
i.e.,
i.e.,
into loaves.
flour
181
1 /4
of 1 00 [heqat]
100 [heqat].
that has to
be ground to produce
(?)
it
is
1/2 times 100 heqat 16 1/2 1/8 1/32 [heqat] 3 1/3 ro.
is
2/3 ro.
3 1/3 ro.
is
(i.e.,
re-
is
1/2 1/4
Expressed
1/4
is
double heqat
2/3 ro.
this is
1/3 ro.
[Problem 82BJ
Amount of feed [necessary for other kinds of] fatted birds.
If h takes to fiitten 10 birds (i.e., geese) for 1 day 1 J/4 [heqat].
It will
And
for
40 days
1/2 [of
100 heqat].
is
2/3 ro.
fProbhmSSJ
[Estiinste the feed necessaiy for various kinds
of birds.]
is, 1
henu for
it
eats, is
it is
J/J6
goose.
Agoose
is
182
J/64
DOCUNfENTIV.l:RMP
A tjerp-goose
is 1/8 J/32 heqat 3 1/3 ro for
A crane (djat-bird) is J/8 J/32 heqat 3 1/3 ro for
A set-duck"''
is J/32 J/64 heqat
ro for
A ser-goose
is J/64 heqat 3 ro for
bird
A dove is 3 ro for bird
A quail is 3 ro for bird.
1
bird
bird
bird
[Problem 84]
Estimate the feed of a
stall
117
<
Upper Egyptian
Upper Egyptian
fine
fine
common
1 ....
ox
bulls eat
24 [heqat]
bulls eat
22 [heqat]
6 [heqat]
20 [heqat]
20 [heqat]
2 [heqat]
86 [heqat]
10 [heqat]
eat
...cattle
[eats]
It
makes
makes
in
9 [heqat]
malt
1/2 1/4 of
for 10 days
It
makes
for a
2 [heqat]
month
7 J/2 [heqat]
00 [heqat]
1/2 1/4
5 [heqat]
of 100
[heqat]
200 [heqat]
/2
/4
of 1 00
[heqat] 15 [heqat]
It
makes
in
double heqat
1 1
/2
Chace
/4
of 1 00 [heqat]
5 [heqat]
maining
of 1 00 [heqat]
J/2 J 8 [heqat] 3 ro
tract in the
Rhind Papyrus.
entries,
at
'
this
document. This
title
red in the extreme right-vertical line in Figure IV.2a, Plate 1) has been the object
The
tlie
attempt at translating
principle
p.
109:
beginning of the
it
was
"Hence the
title
183
greit
Griffith,
and Vol.
1,
p.
{? tp) hsb n
ha/
(Fh''t)
m ht: rh
my
rtlt
1,
lines 1-2
fp
nbt:
'Rule of calculating the results (?) of things, the knowledge of eveiything that
is, (tf [all]
the
first
The
or
'collection
in the
of calculation*;
etc.,
and behaviour,
?<B1^'^.
*ruie
example,*
'oonect
was owing).
owimO.
of the
to
mean,
of
like
of
rules,'
as
in
*nile
trandatioii
'a unit':
rule'
'a
seems
I
\
PI.
XX, No.
should thodbre
foot,' i.e.,
is
67,
mean
of times of entianoe,
*nile
of oonectnen.*
and
meaning of
.-^ seems
la
Chacc traduit toujours par exemple. Enfin Struve oscille entre exemple, forme
ou mcthodc Per notrc part nous sommes tentes d'y voir des 'exemples de'.
Mais nous ne devons pas considcrer les divers 'problemes' comme des exemplei servant
flbeenle,
ilhntrer
du moins
sur le
Ic
d'imitation.
mot
Des
'tete'
d*dtre,
oontidr^s
comme pouvant
6tre
arbitre.**
184
The
indications given in brackets that act as titles for the successive divisions
text,
but the
make it easier for the reader to find any desired division quickly.
However we do find frequently the pertinent denominator appearing by itself at
additions
the beginning of the aedioiL For example, note the "5** appearing onlride of
them
'
out.
A similar phrase:
nndetslaudlng thM
page,
tt is
it
is
is
applies to each
multipliers of of
that yield
those multipliers in each case constitutes a string of no less than two and no
more than
pnoeding
line.
given in the
the Intrddoctioa to this docoment, the multipiien sought after as unit finctions
But
it is
them. Incidentally, another term for "Procedure" (occasionally but not usually
nMciteiD is
TaUe of Two, namely,
the
ing"
^
(e.g.,
irr.
which
literally
means
*1fae
doingT or
**the
mak-
whether given or
not.
all
understood
line of the
author realizes that, for the products (tf the second column to
185
Two,
product must be
1/4.
This then will be the multiplier that will be the second unit
when added
fraction,
which,
This use of
of Two.
mens "totaL**
is
have added
it
is
ifu,
though
it is
not
'liahmoe''
or
"deficiency."
***The scribe
is
careless here.
He has
left
The '1
line.
in the
first line
been noted
in the
Chace
edition;
hence
its
place the
foUow
in
it
Table of
Two and
has everywhere
and 5 are placed under numbers 35, 1/30, and 1/42 (see
Note that I have elevaled the fint number (35) to be a
I have done in a number of cases.
necessary insertions of the New York fragments in this and the suc7,
'^For the
Two
(i.e.,
table
to those divisions in
R.J. Gillings,
Mathematics
in the
Time
186
These
Chace regards them as examples of simple multiplications of fractional expressions, and Neugebauer as completion problems for 2 + 7 and 2 + 9 of the Recto
RMP
Two]
my
tbe
It is
view that
this
Chace in the page EK;ing the text in V<4. 2 has an inq;xMrtant note here on
what he calls a *GiirioiisinistdK running thiOQghPnMem 10 11 12, and 14.
1/9 was written as a half of 1A7, and then repeated halviog gave 1/18, 1/36, and
1/72. Afterwards someone discovered the mistake and attempted to correct it,
but succeeded only in
part....
is
numbers obtained by halving from 1/7. It may be that some of these mistakes
were made in copying." I have followed Chace's translation in Vol. I by giving the correct nnmben.
" GmoecniiQ the mistaloes piesem in the pqiynis for this Problem and the preceding one, see the fixitnoles given by Oiaoe in his text, the veiaos of Plates 39
and
41.
As Chace
points out (on the page facing his plate 44, n. 3), "it is extremely
^Chace
show
1/10 of numbers, used by the Egyptian and exhibited throughout the Rhind Pa-
modem techniques
of solving equatkms. Notice also that a procedure something like that found in
later algebras of "false position" is used by the Egyptians, though the propwtion that underlies the relations between the false assumption and the true un-
known
quantity
is
is
The
first
number assumed
to
begin the multiplications was in each case obtained by multiplying the denomi-
187
naton of tbe
km.
fiaclkiiis
of the
such-a-number]." The phrase appears in the Chace translation, but he does not
bracket
it,
specified.
The
to
assume incorrectly
unknown qpanlity, Le., the Aha, it asnnned to be 7 in Frobkm 24, 2 in Prablem 23, 4 in Problem 26, and 5 in Problem 27. The sum of the terms under this
assumption must be operated on to produce the actual sum given in the enunciation. The multiples added together to convert the first sum into the enunciated sum yield a number, which, when multiplied by the first assiuned number
obtained by multiplying the denominatois, gives the tnie value of the unknown
quantity. The solutioB is then checked or proved (so to speak) by adding the
quantity sought (and now found) and its fraction or fractions to see if they yidd
specified in the enunciation of the problem.
tlie total
Hence
this
procedure does
resemble the algebraic technique of false position found later in the develop-
ment of algebra, as
it
x+
by 7
lather than
7 by 2
1/4 1/8.
"A
simihff change is
1/4
^This
jr+~jcsl6.
This
is
algebcaicalty
by usiqg the
modem
equation
x + x=l5.
4
This
is
^This problem's
solution
is
JC
jc
21.
same. Chace adds a possible solution using the Egyptian technique: "It
first
AssnMt 9.
\1
\2/3
9
6
188
may be
DOCUKffiNTIV.liRMP
Tom
15
15
5
1/3
Remainder
10.
mmte
[i.e.,
uidai^
Biitiiowlieiiolioe8tlnt9igtib-
10, ao
The problem
proviso of note 22.
is
The
+ x) - -(x + x) =
equivalent to {x
"Proceed as follows"
10.
is at
See the
the
end of
the problem suggests that the scribe accidentally omitted the calculations in-
volved in this problem when his eye wandered to the calculations used in solving the next problem. This
is
Rhind
tint in Prabta
Faiviai (p. 63). It ia given sapixMt by tiie
tion of tiie problem in tlie papyrus is missiiig.
^ As I have said, the usual calculations are missing.
As
I
was omitted by
the scribe.
have used bold-faced type in the same way that the scribe used rubrication in
22.
is
It is
are only those of the end of the problem where the solution
dtli the preainnably specified oonditioiia off tlieprablem.
tlie
shown
to
check
it
Assume 27.
\l
is
27
\2/3
18
Total
45
1/3
15
Total
2/3
60
40
1/2
20.
189
tlie
10, 80
[namely, 13 1/2].
But at
this
mind and to
Therefore
1/4 1/10
we must multiply
10 by
1 1/4
tion])"
**These jMxMems can be expressed by linear equations. The reader will lecall
that in the preceding group of problems
fiist
unknown may be
The
unknown quan-
sought is a
yffffm|^i
trial
initial "false
f|n^iffg fh^
assumption is also
everywhere present in the solutions of Problems 30-34, the second assumption
given in the
is
initial
first
visions, in the Egyptian fashion the author seeks the solution of each of these
that operates
on the given
multiplicand nrfiich
qiecified in the enunciation of the probwhole number specified in the problem. Such a
lBulti|riier will then be the desired unknown.
I hasten to note that my account of these methods of solution from an
consists of the
lem
have used
(like
sum of the
f^'^fff
In fact,
it
now
admovm quantity, what is being done in cfibct by the Egyptians is to fiKtor out.
190
tiieB to
oonider it
iiwltiipltcr.
bithoit*
the reader is beiiig asked to find the multiplier (a mixed expiession of a whole
nnnber and
solved by the usual Egyptian procedures of doubling, multiplying by 10, halving* Iddiig 2/3
tiie
so-
in algebraic
form is Jf
jc
In his translation,
remaining 1/30 as
may
find
them
1/23.
illuminating.
^Thisisequivalemtotliefblkiwingequation:
tlie
11^^
x+-jr+~jr+-^
See
Since
add
tliis
praUem,
like
Problem 30
is
to the
*In
the papyrus this taUe and the next one are preceded by the bulk of the
prooC wiuch was to fbitow tader. The scribe seems to have realized that he
wanted these auxiliary calculations before the proof Hence he added the word
"stand" C/iO, which he then fidtowed with the two taUes
r..
proviso of note 22.
*'Seenote34.
191
^'
Chaoe
^CoDoendiig
"We may
this
is
ob-
Pidte
tntiiliHinn
nyi:
notice that in the course of his proof our author has 2/3 of 1/679
rule given in
ProUem
61[B]."
.^ii,..s..^.
note 22.
^Problems 35-38 were solved essentially by the method that resembles algebnk: lUae pootioa, which we have noted appean to have been ined in Pr^
100824-29. Ilwaiaiaov8edinPioblenii40and70. I alert tiie mder to tlie
statement made by Chace in the first volume of his edition of the Rhind Bqqrrus, p. 11, where he further notes that Problems 35, 37, and 38 "show more
clearly [than either of the preceding groups of problems
quantities involved.**
couched in terms of
of prabkms 35-38:
"In these problems in the papyrus the questions are put in a curious way:
'I
have gone a certain number of times into the hekat-measure, certain parts have
been added
the
veMd
to
me, and
return filled.
lepieaented as speaking
What
is it that
says this?'
It is
stated as if
p.
re-
Vol. 14
Lx)ndon, 1973), pp. 197-99, and his marginal citations. See also Fig. IV. 3 for
the diagram of the Horus eye with the indication of the parts of the Horus-eye
and
As
that
The heqat-measure
is
indicates, the
whole eye
is repre-
~ ^
i.e.,
diagram
The
it
is
problems.
*See
the eminciatioa of
change since
this
change
Piobkm
fits
35.
Here
have
silently
made
the
same
of the problem.
DOCUNffiNTIV.liRNff
^This
ii
miilakenly given ai 1/26S, te.. 765 with the ftaedoiial dot over it
Ftethennoie,
it it
hive icmloied
it
in
1,|>.
81)diicniieithepraoednieawlitf peco-
liarities.
^ See Chace, ibid., p. 83, for a discussion of the numerical peculiarities of this
problem.
As Chace notes (ibid, p. 84j this problem is so simple as to be hardly worthHe goes on to say: "It is possible that the author intended to state a
like the next one." He also remarks that
while.
^ As
of]
first
have already remarked in note 44, tiUs prabiem uses the techniqne of
^ See
Chapter Four.
It is
is
determined in this
problem by multiplying the area of the circular base by the altitude of the cylindor. tt is alio <Avious tint the aiea of the circle of diameter 9 is annmed tote
the sqoarc of side 8,
which
is
is
i.e.,
then squared.
Loddng
at the other
from
it,
leaving 8,
determined (for example see the next problem), the area of the circle
it is,
is al-
though
it is
method
fiar
text as
is to
present an example of a
193
end.
1,
fiitile
efibrts to
under-
its
and
1/2
1/4.
<tf
100, they in
lindrical granaiy in
is
its textual
it
in
ciM^
oonfta^^
of H.
note
Document IV.3
in the section
S^*yffc'-
Halbskugel," ZAS, Vol. 37 (1899), pp. 78-79, whne he notes that these data in
the Kahun fragment interpreted by Borchardt as concerning a hemisphere were
in
fact
concerned
with
the
|> ^ ^" w i^
ief te CTfiwdtriitiiff Srtft uct ton
ffl^
zu quadriienden Duchmesseis bdbehalten, weshalb er nur 64/81
von
1/9 des
R.J. Gillings,
Mathematics
in the
ed.,
New
York, 1982), pp. 148-51. Gillings also sees the purpose of the problem to find
the volume of the cyUnder in khar directly, he would make two essential
changes in the
chan^
the second to remove the sentence and a half in the Rhind text that reads:
take
away
"Add
tions
1/9
from
9; the
to the diameter
added
entation
is
remainder
its 1/3."
Add to 8 its
is 8.
the
1/3";
is to
To
and
insert instead:
all
of the calcula-
his pres-
versions.
1, p.
if
the process of the preceding solution, the author takes 2/3 of the last quotient to
find the last dimension."
^ There
is
2ii,
Plate 70.
bi C3Moe*s
194
9,
equal to (9-i)\
i.e.,
64,
which nflects a
composed of
9.
approximation of octagon and square, because the numbers actually in the papyrus do not bear him out. The alternative method of showing graphically the
circle
setjat {snt)
it)
i^iile
* Chace (Vol.
1, p.
the problem for a field of 10 khet by 2 khet, and these numbers are in the fig-
its
feel certain,
let
then this
is
me add
times altitude (with simply the base and altitude interchanged). This
and
that q
Gunn and
**
See
Ancient
is
= 1/2 base
is
my
view
follows: "In Problems 51-53 the Egyptian determines the area of a triangle
multiplying 1/2 of
its
base,
by
1/2 the
sum of its bases, by the length of a line (meret) which, so far as our present
knowledge goes, might be either the side or a line Tq>resenting the altitude. In
the tatter case he wooU be correct In case the triai^ is isosceles with a nar-
195
tVH Inhc
cowfiwl nidi ilt Mgltt, he woolil be ocufy oonect* even itmerti
meuH tide. Penooally I am indined to think that thU
gBO BUy, and that the author intended to ooMidar only isoioelsi triangles with
narrow bases. In Problem 5 1 the base is comparatively narrow, 4, with meret
la
gtom^trie ^gyptienne," pp. 129-35, after carefiil treatment of the various terms
iMd in the
devoted to triaofllei in bolh tte
prMbm
o each of whidi
the figlit
is deteraiiiied
Moscow Papyrus
by
it
would surprise me
of Proposition 51 would
use the "side" as one of the multipliers in this fashion, since he was sophisticated enough in the next problem to take 1/2 of the
zoid to
than
fmd one
We
this.
sum of the
bases of a trape-
is
arguments
triangfe to
rectangle,
hd^
Of those
is
me
is
intpropoeed by B. Omm in Ma
review of Peet*8 edition and ttanslation of the Rhind Papyraa in JEA, Vol. 12
and
then
briefly
133,
more
more
pointedly by Guim and T.E.
but
(1926), p.
on good philoiogical
reasoning,
Moscow
Papyrus," JEA,
Rhind Papyrus, and in
of a triangle is called the em-
Moscow
rdyet (mrjt),
is;
AB
of the triangle
ABC appears
10 (top).
and
ary, p. 308a,
is
Peet,
it."
p.
W.W.
Schonen
196
this conclusion
Egypdans did indeed compiite the uei of a ttiangk as 1/2 the base
times the aWtwdt, holdii^ this view agrint amqr of
early Egyplologiits
(see below Document IV.2, Problems 7 and 17) and my diiniarinni of triaqgles
in the section on geometry in Document IV.2.
For the three possible triangular figures being computed in Problem
51, and thus being discussed in this note, see Fig. lV.4b. For a possible graphic
disooveiy of Hie aiea of a scakoe triangle, see Fig. IV.4c iMsed in part on
FRMems 7 and 17 in Document tV.2.
Notice further that in this probtem the calculation precedes the general
thit the
Chace
(Vol.
1, p.
he (the author) puts down the base as 400 and the side [height?! as 1000; that
writes
down 2,
that
20 setat (2
is,
teoroetat)^
the result."
^The
setjat"
appearing in the
tnmdation
is
an
inteiprrtation
of Chapter Four.
" The
is
jectives of the
missing.
sets
modem
translated into
triangle.
numerals.
its
three sections to be
figure, if correct,
an
is
wproduoed and
it
munben
drawn is an isosceles
make it impossible for
isosceles triangle.
are so madced, for then the trapezoid would be a rectangle instead of a trapesEoidal section
of the isosoties
triaogle.
middle ofthe figure) with its two bases marioed as *V* and **2 1/4" cannot be a
part of the whole triangular figure drawn as isosceles, if the isosceles triangular
section
on the
the drawing....
left
Hence
if all the
and a
197
compounded of a
But even thif mdikely
cnon
agwnnetfffretheitikMlttniiwgioidal
Qiaoe
1,
we
Inddwitelly.
94) interprets the trapezoidal-triangular
p.
of the trapezoidal sections and of the triangular section as actually being sides
rather than altitudes. See
set
of cal-
culatiooiftlloviqgFMbkm53intfaete^
of calcuhrtioM in the mamcr that he inteftiapeaoid in the two pieoeding prabkms. Thus the areas determined in his reconstruction are in error in the same
way as the triangle and trapezoid of the previous two problems. See notes 74
and 77 below for further comments on Chace's reinterpretation.
idnteipiet and ahar the
fiiit set
^Though we are
likely that it
was a nuflake
sum of the
It
seems
which
multiplications, he multiplied
by the
1/2.
details.
^ If we gave this figure in setjat and its fractions, we would see that
total
1 1/4 1/8
1/10
(tf
the
fiactions are
mined
in this fashion
would be about 10
we oomputed the area using the ooliect half of the snm of the two bues,
1/8,
But
if
i.e.^
1/4, the
setjat.
remember that Chace believed that the "7" was the side of
the triangular element and not its altitude. However, in giving his description
of the lower trapezoid he speaks of 3 1/2 as "the height or side" and presumably
he would have made the same oonoession ibr the SBuU triangle. IfTTisthe
side and not the height, then the area compuled is of oourse not the true area
and in fiKt is not a very good approodmation.
^''The reader should
198
See notes 71, 74, and 77. See also the comments I have added in bfadkets
bdowr this text of Chace's propoaed cnnection of the fint set of cakulattens.
^^Tlie mmben I have giveii in Italics are given in boldfiKe typt by Chaoe in
his tianslation. Needless to tepeai,
my
Hence,
the papyrus.
my
use of
Horus-fractions
and
.into.. .fields.'
into,
[hnt]
beginning
at the
sometimes
[hbt],
which
used several times in the papyrus, elsewhere always means take away or
mbtracL Ounn [*Notioes of recent publicatioos,'] (page 133) has snggwiHid
is
that these
their oidinaiy
field.
"In each of these problems a product and multiplier are given to find
the multiplicand.
Problem 54
is,
fields) will
How
make
How
from
large a
make
multiplicands
down the
is
multiplications of these
taken as a problem in
setat, the
1/2 1/10 times S setor makes 3 aetaf, therefiMe S times 1/2 1/10 of a
aetat (or as
he has to write
it,
answer
following
Instead of the
Again,
is
written by
is
be 3
atlat,
and so
of
my convention.]
number "5"
problem, see note 78. At this point the text literally says: "Pedbrm the operation on 5 se^at fiir finding the area of 3 setjaL**
" This phnse occnis Dlk)wing the literal sentence quoted in note 80.
199
water clocks.
The
slope
is
It is
thus equivalent to the cotangent of the base angle of the faces of the pyramid
whose
altitude is
gent of tlie
bwe
tiie
is
whew
fight triangle
360
cubits,
i.e.,
the cotan-
in leqed is
ticethattfaei
The pyramid
in this
problem (when
its
to feet)
has a base-side of 618 feet and a height of 429 feet. The original height of the
Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza was 481.4' and its base-side averaged 755.8'.
p.
97) says that here and in Problem "59B the author doubles the seked instead of
taking 1/2 of the side of the base, and instead of dividing the seked doubled by
7 and dividing the side of the base by the result, he divides 7 by the seked
doubled and multiplies the side of the base by the result, which amounts to the
same thing.**
**For the interchanging of nuntei in the text, see Chaoe*s tnmslation
^ This problem is the inverse of the preceding. See ibid
(p. 98).
"The word
appears to be that of a pillar, but Peet, op. cit., pp. 100-02 suggests
a " cone" as a possibility and has a long discussion of the figure involved. As I
have aheady noted the ancient Egyptians were surely interested in inverted
conical water clocks
(see note
82 above).
would have
Note that
to
and
If a
cone
an even
flofw
of water theiefiKm
its
"sennet"
fiar
base
in the triangular figures of Plate 82, the base in each case is a sin-
gle line rather than the double base-lines of the pyramids in the illustrations of
Chace
in his translation (p. 99) says: "In the papyrus, instead of dividing the
line, the
200
to express the
seqed in palms, as he
does in the other problems.'' I point out here that what the author has done by
the seqed at the fy^j t of the bne ungte
hig HHSillcd "rftmfcff it to cacpit
^ The
table is not a part of the text. For the comments of Peet and his own
remarks concerning this table, see Chace's translation (pp. 24>25, 100) and his
text (Vol. 2, page opposite Plate 83).
**Chace (Vol.
2,
n. 10)
is
a mdt
'^The procedure given here for finding the terms of an arithmetic progression
is essentially the same as that of the modem formulation: h = (S/n) + (n-1)
(d/2), with h the highest term, S the sum of the terms, n the number of terms,
and if the ooBunon ococss. See a^r (hscuasioD of this ptoUeai in Cliiplor IV. 1
under the rubric "Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions." A similar problem
is found in the Kahun fragments. Cols. 11-12, which see in Document IV.3,
and consult especially note 1 of that document. Notice that the fractions of the
heqat of barley given here are the so-called Horus-eye fractions and hence, as
everywhere,
**The aniitfWi
""liBre is
\m
Italics.
a ooowincing
was
often (and
no
doubt, osualfy)
360 days of the months plus the 5 q>agomenal days. See the discussion in my Ancient Egyptian Science, Vol. 2 pp.
177-78,
i.e.,
for the
n. 2.
* As in Problem 61B, this is a specific indication that the problem and its soluttoadnwoshoiirtodoany sioiilarprablenL This indeed oust be the poipoie
of mort of the pioblflan, namely, to give a model sohdion of a paiticufav Und
nt)blem.
Note
fact the
objective of determining the value of the tribute-cattle, but rather with deter-
mining the
Counting of the
cattle
number of tribute-cattle.
back to tiie early djynasties and it nientioiied in the Baiiy Egyptian Anaali (the
Palermo Stone), ai I have noted in my Andimt Egyptian Sdenee, Vol 1, pp.
51-52.
201
Italics,
as always.
if
mady to divide
The Ubofious
100 into fiw pam imiiXMlioiial to the nunte
numerical calculatioiil are due to the use of 'Honis-eye' fractions.'"
Actually there is no check before the third multiplication, but obviously one
was intended since the addition of the products produces the correct answer.
^^As Chace reports in a note to his text (n. 2, page opposite Plate 91): "The
Mem was origiiially fiw. Later the prommciatioa of the fint oongonant was
pnMly cfaaoged to p aid a p was added, allhoqgh the/ was retain^
ing. Late writingidiowplty, with the Mipronoimoedowiswumt rti
have used the transliterated letters p and / for Chaces "p" and "f.) See the use
of pesu in the Moscow Papyrus (Doc. IV. 2, Problems 15 and 24) and the remarks of its editor W. W. Struve, Mathematischer Papyrus des Staatlichen
Museums der Schdnen Ktinste in Moskau (Berlin, 1930), pp. 45-49.
This teim indicates inversely the strength of bread or beer after it has been
oookedorbfewed. FeAnistheiatioof themniiberof hMvesofbRadorjugsof
beer produced to the number of heqat of grain used to produce them. Hence the
higher the pefsu number the weaker the product. Chace in his translation (p.
105) says that "It meant something like 'cooking ratio,' that is, the number of
^^
made from a
We
it detenniiied tlie idative vdoe of any find or diiidc....
may note that the lower the pefau the more valuaUe the unit of food." Notioe
of oooUng, and
each
loaf;
my
IV under
Problems.(pp. 65-66)."
202
my
**"See
discussioa of Probtem
tMc
I
men-
tion in the just cited note 56 that there have been efforts to connect the series
I was going to
and other problems of geometric progression that involve continual
multiplication and I also mentioned Chace's notice of the remarks made by L.
Rodet on this problem. Here I point to an appendix to Rodet's "Les pr^tendus
prabMmet d*algibre do Manuel dn calculafenr ^gyptien (Papynia Rhind),**
Journal Asiatique, Series 7, Vol 18 (1881X pp. 4S0-S9 where he interprets the
problem as the summation of a geometric progression. He believes that this
problem resembles one in the medieval Liber abaci of Leonardo Fibonacci of
Pisa,,
term
is 7.
" White the Iioni8<ye finctions are noled in the pam of the eye as always, the
henu are given by the regular fractional signs.
The first part is the same as the table in Problem 80, namely the figures for
^
'
'
It
should be noted
Nor, in
the third columns of tables a-e, are fractions of a heqat ever written
with Horus-eye signs, but they are always given there in regular fiactional
sign-vai
when
tables
and notes
lias
made
first
most probable.
"^Notice that the fractions of a heqat given in the third column of each of the
tabtes b-e are rubricated,
* *^
PnMems 82-84 oonoeni the calculation of the amount of fix)d neoessaiy for
birds
"^The
interesting evaluation
16 of his translation.
cit., p.
126.
See the textual corrections by Chace concerning this bird and the next.
The
rest
of the
first line
in the papyrus
is
difUcult
and
unintelligible. In fact
the wfaote problem is fidl of diffioilties. See Chaoe's text and Handation and
Peet's lemaria on the
same pnMem.
While I shall not treat of these additions, I note that the fragment in Number
87 includes the epagomenal days (i.e., at least the third and fourth of the epagomenal days celebrating the Births of the Gods Seth and Isis) at the head of
'
the year,
i.e.,
as the
first
part of the
first
203
of the year.
204
tlie tail
DOCUMENT IV.2
The Moscow Mathematical Piqyyrus:
Intnxluction
that
and achievements of
ancient Egyptian mathematics is the mathematical papyrus of the
Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. It is numbeied 4676 in the inwill help the reader understand the character
ventoiy and
is
part
of the
collection
of W.S. Golenischeff
25 problems was
that prepared
first
(also
complete edition of
by W.W. Struve
in 1930.'
Go-
dicumstances in a reply written in 1929 to a request for informaits discoveiy and purchase) from L.S. Bull:'
tion (concerning
En
A un voyage,
si je ne me
eu I'occasion
papyrus mathdmatique chez Abd d-
que je
fis
en Egypte,
Rasoul, un des
fiiires,
j'ai
dteni
le secret
de
hi cachette royale
U coOine de
Sheikh
bSti
revenant
modique ce
m'ofifrit
205
petit manuscrit.
des
le
premier
moment j'ai pu me
du
petit rouleau,
que
devait provenir de
Abou'l Negga.
analogues,
il
Mais,
I'endroit
naturellement
car tout
fellahs,
comme
de leurs
ils
fouilles clandestines et
des
de dissimuler
tachent
ils
cherchent a
The
Cantor
first
in the
mention of the
Moscow
M.
who
merely notes
in
The
first
atten-
Moscow
206
(h/3) (a^
ab
b^)
where h
is
the
alti-
tude of the truncated pyramid and a and b are the sides of the bases.
it
presented a
that, if his
new and
was
cor-
its
cient
who composed
"Geometr/
a paper in Russian on
Papyrus
of the
full
ments are so
in his detailed
Problem
who examines
in
frag-
in the
based on
first
is
in the
Mos-
in the
Peet
An-
in
Moscow
Fig.
An
aha-problem
(?
i.e.,
an unknown quantity).
Problem
2:
Problem
3:
Problem
ship's part-problem
(i.e.,
calculating a rud-
der).
calculating a
mast).
(probably
its altitude)
Problem
5:
and
its
of a triangle when
its
meiyt
A problem
loaves of bread for jugs of beer, one involving both their pefsus.
Problem
Problem
when its
7: Calculating
its
of a rectangle
if its
area
207
its
8:
5).
Problem 9: Another pefsu-problem (i.e., a problem involving a given amount of Upper-Egyptian grain to be made partly into
bfead and partly into beer).
Problem
10: Calculation
of a
Problem 20:
208
is its
It
problems
in
the
Rhind
of the
Moscow
be solved
in
skill
the Rhind Papyrus, the steps by which the multiplications were carried out,
i.e.,
Still,
in the
is
the abbreviated
form
the
in
Moscow
Papyrus.
Struve
in
his edition (pp. 12-33) has described the standard phrases in detail.
We
should note
in
and
(pefsu), the
e.g., [1]
involved in their preparation, and so on (pp. 44-98); [3] shebenproblem, no. 21, closely related to the pefsu problems (pp. 98-101);
[4]
[5]
209
of the curved sur&ce of a semiwhich Peet thought to be more probable, or perhaps in-
deed some other figure, and [2] Problem 14, the volume of the
frustum of a pyramid. These problems and their sohitioiis are discussed below
in
will
m Figs. IV.6a-IV.6t, or
umn and
will
I con-
Document
IV.l, but here there is so much discussion in the notes of possible
other inteipretations and readings in Document IV.2 that I thougiht
the numbers would be usefiil.
sidered this procedure to be unnecessaiy in presenting
origiiial
papyrus
is
not accurately
210
existence of the
bat only 8
tiken
maUk
^This
letter
printed at the
year 1930.
^ See the text over note 1 to the IntroductiiMi of
^Stnive,
op.cltm note
*B.A. Turaeff (
DocmnentlV.l.
1,
in Egyptian Mathematics," Ancient Egypt (1917), pp. 100-02: "In the collection
in
Moscow,
(!)
Pale-
unknown
till
when
The
difficult to
first
comprehend.
shows how
Four of
a triangle: a method already known 10 us. The fixnth presents as, I am inclined
to think, with something altogether new in Egyptian sdmtific literature."" In
determining the number of problems as 19, he has not considered the fragments; as Struve did when he later showed, by considering them, that 25 problems were originally given.
problem, Le.
ProUem 14
TvnBv propoaes
cor-
esting fact,
to
i.e.,
be found in Euclid."
'DP.
TsinseriiQg, '*Geonietriya
and 21
summary of
this
1,
Moscow
2,
this
paper included
12, 15 (old
Papyrus.)
numbering,
See Archibald's
211
d/. in note
1,
pp.
1,
pp.
Struve tends to
fruitful
con-
vewitfioot
"On
**12
problems] Nos.
we
find,
clear.
Three problems
(5, 20,
They are
Three proUems (12 15, 16) deal with beer and its pen
only. They are clear and simple.
'[61 Three treat the area of a triangle. No. 4 merely finds the area of a
difficult to understand.
to the solution of
two simul-
ImeoBi cqpntiomt one of the aeoond d^rae. Two praUcflBS (19, 25) oooocm
the iolalioo of equations of the fim degree, which are vBiy simple, and No. 6 is
on simultaneous equations, one of the second degree.
[4] Problems 3, 11, 18, and 23 are misoeUaneous problems, none of
which is entirely clear.
'
V4,
212
DOCUMENT IV.2
The Moscow Ma&ematical Papyrus
[ProUem J: see Fig.
[Lin. 1]
IV.6a,
it ii
[Lia2]
CoL
I]
'
[snbtractod]
fivn what?
tti8[8iibtr]actedfioinwfaat?
[Lin. 3]
[the resul]! is S.
[Lin. 4]
from
[Lin. 3]
[Un. 4]
IVM
dar log.
[Lin. 2] If someone
log
30 cubits
[Lin. 3]
of this 30.
4] [If the resuh is 16, si^to him:] "You have obtained
S] [this mast. You have found it] conecdy."
1]
213
[khet]
[Lin.
"[Assume] a triangle of 10
Take
[namely
[Lin. 5]
tangle.
Muhiply
[Lin. 6] [It
2, in
1/2
of]
this [4,]
becomes 20.
its
equivalent rec-
2.
of pefsu 20,
[Lin. 3] [they]
4,
of beer^],
[How
is it
is
heqat.
[Lin. 6] [For this
The
for
weaker beer
1
that
is like
you need
for a
[Lin. 2] 1/2
of 5 heqat. The
result is
[Lin. 3]
[Lin. 4]
2 1/2 times
[Lin. 5]
The result
[Lin. 6]
[Un. 7]
4.
is
you seek]
des-jug].
10 [des-jugs].
[to
be correct].
214
des-jug of beer
someone says
Take
[Lin. 4]
12
this
"A
to you:
setjat
The
1.
1/2 1/4
of it
its
result is
area.]"
1/3.
1/3 times.
[and]
its
length,
3 for
is
The
correct procedure
is
on the left side. The figure illustrates the problem and represents a
kind of proof Then follows the calculation of the area, which
shows that 3x4 does mdeed equal 12, the specified area]:
4
\ 1
2
[Total:
12].
[Problem
7;
[Lin. 2] If
of 20
IX
Example of calculating
[Lin. 1]
someone says
[setjat]
and 'bank'
a triangle.
to you: "[There
{idb^
i.e.,
is]
1/2."
[Lin. 3]
[Lin. 4]
Call
up
Double the
The result
area.
is
100.
10.
fi-om 2 1/2.
[Lin. 5]
The resuh
[Lin. 6]
[Hence
1/3 1/15.
is
it
is]
Apply
this to 10.
The
(i.e.,
result is 4.
kathete) and 4
[Lin. 2] If
of [pefsu]
[Lin. 3] to
to you:
215
100 loaves of
The
result is 5 [heqat].
The
[Lin. 7]
[like]
des-
grain].
[Col. XI]
[Lin. 1] Calculate 1/2
of 5
[heqat].
The
result will
be 2
1/2.
Itsbeercpiantityisfoundtobeoocrect''
Cos:
Xn-XfTlJ
pe6u20,
[Un. 3] leaving the rest for beer of 2 pefiu,
of 4 pefsu,
.[Lin. 4]
[Lin. 5]
and of 6 pefiu
[Un. 6]
[Col.
[Un.
mah-date beer.**
xm]
1] [First]
[Un. 2]
It is
mainder
[Lin. 3]
II
grain.
The
result is
[Lin. 4]
**The
11
216
is
XIV
1 ]
beer of pefsu 2,
[Lin. 2]
of pefsu
4,
[Lin. 3]
of pefsu
6,
[Col.
XV]
[Lin. 1] [First]
of] pefsu 2.
[Col.
of]
of]
XVI]
[Lin. 1]
[it is
malt-
The
result is
[Lin. 4] Calculate
with
2/3 1/6.
1
2/3 1/6
[Col.
XVII]
which resulted as the remainder from those 16 heqat of the
[Lin. 1]
Upper-Egyptian grain
of the Upper-Egyptian
The resuU
been brought
of varying]
(!,
is 6.
[Lin. 4]
will find
Proceeding
[it
what has
pefsu, [namely,]
[Lin. 3]
[Lin. 5]
is
in the
manner
to be correct]."
217
it is.
that has
text
and
to
some
[Cd. xvini"
[Lin. 1]
Struve as hemispheric
of 4 1/2
I,
nbt) [assumed by
(i.e.,
"A basket
a diameter of
this size) in
[surface] area
(^/fiO
good condition
oh
{"d),
[Lin. 4] let
me know
its
[Lin- 6] 1/2
[Col.
[Lin.
is
The result is
1.
tnr?).
XIX]
1 ]
[Lin. 3]
The
of 8.
[Lin. 5] taking
[Col.
"
of an egg-sheU {?
1/6 1/18.
The result is 7
1/9.
XX]
[Lin. 2]
[Lin. 3]
[Lin. 1]
[An
German
^ Fig, IV, 7]
extent the
Cob. XVni'XX:
interpretation
of Problem
"A Problem
in
2.
3.
semi-cylinder.
semi-cylinder
218
<qf 4 1/2>
in diameter
6.
me know
area.
its
You are
to
7.
8.
You are
9. result
8.
a ninth of 8;
to take
You are
to take
11.
You are
to take 7 1/9
14.
You
of)
4 1/2 times;
willfind it correct.
XXI]
Example of reckoning the work of a man in logs.
[Lin. 2] If someone says to you: "The work of a man in logs;
[Lin. 3] the amount of his work is 100 logs
[Col.
[Lin. 1]
[Lin. 4]
of 5 handbreadths
handbreadths.
[Lin. 6] 25.
[Col.
of 4 handbreadths section."
[Lin. 5]
The
You
You
them
in
logs
result is
4 handbreadths. The
result is 16.
XXII]
[Lin. 1]
[Lin. 2]
are to take
tliis
num-
you
The resuh
is
156 1/4
[corr.
ex 1/2 1/16
[Probkm
[Col.
Then
breadths section.
[Lin. 5]
in papyrus!].
shall
XXIU-XXIV]
xxm] [com,]
219
See
amount of grain
malt-date beer
[Lin. 6]
1/6.
of beer
(i.e.,
[like]
malt-
note) that
for 1-des of Upper-Egyptian beer
is
Reckon with 2
1/6 in order
[same
in parentheses].^^
[Col.
as] the
The
result is
number]
6 times.
XXIV]
[Lin. 1]
[Lin. 2]
You
[Lin. 3] [namely] 3.
it
is
correct.^
XXIV]
[Lin. 4]
[Lin. 5]
reckoning
it
the rest
[Lin. 7]
of 2 pefsu,
of 4 pefsu,
[Lin. 8]
and of 6 pefsu
[Col.
XXV]
[Lin. 2]
mah-date beer.
pe6u20.
[Un. 3] The result is 5. Calculate the remainder from the 16
[Un. 4] after the 5 [have been subtracted]. The result is 11. Divide
[Lin. 5]
it
220
[Col.
The
Take 2/3
1/4
two times
XXVI]
[Lin. 1]
because
it
was
beer."
[Lin. 2]
(.',
is
your beer.
You
this
2/3 1/6 to
6) times.
it is
cor-
rect."
[Lin. 2] If
[square] pyramid.
{&twti)
[Lin. 3]
the top
[Lin. 4]
[Lin. 5]
[Lin. 6]
[Col.
by 4 on the base
(i.e.,
(i.e.,
on
You
You
You
(i.e.,
is
16.
is 8.
is 4.
XXVIII]
[Lin. 1]
You
[Lin. 2]
of 6; the
4;
You
are to take
You
result is 2.
are to take 28
two
times; the
result is 56.
[Lin. 5]
is
56.
You
correct.
[Col.
XXIX]
and
their
in this
XXX
221
The
someone says
[Lin. 2] If
of Upper-Egyptian
Grain;
[Lin. 3] [they] are to
[Lin. 4]
Oh
let
me know
[the
2.
amount of]
[Lin. 6]
[Lin. 7]
two
times.
XXXI]
[Lin. 1] Example
will find
it
right.
XXXI-XXXIlf^
[Col.
2.
you
pefsu of 2.
[Lin. 6]
[Lin. 7]
The
The
Take it 2 times.
Reckon with 2 2/3 to find
result is \.
1.
[Coixxxn]
[Lin. 1]
The result is
[Lin. 2]
Do
[setjat] in its
area (?^0
[Lin. 3]
(i.e.,
and what you put on the length, you must put 1/3 1/15
2/5) thereof on
its breadth.**
222
Double the 20
[Lin. 5]
Reckon with
the resuh
[setjat];
is
40.
1.
The
result is
2 1/2
You
are to
times.
Reckon with 40 2
[Lin. 6]
take
The
1/2 times.
result is 100.
square root.
its
XXXIV]
[Col.
The
[Lin. 1]
result is 10.
Behold
10 [khet] in length.
it is
You
are
of
[Lin. 2]
You
The
10.
will find
[it
result is 4.
Behold,
it is
to be] correct.
XXXIV
is
In addi-
changes
two
in the last
give
lines) for
out,
an unsatis-
it
want of a more
satisfactory ver-
sion.]
[Lin.
Example of the
1]
calculation of a strip
of garment-cloth 5
to be reckoned.
[Lin. 2] If
someone says
[Lin. 3]
"A
strip
cubit
is
of garment-cloth 5 cubits
to be reckoned,
area." Convert
of 5 cubits
[where
to you,
5 palms
is
35 [palms
in length
for
this 5 cubits
10
and add
(i.e.,
[this
2).
223
produces
You
this (i.e.,
this equality)?
operate on
of this
6.
1/2 to find
The
is]
result is 4.
Behold, 4
(i.e., satisfies
it
4. The result is 6.
The resuU is 2/3. You
of this 10 over
1/2 times
You
will
correct.
[Lin. 3]
someone says
to you:
is filled
with
emmer
[alone];
with 20 to find 2
2/3.
[Lin. 4]
result is
The
result is 1/5
133
1/3.
[Lin- ^] [IQ
133 1/4
you
1/16
of 2/3. Take
calculate
it
+ 1/64 heqat
in
1
1/5
is
2/3 ro.^*
bread.
[Lin. 2] If
fraction]
(i.e.,
|Honi8-eye ftactioa]
You
[Lin. 3]
^is
**20
measured
O--*
^/^^
(?) [as
Horus-eye
40 measured
(?) as
of grain)."
[Honis-^
sign]
1/8.
[Lin. 4]
The
result is
1/2.
224
1/16 of 40 because
[Lin. 5] [the
is 1/16.
The lesidt
is
1/2.
You
are to calculate
[Lin. 6] the total
is 5.
XXXIX]
of these
[Lin. 1]
Then you
[initial
result is 60.
ex 1/16).
is
The
XL-XU]
XL]
[Lin. 1]
grain.
[Lin. 2] If
grain
[Lin. 3] are to
is
be calculated
like
not known.
[Lin. 4]
is
[Lin. 5]
[Lin. 6]
Behold
it is
of
this
pe&u
2,
mah-date [beer]."
The
result is [5
You
Upper-Egyptian grain.
[Col.
XLI]
The
[Lin. 1]
result is 5.
You
[jugs for
Behold,
1
[as]
of stronger
you
first
The resuh
is
[that
you need]
1/2 [the
of 5.
225
[So]
[Lin. 3]
result is
2 1/2 [heqat].^
and
rections
interpretation suggested
by Peet
the cor-
159-59)f
pjn. 1] Example of reckoning the work of a shoemaker,
pjn. 2] If someone says to you: "[Regarding] the woik of a shoehe is cutting out [only], [he can do] 10
of sandals] per day, [but] if he is decorating, [he can
maker,
[Lin. 3] [pairs
[Lin. 4]
[day-]equivaleiiGies
(i.e.,
add the
di^
[Un. 6] The resuh for them together is 3 [days]. Take this to find
The result is 3 1/3 times. Behold it is 3 1/3 [pairs of sandals]
10.
IV.6s, Cols.
XUH-XUVj"
XLm]
[Lin. 1]
grain.
[Lin. 2] If someone says to you, ''[There are]
15 heqat of Upper-
pe6u
The
result is
10 times.
beer
[Lin. 6]
[Lin. 7]
is
20 times.
[ColXLIV]
226
[Lin. 1]
[this]
20
is
(/,
should be 200)
loaves of bread.
[Lin. 2]
[Lin. 3]
see,
it
is
the pefsu 2
You will
[Lin. 4]
find
to be] correct.
Example of
[Lin. 1]
[it
XLV]
it (i.e.,
is
it
the sum)
taken
comes to
9.
[Lin. 2]
ment).^**
[Lin. 3]
What is the quantity that says it (i e., satisfies the stateReckon the sum of this quantity [taken as 1] and the 2.
The result is 3. Reckon with 3 to find 9. The result is 3
times.
[Lin. 4]
find [that
You
will
The
Behold 3 says
it is]
it (i.e.,
Notes
*
correct.
to
Document IV.2
first line
Pro^
appeared in the second line and it is conventional in this text to repeat the title
line in stating the problem in the second line. We can give some credence to
Stnive's belief that this is
He
is
an aha-problem similar
to
'MtracT
(see
my
Fig.
tell
is 5.
from 5 we get 4, i.e., 4/5 of 1. But the remainder in fact was 20,
so that we must find what multiplier makes 4/S into 20. The answer is 25;
Subtracting
hence 23
Papyrus,
is
udmown quantity.
by means of the
227
initial
like an algdnraic
aMnmptimi of the "aha** as
^ It is
is
taiyiiatiireofthetexL ttpidirtiyhagwmirthingtodowiththeietatioiMiilpof
size.
in
ii,
is
its
{op.
cit.,
we have a
p.
my
[cf.
Fig.
right.
its
what it is."
have followed Struve's reconstruction
this is
3 can haidly be
If
firactional multiplication.
because ht-tiw n
cannot
mean
*a
'cedar mast,' and because line 3 as restored could not possibly convey the
that the
mast should be
1/3
all correct.
1/5
In the
of the height
first
place S.
has fiuled to notioe that tlie small square projection of papyrus at the bottom
the kft-hand piece (Fiagment 2) has been
vmn^ moamed.
on
its left'Jiand
It
of
should be
top comer.
It
isp/ (apparently
theaoompleleitheifof /inL3andtfaeivoid^^\'
8o)inline4. The signs under the pare, in the tattered stale of the papyrus, not
'
certain;
is
impossible.
and there
precedes
in
transcribed
1.
dealt
iw
S by S. disappears when
*I have
it
In
ble that
'
ftie
why a
m this
Thesign
no constractive criticism to make on this pioblem. Itispossiwith the volume of a mast 30 odiils kg and so many hand*
As
Struve (pp.
cit.,
p.
equivalent to Problem 51 in
Chapter Four in
on areas and also in E>ocument IV. 1, note 68. Because of its simiPioblem SI of Document IV.I, I have suggested additions to the in-
the section
lafiQr to
is
228
oaiii|ileleliiiei4-6intlieMoaoowFqyiui.
and 4:
1
1/2
[lOJ
[20].
moUemg shouldbe
This
is
OX
in
Problem
fuller
my
translations
In
Struve 's
pRMenu
beer (ie., 1/2 1/4 malt-date beer) plays in the oalcolation of this and other
problems seem puzzling to me. Rather, it appears to me that the fractions that
are a part of the
them in the
name of
the beer
calculations of Problems 5
a wedn beer lilre that of beer inade from a mixture of malt and
dates whose components are somehow represented by the fractions 1/2 and 1/4.
The usual pefsu of stronger beer is 2. Hence the beer of pefsu 4 needs only half
the quantity of that of pefsu 2; hence the conclusion in Column VI, line 7, that
that this is
the "result
is 1/2."
takes 1/2 the heqat measure of meal that produced the 100 loaves of bread with
155-56, but
229
real efifoit to
un-
(and which are also not convincing to me) were later given by A.H. Gardiner,
Ancient Egyptian Onomastica. Vol. 2 (Oxford, 1947), pp. 225-27, and by C.F.
Nims, "The Bread and Beer Problems in the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus,''
kms
Ftam the
namdy, tlutt the nfeienoes to
latter (p.
63)
CPBiO
were not to
ie., "sprouted
grain."
^
Compare
6 by Gunn
and Peet, op. cit., pp. 168-71 and Plate XXXV.
'Seethe discussion of this word in Gunn and Peet, ibid, pp. 170-71. They feel
that tins is the squne khet or araora, as it is oAen tiandale^
the Rhind Papyrus and elsewhere but in a diflBaent torn than that found in the
Moscow Papyrus. If indeed the setjat is meant here, then obviousfy the length
and breadth of the rectangle in this problem are 4 khet and 3 khet.
As Gunn and Peet note {pp. cit., p. 170, n. 1): "The word for 'square root' is
the translation, transcription, and discussion of Problem
"
which represents either a 'comer'
The underlying idea is perhaps that a right-
for,
is
" See Chapter Foot, the section on geometiy. Of ooutk, in modem terms, the
solution is essentially the finding of the two mdoiowns (length and breadth of a
rectangle) when two simultaneous equations are given: [1] 12 = length x
breadth and [2] breadth = 3/4 of length. The value of the breadth in terms of
the length which
ing in length^
is
given in equation
16 and length
4.
[2] is substituted in
Then
equation
[1], result-
equation
Again see Chapter Four, section on geometry. Also note that Gunn and Peet,
cit., pp. 171-74, and Plate XXXV, give a translation, a hieroglyphic transcription, and discussion of Problem 7. Again we see some differences in the
op.
ws(y8 that
Gunn and
'^Gunn and
of ipdt,
of trian^es.
Peet, op.
cit..
p. 172,
remark: "Lines
and
2.
The determinative
230
4,
is
la the
(pimarily meaning
In the
hieratic.
*to
all
Moscow
it is
word
new
determinative, a triangle."
its
I
special
meaning of
a different sign, a
up on the
right.
Thus
these anthors (ibid. pp. 173-74) of their bdief that the Egyptians had the
proper fimnda fiir the area of a triangle (a conect belief I thiidE; see the seo-
tioo
they believe
mean
respectively "length
and
ratio
and "base").
on geometry
two mdmowns
tions: [1] 20 =
there ever
(the height
to
Of oomse,
is essentially
as in the
one of finding
and base of a triangle) with two simultaneous equax base, and [2] height = 2 1/2 times the base.
If
(1/2) height
in Chapter Four).
modem terms
it.
knew
Notice that
when
the area
the first step in the sotatkm in the finding of the height and the base is
that point
on
it is
dear that we
are finding the sides of a rectangle that are equivalent to the heigfit and Imae of
the triangle!
See
my
" This
is
a duplicate of Problem
5,
it is
is
abbreviated as
"As
and
i.e.,
hi his review of Strave*s text and tianstation (pp. 156-37) heipAil but not definitive.
As
correct in his
view
of a hemisphere, this
is
is
showing how
if
Struve
is
231
It
would
mcu dist like tbc GvbgIb^ the VifyfUuoos fr^pHP to loc die uDportuiOP of dlcii^
cmved wAocb of wlidi like the iphere
latigg the
lectiplanar surfaces.
grave d^ectioaf.
The
critical
'basket*:
nbt
These words he
m tp-r r 4 1/2 m
''d
Kerb mit einer Miindung zu 4 1/2 in Erhalmouth of 4 1/2 in preservation.' That /p-r... means
translates 'einen
it
damagcd or complete, i.e., that it is, in tndmical language, not a small dide of
a ^)heie but a great dude* and thsf oonseqnently fhe tAt is a ftrpitiftpMT and
not a smaller segment of a sphere. To this there are &lal oljections. The
words
I,
14, 3
and Pap.
I, 39, 2 are not parallel to this, Ibr in both cases the dimeiision is fidlowed by a genitive giving the figure, which is missing here. Bat the real rock
on which Stru\'c's rendering breaks up is the preposition r before the numeral 4
Harris
1/2.
is
is
given;
it is,
when
when two are giveii, and it thai answers exactly to our *by* in *6
by 3.* And this gives us the dne to the correct interpretation of the passage. The figure 4 1/2, preceded as it is by r, must be the second of two dimensions. Where then is the first? It must be contained in the 9 which so unexpectedly turns up without explanation in line 5, where its sudden appearance
But why was this not mentioned in its proper
is so disconcerting to Struve.
place in the setting out of the problem? The answer is that in the archetype it
was but that our scribe has ooiitted it I am convinced that no one who is conversant with the phraaeology of the niatfaematical papyri and with the Middle
Egyptian oses of the prepositions win question the necessily of inseitiqg the
dimensiofis
feet
wordo
reading
tibt^x>mtp^r4 l/2m
232
'
the
on
in lines 5if.,
1/2, is
muhqilier
two words
is
per-
area of a hemisphere of diameter 4 1/2 falls under the gravest suspicion, for a
hemisphere is Mfy delennined by a smgle dimension, its ladius or dinneler,
show
Thewotdo
out,
and our
I,
naturally to see in
first instinct is
it
'basket,* as Struve
who
translates
it
has pointed
shape suggests.
Struve,
was
which he holds
to
be the
and with
be used
do not accept the reading Imr,
sinq^ because
**I
inr
its
has at
use
(rf*
inr.
its
i/ir
tnr cannot
There
is
text
makes me
no doubt
in
hesitant to
my mind
that the
was a figurative use, since figuative uses often become conventional usage. The reading of the word itself is too fingmented to
sustain the doubts raised by Peet. Though Gillings in his treatment of Problem
Strove
10 (op.
cit.,
pp.
it
when
general-
ized seems to produce the modeni fixm of the fiinnnla fixr the coived soifiwe of
5).
Double 4
1/2.
233
= 2x8/9xdl
(Linen). Multiply by
-2x256/81
i4
This
indeed the
is
of
this interpretation
MMP
10
surface of a hemisphere.
is
who
If
derived
Even
if this is the
conect
numerically
is
is
of years
it
could have
seriously his reoonslniction of the problem as determining the area of a semicircle, since a semicircle as a flat surface
its
some kind of basket. I am not persuaded by the remaining interpretanext It seonis to me there are even moR gratuitoas assan^lions in it
than there are in Strave*s and Feet himself points OD^ some of the difficnhies.
Feriisps Ae most cautious conclusion is that, in view of fbe slate of the text, we
cannot be sore of the correct interpretation.
^Peet in his review of Struve's edition (p. 158) makes a number of crucial
area of
tion given
this
recognize
^.
for
it;
Further alterations to be
pm^m.
xxii, 3 for
In xxi,
^ <=>
n
4^ read
^
read
as
'^><-,
in xxii, 2 as '^x-^,
and in
xxii, 3 as
'
made
it
^>
and mi for
nnn
n n
^
.
The
iiin
'
and mi lespectivdy. In
234
Read'
xxii, 4.
word
For the
first
rign,
is
palaeographkaUy just
possible,
this
/ (</ is
Si, is preferable.
diflisraitfiinn given to
in xxii, 4.
This
is
it
confirmed by the
In the ligature
which follows
r,
t,
or n.
mi
of the phraseology
I
am
like
p. 157).
is,
as
made by
cit.,
and thoB a simple noote. Note that the remainilef of the calcnlarton to find
the pe&u is given in nmnbeis al<me without qwdficatkm of des^jugt and/or
heqat.
As Struve shows
= 6 and
18:6
x=
two
by the author
is
= x.
^This is a duplkate of Problem 9, exoqit that it is omisklecabty truncated. Nbtioe also the scribal enor in Col. XXVI, line 3, where "12" is gh^ instead of
"6."
See Chapter Four under the rubric "Volumes" for an extended discussion of
this correct formulation of the
made by
is
reooostniGtions of Struve.
translation of the
156.
cit, pp.
cit.,
p. ItiO.
235
20 se^aL
**anine.*
ftkalallaiwritliea*'aRmfai.**
"For
setjat Ibr
PMt
uses
this
[q).
159-60).
his hands
and
it,
cit.,
lengths of cdMts
fiiatsectkMis
19
seems hopeless."
It will
my Vohmie One,
p.
109
problem
mixed number of
The
is
cubits
and palms
(or
palms.
in Feet's review (p. 159). It will be evident to the reader that the arithmetic solution to Problem 19 is eqnivaleiit to the
+ 4 = 10.
made in heqat with Horns
Note that in
Document
(which, as in
expressed in
IV. 1,
h^ve given in
Italic type)
fractions
ro.
"While Feet in his review (pp. 157-38) believes that Struve's 'inleipietadon of
pfcUem is certainly right," he oflbiB some OMrections,
mean between 1/8 and 1/16. Gilcomment on this fact: "In line 7 (=Col.
scribe divided 5 by 60, where we would
is in fact
lings, op.
has an interesting
cit.,
p. 132,
the harmonic
XXXK,
1/8
we oome
we
think of fractions
1/8
and
1/16,
onolation to my oonventional
^ Again see that the one-half heqat is written in the Horas^ye finsdional
tern, Le.,
with
its special
236
it
in
Italics,
my
as al-
vfsys.
my vosion of Problem S
aboive with
note?.
'^The leooDStmctioii of this probkm by S. Cooclioiid Malhimatiqiies igypUeimes (Paris, 1993), pp. 171-74, also dqtends on Peet's suggestions for the
most part. She makes a further clever correction in the translation in line 5 of
rmn''wy {i.e., r mn *'wy?)...10 as "up to these 10 pairs." She quotes Wb, Vol. 1,
I have adopted the translation "equivalencies" (see R.O. Faulkner, A
Concise Dictionary ofKOddle Egyptian [Oxford, 1962], p. 149) bednse of tiw
p. 158/12.
This
is
avoided by
for,
on the one
hand, the cutting and, on the other, the decorating of the ten pairs of sandals.
It is
evident from the details of this problem that 10 of the 15 heqat were used
make the 200 loaves of bread of pefiu 20, and that 5 heqat were used to prodooethe lOdeHogsofbeerof pe6u 2. This, like all of the pefin pnMems,
invidves the use of the basic cooking ratio of the number of loaves of bread ot
to
first
(p.
159),
237
vols.
(London, 1898).
Among
lems.
So
far as
he was
my
based on
his
from the second half of the twelfth dynasty, and so are roughly
contemporary with the first two documents that I have presented.
In the preface to the text-volume Griffith gives us
The
1890.
was
It
was
later]
at first
some of
v-vi):
it
in
[but
all
executed
in
Com-
1893....
At
length, in
was issued to subscribers ... The subscripwere accompanied by a request to scholars for
taining to them,
tion copies
now
239
on
p.
have inchided
this
seems just:
240
Yet
it
lines,
seems probable
3. (lines
that they
calculation,
and
23-28). It
is
simply an aha-problem,
is
i.e.,
ments
this is also
(e.g.,
in the
other docu-
is
puzzling.
The second
is
241
DOCUMENT IV.3
The Kahun Mathematical Fragments
[A Table of Two; Kahun, IV. 2; see Fig. IV. J 2, lines I- 10]
[I have first given the unadorned numbers of each line as they appear in the papyrus, but
bers.
modem
interpretation.
derstood to be
is
2.
It is
Note
given
Hence,
lines.
[Lin. 1] 2, 3, 2/3,
[i.e.,
and each
2:3
= 2/3
since 2/3
[Lin. 3]
of 7 =
= 2].
+
of 3
[Lin. 4]
1/6
of 9 =
[Lin. 5]
since 1/6
1/18 of 9
1 1/2,
1/2,
and
1/2
"
1 1
2:9
1/6,
for
it
the
all
1/15, since
1/4
1 1/2 1/4
1/28,
1/4
2].
1/18, since
1/6
1/66,
2/3 1/6
1/6
2:13
1/6
1/2 2].
of 1 1
2:7
p e.,
of 7 =1/4, and
un-
beneath
line is
line
same number 2
remaining
number of each
2:11
and
2].
[Lin. 6]
1/8
1/52
[Lin. 7]
since 1/10 of 15
[Lin. 8]
1/12
[i.e.,
1/2,
and
2:15
1
1/2
=
+
of 15 =
of 17 =
1/3 1/12
1/3
242
of 13
1/4,
1/8 =2].
1/30, 1/2
1/2,
1/2, 1/30
1/51
1/4
= 2].
1/10
1/2
1/30,
2].
[i.e.,
of 17
2:17
1/3,
2:19
19
[2,]
1/12
1/4, 1/1
[Lin. 10]
19, 1/12,
1/76
14 of 19
19=
1/6,
since 1/14 of 21
and
5.;
1/4
of 21 =
1/2,
and
<l/6>
[i.e.,
1/6
2:21
1/12, 1/42
1/2 1/12
of
2].
= 1/14 + 1/42,
+ 1/2 =2].
1/2
seems evident that the problem being solved in the two columns of numbers is: "Given the sum of 1 0 terms in arithmetic pro[It
what
is
the series?"
'
[Colli]
[Col. 12]
1/3 1/12
\ 1
common
decreasing amounts]
13 2/3 1/12
2/3 1/6
2/3
12 2/3
\8
1/3
12 1/12
1/6
1/6
1/12
10 1/3
1/12
11
1/12
3.;
1/6
1/12
volume in khar (1 khar = 2/3 a cubic cubit) of a cylindrical granary whose diameter is 12 cubits and whose height is 8
cubits? The procedure is to add 1/3 of the diameter to the diameter, multiply the total by itself; then multiply that result by 2/3 of the
height, i.e., 5 1/3, to produce 1365 1/3 khar. I put the operations
of Col. 14 first].
[What
is
the
[Col.
14f
[\1
2/3
12]
243
1/3
Total
16.
16
10
160
Total
80
256.
[Col. 13]
256
512
1024
2
4
(1/30)* 85 1/3
Total
1365
[*2/3 in Papyrus]
1/3 [khar].
is
lines present
not known. ^
[Lin. 15]
925,157
[Lin. 16]
708,453 1/3
[Lin. 17]
709,533 1/3
[Lin. 19]
470,042 2/3
[Lin. 20]
440,003 1/6
[Lin. 21]
209,200
1/12.
B.;
mmto says
mums (?)
it (i.e.,
1/4
of it yields
satisfies
1/2.
15-22]
1/3
[Lin. 18]
[Lin. 22]
IV. J 2, lines
Take
5,
244
5.
The
result
of it
is 1/4.
[Lin. 28]
is
it
20
that says
it
(i.e.,
statement).'
complete
both
in
found
first
It
uses the
is in-
word
for
part, but
his trans-
Example of the
[Lin. 30]
end.
its
Mathematical Papyrus.^
"comer" or
i.e.,
Moscow
in the
beginning and
its
text
4.;
on the
is
count-keeping.
[Lin. 31]
[Lin. 32]
...
[Lin. 33]
...of the
henu
(pint
measure)
?....
[Lin. 34]
[Lin.
[Lin.
The
12.
is
1.
Take
[Lin.
1
1/3 times. The result thereof is 16.
Take the square root [of it], which is 4. Take
41] 1/2 1/4 of 4. The result is 3.
[Lin.
[Lin. 40]
[Kahun LV.
[This
page
it is
is
4.
is
10 rectangles
(J^iyt)
of 4 cubits by
3.
(lines
55-62)
given in
its
is
so incomplete that
it,
though
1.
54
it
is
is
birds,
may
Document
IV.
245
1,
how
The
The
column
final
in
the
is
lines 50-54. I
is
[Lin. 43]
[Lin.
Set-duck]
Re-goose
47] Terp-goose
[Lin. 46]
[3]
[24]
[Lin.
[3]
[12]
[Lin. 48]
Djendjen crane 2
[3]
[6]
[Lin. 49]
Set-duck
[3]
[3]
[12]
[45]
[Lin. 50]
[Totals:]
is
number of fowl;
[Lin. 51]
the remainder
[Lin. 52]
[Lin. 53]
the multiplication of
[Lin. 54]
The
is
1 1
excess of 100
Do
to find 55.
Notes
to
Document IV.3
accepted.
The suggestion by
Gillings,
So
also to
be
Mathematics
in the
probable,
and
I feel
sure
is to
be
Fiqiynis,*'
Vol. 29 No. 5
(1966), pp. 126-30. But see his useful discussion of the steps given in
RMP
246
in
(Sydney, 1968),
number of terms
1/6). Hence Col.
(10),
and d
11, starting
is
the
common
with d/2,
i.e.,
+
when it is
Then, moving on to Got.
1/12,
multiplied by
shows
that
this
4, section
indented.
is
assuming that x is 1 and then converting the false remainder (1/4) to the true
remainder (5), Le., finding the nuiltiplier of 1/4 that produces 5. The answer is
of course 20.
'a
further fragment
is
(e.g.,
Document
IV. 1, Problems
32-35, 37-38).
' See Document IV.2, notes 10
and
1 1.
"Der
Berliner Papyrus 6619," ZAS, Vol. 38 (1900), p. 137. This translation is found
in Wb, Vol. 3 (1971), p. 15, item 19, but with a "?" following it. Cf S. Couch-
oud, op.
cit.,
It
may be
that the
problem
involved a volume, but the remaining lines point to a problem concerning the
areas of lectan^es. Note tlurtConchoud questions Griffith's reading **lienw^ in
tf it is not a viriumetric measure that is being used, then we need not
more complex volumetric interpretation, as does Schack-Schadcenburg
supra, pp. 129-30) and Gillings. op. cit.
pp. 162-65 (who suggests
it is a problem of simultaneous equations of the form xy = A and x = ky).
* Grifilth, Hieratic Papyri
from Kahun and Gurob, p. 18.
line 33.
find a
(op.
cit.
247
DOCUMENT IV.4: BP
DOCUMENT
IV.4
Iiitroduction
the
(1902X pp. 65-66. Concerning the first problem (see Fig. IV. 13,
IX he was able to reconstruct its basic purpose and content, as Archibald neatly mdicated m his extensh/e Bibliography of Egyptian
Mathematics appearing m Vohmie 1 of Chace's edition of the
Rhuid Papyrus under the year 1900:
tions.
IV.13, 2]
is
249
We have hoe
a problem
siiiiiUur
y 400, x :y^2:
IMhematics
in the
Jim
qf
Ute
Pharaohs, pp. 161-62, also points out the two sets of simultaneous
equations which embrace the data and the arithmetica] steps of the
two
fragments.
on the
and
transcription
translation."
"some new
have taken
D0CUMENTIV.4
The Berlin Papyrus 6619
[The Longer Frag^nt; see Fig, IV. 13,
and Fig.
IV.lSaf
[Lin. 1]
(i.e.,
known
tio
is
Ww) [and
250
DOCUMENT IV.4: BP
of the other quantity, please make
The
[surface-]quantities."
of
1/2 1/4
is
of the
[side length]
(i.e.,
tiply
it
by [1/2
1/4.
with
is
always
[the result
1,
of
Take]
1/2 1/4.
is
The
The
Mul-
of the smaller
square surface].
[Lin. 5]
1,
[Hence]
if
is
you
is
sum [of
their squares,]
[Lin. 6] the result is
take
its
is
25/16).
(i.e.,
You
1/4.
will
You
will
The
result is [10].
of
Reckon with
this
1/4 to find 10
The
(i.e.,
[Lin. 8]
tity
8.
The
quan-
result is [the
in a
form
Example of dividing a square rectangular surface area of 400 square cubits into two square ar1 1/2. Then on the basis of
eas whose sides were related as 2
somewhat
would
method of
false position
sum
1/2,
as 6 1/4.
1/2,
which
of 6
1/4... [i.e.,
251
1/2]
2 and
[Lin. 4] ...[by
is
of 400,
1/2.]
i.e.,
20].
Reckon [with 2
1/2 to
8] times. [Multiply 8]
You
square root[s]
[Lin. 5] ...[of the
(/rf)[are 16]
You
say
it is
found
...[i.e.,
correctly?]^
Iblloiif llie
linMumeradoo of Sdiack-^^
and
note further, as
translation.
ItfcUows:
The
side of
one
is 1/2
Let
me know
is
equal to that
The remainder
this
is
Sdacfaenbini to restore
Take
1/4. It
as[ follows:!
Gillings notes that the procedure for taking the square roots of
and he
1/2
dicy were no doidit rend off or chedced fiom a tsUe of squares (see Chapter 21).
Neither
is
the worlcing
252
DOCUMENT IV.4: BP
noticed that
to
16^
12' - 400.
253
DOCUMENT IV.5
The Mathematical Leather Roll in the British Museum:
iBtroductioB^
of the
at the British
Museum
Museum was
in 1864, having
been a
by A.H.
Rhind in Thebes.^ Its purchase followed Rhind's death. It will be
recalled that the Rhind Mathematical Papynis (Document IV.l
above) was also a part of that collectioa But unlflce that more &mous work it was^ as its commonly used name indicates, written on
leather rather than papyrus. Consequently it was fiur more difiBcuh
to unroll, that not being accomplished until 60 years after the roll's
purchase.^ The early history
the roU after its acquisition by the
Museum is described by Gtenville.^
part
collection
of Egyptian
antiquities asseaibled
common knowledge
at the time
of the
o^ or
first
Museum was
and
his chancing
on
this
German
first
sight
process, that
of the
whole
255
and the
brilliant
at
museum
possible
roll.
reconsider
to
bound
to be
some
the
unrolling
was
It
of
therefore
the
leather
However
risk.
edge of
this
is
of greater
on to say
that the
it.
(and particularly Eisenlohr) that the work was very important and
roll"
were
not realized by the actual contents. "In place of the hoped for treatise
Rhind Papyrus,
addition of fractions!**
ties in the
But
to explain
all
the difficul-
this pessimistic
appraisal
roll
are
is
now considefed
that tfie
26
equalities*
of the
The Eqglish
Document IV.S
is
256
It
presents
no
significant
the
first
intact
copy reappear
in the
of the
first
second copy.'
The
iitfrodiictioo to this
dnrt docomeiit
is
A. Scott and H.R. Hall, "Laboratory Notes: Egyptian Leather Roll of the 17th
^Ibid. p. 233.
257
died
DOCUMENT IV.5
The MathematiGal Leather Roll of the British Museum
[First
Copy: Cols.
and
[Col. 1:]
[Lin. 1] 1/10 1/40
it is
1/8
it
is
1/4
it
is 1/3
it is
it is
1/3
it is
1/2
it is
2/3
it is
1/8
it is
1/16
it is
1/5
1/15)*
[Lin. 11] [1/9] [1/18]
it is
1/6
it is
1/4
it is
[1/8]
it
is
[1/7]
it is
[1/9]
[Un. 16]
[1/12 (sic?,
should be
it is
[1/11]
it is
[Col. 2:]
[Lin. 1] 1/30 1/45 1/90
it is
1/15
it is
1/16
258
DOCUNffiNT IV.S:
it is
in
41 1/21 1/42
1/12
it is
1/30
it
is
1/20
it i<:
1/10
it Is
i
11
l/'?9
11
n
n
in
71 1/1 S 1/30
in
81
ri in
Ql
/48
IQft
1/109
lSK^l/0*t
J aUU
TV
BMLR
S>CC
ri^S.
IV.IOD
dllU
17hl
rrnl 3
FT in
in
91
/S
/90
it
11 ic
IS
rr in
1/4 1/19
it i:
41 1/10 1/10
it Is
i
11
1/S
11
it
11 ic
13
1 1'i,
in
FT in
^1
/^i
n
1
MO
it
Al
IS 1I/O
11 tc
//?
/I
1/J
it ic 1 /9
11 IS 1/Z
FT
in
[i^in.
FT in
1d
l/H
it
11
ic
IS
it
11
ic
IS
111
Z/J
/8
I/O
it is
it
is
1/6 {sic,
it
is
1/6
it is
1/4
it is
1/8
it is
1/7
it is
1/9
1/16
should be 1/15)
is 1/1
it is
it is
1/15
itis[l/l]6*^
[Col. 4:]
[Lin. 1] 1/18 [l]/36'
259
h is
1/12
it is
1/14
it is
1/30
it
is
1/20
it is
1/10
it is
1/32
<it
1/64.
line
1.
*
e^
'
As in copy 1
'Omitted in both copies; see note
4.
260
DOCUMENT IV.6
Sections G-I from Reisner Papyrus
I:
Introduction
IV.18a-IV.18j).
The
[i.e.,
Reisner Papyrus
I] is
Andrew Reisner on
[in
basis
12.
It
now
in the
of this publica-
Museum of
town of This], a
m Upper Egypt
Fine Arts
...The papyrus
bears the
place....
The [ReisnerJPapyrus
3.50 meters long in
its
[I]...
measures approximately
present statc.has a
maximum
height
261
first
I,
and
at
some
initially
decides that
it
belongs
Amme-
nemes I and Sesostris I). But his ultimate preference is for the
reign of Sesostris I.^
As the title of my document indicates, I have confined it to
the calculations of Sections G-I of the papyrus, but it will be useful
to discuss briefly the whole group of Sections G-K. They consist of
accounts that refer to a building construction. The section letters
are ones assigned by the editor for the purposes of editing and reference. The year to which they apply is not given; nor is the reigning Pharaoh's name mentioned. But the editor suggests assigning
them to tbe peikxl between IV Peret 6 and n Shemu 20 of the year
24 of Sesostris I.^
As Simpson suggests.'^the building for which the Sections
G-K provide four accounts (G-J) and a summaiy of those accounts
(K) appears to have been a temple, a cenotaph, or a tomb "since
two of its component parts are designated as the august chamber
and the eastern chapel....The final result is a record of the total
number of man-days expended on the undertaking during the period
invoked, a relatively substantial figure of 4312 1/2 man-days. The
general bearing of this type of calculation on the daily rosters and
lists of men elsewhere in the document and in the other Reisner papyri is obvious^ since one type records the details of the expenditure
of kd)or and the other type provides the names of the individuals so
employed.** Being actual accounts these sections deal with completed, actual quantified acthdties and thus difo, for the most part,
finom the preceding documents of this chapter, which are concerned
hu^gely
methods of calculating model practical arithmetical or
arithmetical-geometrical problems that would involve whole numbers and finctions, or with tabulated calculations usefiil as reference
262
by
ten,
of dou-
of the
set
is
have included to
in the
illustrate the
present volume.
However
hun
and
(like
at Illa-
they
may be
realistically
measured (see
Figs. IV. 3 3
may
also
remember
that
Of
ume Two,
Temple of lUahun
volume under "Illahun").
Simpson's summary of the general content of the sections
that make up this document is well worth quoting, along with his
remarks about the complexity of the accounts:'
as for example, the day books of the
Section
is
Section
or removed
is
in
list,
Section
of the operation.
power
it,
is
to the general
In Section J a
work
of
263
matcrialg, in
which aevoral
of wood
varieties
oonsiato of a
Qgure pronuneotiy. The summaiy in Section
recapihilation of tiie expenditure of man-di^ in each of
tiiese operations. One cannot fiul to be amaaed and bewildered by the complexity of the bookkeeping practices
whereby the accountant recorded such details as tiie exact
dunensions of blocks of stone to a fiaction of a fingerbreadth and the sum of man-days to a fiikh of a working
di^. Even more extiaorduiary, if our present mteipretation
ratios
As a matter of fiict,
it
reader of
in specifying the
exist
maximum
on Stone
Document 1.
Volume One,
presented as
of hours in
of great
by (1)
first
difficulty since
it
materials)
by a
specified
(i.e.,
of entry
units
or 2 but once
is
and
10,
is^
4).
demandThis
fi-
264
is
its
sum of unit
fractions or in terms
some
of the palm
arity is that
cubits and
its
pressed in so
One
peculi-
obviously in cubic
component
is
sometimes ex-
is
is
It
1/7
seems evident
that in
cubit.
Though
much
effort
have pointed
multiplication
tally cleric -
firactions
cleric's arithmetic is
16 of Section G]....
265
[e.g.,
was 90 percent
27
in Section H.]....
because
table
Fig. IV.21,
3; 1 pahn:
cubits
This I thmk
[i.e.,
sunply
cubit.**
this simplified
tents allows
multiplications,
which
am
prove
it,
to be
is
length
= 3c
5p, width
of
24 of Section H,
line
Ic 2 p, and depth
i.e.,
lings believes to
of the (4
4).
be a
But
rough approximation
It
seems to
me
that
among
all
in cubic palms) by
number of cubic palms in 1 cubic cubit), is more
straight-forward and would obviously be the more familiar procedure to the Egyptian calculator, even though cumbersome.
Of
343 (which
is
the
course, Gillings
fractions
is
when
we
in
we
of a cubic
cubit.
Still,
without the
In
my effort to
267
Document
have
all
five Sections
G-K
my Document
the
in
K,
line),
I,
to totals (G,
1; J,
10), to
1,
Simpson's translations
Note
that
ments.
have done
clutter that
and to a
title
(K,
my
resulted
fiill
in
1).
line,
procedure
this in this
would have
I,
As
8a-j.
19;
in
edition of this
at first hand.
tris
tke Reign
of Sesoa-
17-19.
Ubid., p. 52.
*Ibtd.
*R.
diis
J.
268
DOCUMENT IV.6RPI
wnk he has used the lecqpracal fonn of writing amt fiacwith die deBonriintof niiiribcif npencribed hy a hori290iilil bv (and
no onit dawminator). For example aee FigL IV.19-IV.21.
througlioiit Gillings'
tkuBt, Le.,
^Op.
dt
269
DOCUMENT IV.6
Sections G-I from Reisner Papyrus I
[Section G; see Figs. IV.lSa and IV.lSb]
[Un.
1]* [
cakulatoi of enlistees Qr
tees for the day's woik^ )].
[Un. 2]
.]
[f ] [
[Un. 4] [
[c] [J5
38
12 [c] [7]?
[d.] [1]
[e.]
[a.]
25 [b.]20
[d.][.J
[c. ][...]
[e.]
[a.]
15
[b.]
5 [c]
[...]
[d.]
] tr.
in tins
chamber
[a.]
1 [1/5].
[e.]
10 [f ]
[a.]
1.
[Lin. 7]
2
(cometfor vol 2
[d.] 1
[e.]
[Lin.8][(monthanddi^)]gh^tohimm[
[c] [1/2]
[f] [the
(sty)
[b.]
[Lin. 6] [given to
1/4
[a.]
i.e.,
[c] [thidmess or
or vohime
[f.] [...].
[Lin. 5] [
1 [e.] 12 [f ]
m bsb,
(wjjr)
.].
[b
[e.] pfxxfaict
[Lin. 3] [
[
width
[b.]
3[192]?
[Cohinmhcadsif
[Lengjth
[a.]
[a.]
35
[b.]
270
11
DOCUMENT IV.6RPI
[Lin. 9]
11 [c]
[a
1/2
/or 21 1/4
[d.] 1
[2]14 1/2
[e.]
13
[b ]
[f.]
1/5).
[Lia 10]
.[a.]
3 2/3
1/5
52 [b.]3
modern terms or
1).
.[a.] 32
[Lin. 11]
4 [c] 1/2
[d.] 1
85
[e.]
(sic,
in
[b]
for the erroneous 85, but for the proper 64 // should be 6.4 in
modern terms, or in Egyptian terms 6 1/3 1/15, the fractions as
given for the division of 4 by 10 in the Table of Division by 10
quoted above).
[given to him] in the portal of the [king's] ^//-chamber
[Lin. 12]
as hm'^w
,
[a.] 3
1/2
[b.]
2 [c] 2/3
[Lin. 13]
[...]
[d.] 1
[e.]
Shemu
25, given to
27
[d.] 1 [e.]
(sic,
[e
(approx.for
[f] 1/2
him
]
[as]
10 1/2 [b
8 1/2
[c
1/3 (?)
[Lin. 14]
[d
4 2/3
chamber
[a.]
[b.] 3
[c] [1/3]
di-
vided by 10).
[Lin. 15]
[.
.]
Shemu
column-bases (?)
[a.]
27, given to
[b.J
him
4 [c] 2
271
in
hm^w
[d.] 1
[e.]
48
[f.]
1/2 1/4
(cf.
of 8 by 10
[Lin. 16]
[a.J
2 [c] 2
[b.]
[d.J 1 [e.]
16
[f.]
[1/2]
1/10.
[Lin. 17]
[a.]
[a.]
[b.]
4 [c] 2
[d.]
"footings"
[e.]
[64]
[f.]
6 [1/4]
1/10 1/20.
[Lin. 18]
[b.]
[c] 2
[d.]
[e.]
[3]6
[f.]
3 1/2
1/10
[Totals]
[Lin. 19]
[e.]
4335 [f]
435
[Section H, see Figs. IV. 1 8c and IV. 1 8d]
[Lin. 1]
Shemu
16, given to
him
st[orehouse].
272
[a
palms [b
2; 5
6 palms [c]
(restored by Gillings
1/3 fb.
[Lin. 3]
palms)]
1/14
2 1/4
[a.]
[d.] 1...
value of
fb. if the
[Lin. 4]
[b.]
[a.]
6 palms
[e.] 1...;
2 [1/4
[c]
(restored by Gillings as 5
[e.]
suggested by Gillings)]
(?
[c]
pahns)] [d.]
3 palms,
[Lin. 5]
[....
[a.]
(1?)] [e.]
2 1/4 [b
[e.] 1;
3 palms;
[Lin. 6]
6 palms
[....]
[b
tr.
(= "trace"
(restored by Gillings as 5
[c]
...
assumed).
is
[...].
(restored by Gillings as
great")]
[d.]
1...
1/2 fb.
[a.]
[a.]
3 1/4
1/4
[b.] tr.
(6 palms?)
[c]
[d.]
[e.]
6 1/2
(1/2)
[d.]
[e.]
4 1/2
1/4.
[Lin. 7]
[c]
tr.
1/4 1/8.
[Lin. 8] [a.]
2 1/2
[b.] 1 1/2
[Un. 9]
4 1/2
[b.]
1/J
[a.]
[c] 1/2
(1 1/2;
[d.]
[e.]
[d
[e
tr.
13 1/2 [//
adds here
6, 4, 1;
p.].
palm
[c] 1/2
[b.] 1 1/2
tr.
[d.]
[e.] 3;
(!
3)
fl>.
[Lin. 11]
[a.] 3; 1
palm
[b
[d.]
1
1
[c]
[e.] 3,
273
+
1
1/3
palm.
(which rubricated
IB]
[Lin. 12] I
[Lin. 13]
palms;
[a
[Lin. 14]
]
for
[e
3,
Shemu
]
2; 3
I
]
palms [b
Shemu 29
3;
[Lin. 15]
4 palms;
2; 3
[Lin. 16]
[a
1
2;
fb.
[b.]
1/2
5 palms
[a.] 1;
[e
3,
3;
6 palms;
1; 1
palm;
fb.
as a minor error
this
[b
[c] 5 palms
1/2
[d.]
[e.] 3;
fb.).
[a.] 2;
approximation
[Lin. 17]
[a.]
[Lin. 18]
[a
3; 3 palms;
1
[c]
3 palms [b
1;
palms;
?)
fb.).
4 palms, 2
[e.] 2;
should be 14
{sic,
2 1/14 1/42
[d
15
[d.] [Total:]
2,
4
3;
2 1/3
6 palms, 3 1/2
[b.] 1, 3
2 palms
fb.
a major
[d.]
fb.
fb.).
palms [c]
[b.] 1;
[d.]
[e.]
22, 6 palms.
as
[d.]
[e
3;
[Lin. 19]
[a.] 3;
5 palms; 2
fb.
[b.] 1; 3 palms...
[Lin. 20]
[d
5,
[e
2 palms;
fb.).
[a.] 3,
(Gillings sees
[c]
3 palms [b.]
1;
3 palms
[c]
palms).
274
[d.]
4;
[e.]
1/4 1/28
DOCUMENT IV.6RPI
[Lin. 21]
palms;
[a
...
1;
palms
[b
palms [c]
1;
fb.
a major
[d
[e
2;
[Lin. 22]
[d
[a.]
[e.] 2;
2/3
[b
[Lin. 23]
[a
{sic; Gillings
[b.] 1;
1;
(?) palms;
3 palms
...
fb.
[c]
Shemu
-I
last
day-
a minor
er-
fb.).
a major
sees this as
[d.]
[e
4;
fb.
fb.).
palms
[b.] 1;
[d.] 1
[e.] 4;
[Lin.
1/3
fl).).
25]
[a.] 1
5 palms; 3
[Un. 26]
[a.]
[Lin.
[a.]
3 1/2
27]
-H Shemn
[d.]
1- [d.]
[e.]
fb.
[b.] 1 1/2
[c]
1/2 [d.]
[e.]
3 1/2 1/4.
[e.]
15 1/2 1/4.
28]
Shcnn 7-
[a.] 4;
[d.]
12
[b.]
palm; 1/4
fill
fb.).
5 [c] 1/4
-imPeret-dxy IS-
275
[d.] 1
[d.] 1
[e.] 15.
[e.]
18 1/2
1/4.
[Lin.
33] "footings"
[a.]
[b.]
4 [c] 2
[b.]
-I
Shemu-
[e.] 10.
[d.]
[e.]
64.
[Lin. 34]
PerSa
loads of the
[Lin. 35]
[c] 1/4
[a.]
[d.]
[a.]
[b.]
(sic,
bm should be
50
[e.] [total:]
I;
1/2.
[e.] 3,
[e
[e
6 pahns,
23 1/2
1 fb.
total: 143;
2 paUns.
143 1/2
1/4.
[a.]-[e.]
same measures as
G and H.]
[Lin. 1]
HnPcretlS.
[Lin. 2]
ber,
[Lin. 3]
(?)... rest.
[c] 1/2
9)
[e.] 16.
in Sections
36.
[e.] 18.
[Un. 36]
[Lin.
[e.]
in (for?)
[a.]
[given to
[d.] 1
[c.]
12
[b.]
276
[a.]
[1]5
[e.]
30.
[b.]
[LiiL 4]
ffi
thca**/y
(?).
[a.]
[b.] 5
the western
[Lin. 7] hi
[I (?)
Shemu]
24
[a.]
[d.]
[Lin. 10]
[a.]
52
32
[a.]
[b.]
[b.]
4 [c]
[1/4]
him as
28, given to
[b.] 5
[d.]
fill
[e.] 8,
[a.]
tr.
4 palms.
26
[b.]
6 [c] 5
Ill; 3 palms.
[e.]
20
[b.] 5
[c] 5 palms
[d.]
[e.]
71; 3 palms.
1]
[c] 2
mbiw
[Lin. 9]
[a.][l]8 [b.]
...for.....
[e.] 39.
[Lin. 8]
mhiw
the eastern
[1/4] [d.]
[Lin.
20.
32.
[e.]
chamber
132.
[e.]
[Lin. 6]
palms
[d.]
[Lin. 5]
[d.] 1
[c] [1/2]
[d.]
[Lin. 13]
from the
[e.]
II
Shemu
field
[Lin. 14]
[a.] 1 1/2
[Lin. 15]
II
[a.]
Shemu
[b.]
him
[a.]
in (for?)
[a.]
27
[b.]
removing
(?)
water
loosening brick-clay
378.
given to him
1,
[b.]
2,
in (for?)
[d.]
[e.]
112.
1/2 [c]
2 1/2
7 [c.]2
[b.]
[d.]
[e.]
1/2 [c]
277
[total;]
1/2 [d.]
380.
[e.] 11 1/4.
[a.]
should be 26
[Un. 17]
36
[e.]
(5/c,
[a.]
[a.]
10 [b
be
[d.]
[Lin. 19]
[b.]
Shemu
fields
1)
1/2 [c]
2 1/2
81 1/2
1/2
[d.]
[e.]
25
1/4
(sic,
(<3fe/re
ftoW; [c]
1/2
[d.]
should be 30).
[Lin. 18]
3 1/2 [b.]
1/4).
[e.]
11,
(shouU
55.
[a.]
16
[a.]
8 [b
[b.]
[c]
5 1/2
[?];
6 palms
[d.]
[e.]
75 1/4
[d.]
1/5.
[Lin. 20]
[e
48.
Notes
to
Document IV.6
to the evidence in
in H,
and
lines
hnes 13 and 15
1, 8,
13, 14,
in G, lines
and 18
in
1,
1,
in
J.
As
33-34
noted
theseaoooantsmsy have been the 24th year of the reign of Sesosliis I. There
are occasional references in the general line headings to the part of the bmlding
where the woric is being done (e.g., lines 4-7, 12-15 of 0^ lines 1, 12, 29, 32;
37-40 of H, and passim in Section J).
' The letters assigned to the column heads in brackets are
those assigned by the
editor, and I have retained them throughout the document
\ii^h
discussifNi
this
column
^For a
of
head,
is restored here tnm lines I-l and
J-1, see SiniMon,
, p. 53: "[Its form is] to be considered as a sd^jectless
278
*it is
occurs to
me
is
that
full
of
vdume
known
as
ratio
For hsb as
Concise DMIonary of Middle Egyptian
bm^w
279
Part Three
BmUOGRAPHY
Abbreviations
Cairo.
SeetheBibliog^apliy.Ennan,
A.,andRGrapow.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aidiibald, R.C., see Chaoe.
Baillet, J.,
par
les
membra de La
(1892).
Birch,
S.,
75-76 (entitled
and Leqndg,
von Bessenmm-Jbfdan, ed., IHe Geadiichte der Zeitmessm^ und der
Uhren. Vol.
1).
im
mittleren
(London, 1898).
Bnigsch, H., "Ueber den mathematischen Fqiynis
281
147-49.
im bridsdien Ma-
VN*
Ken. NederUmd
VoL 48 (Amsterdam,
Bniint,
Mathematled Pt^rynu,
RIM
A lioslile and
UQgBnerous review.
Budge, E.A.W., Egyptian Hienglyphic Dictiomay, Dover edit, 2
vols. (
New York,
1978).
de fractions, fractions
and Berlin,
(Batel, Boslon,
(Oberlin, Ohio,
1927): Firee DwisUMon and Commentary by Chace, with tlie aasirtanoe of RP.
Manning, and a "BiUiogfaphy of Egyptian Mathematics by R.C. Archibald;
Vol. 2 (Oberlin, 1929) Photographs, Tranacrtptton, and Literal Translation by
Chace, L. Bull, and H.P. Manning + a supplement to his early bibliography by
Archibald, here entitled "Bibliography of Egyptian and Babylonian Mathematics" + an article by S.R.K. Glanville, "The Mathematical Leather Roll in the
British
Museum."
much
my
citations to
Coodioud,
S.,
sw hs
con-
Vol.
Museum
Age.
Edwards,
I.E.S.,
lepr. 1975).
Eisenlohr.
A. "Bericfatigunfr**
282
BIBUOGRAPHY
Eisenlolur, A., Ein mathemaUsdies Handbwck dor aben Agypter
(Papyna Rhind des Brttbh Myseum) fAeneixt mid eMOrt, Vol. 1 (LeqNS*
1877; Ind ed., 1891, though 1877 is itill oo the title pageX Vol. 2 Tq^bi
(Lejpzig, 1877).
Erman,
A.,
Die Belegstellen, 5
wOrUrbuch
The whole
FuUaier, R.O.,
Concise DtctUmary
ofMUkOe
Egyptian, (Oxfoid,
(Sydn^,
articles
VoL 32
VoL 14 (1892),
Griffith, F.Ll.,
Gurob, 2
vols.
(London, 1898).
Griffith, F.Ll.,
(1891), pp 328-32;
08, 230-48.
Guillemot, M.,
"A propos de
283
Chap,
al. (Basel,
m, pp. S3-69.
Gami,
B.
Gunn,
B.,
and T. Eric
Peet,
Hayes, W.C., Ostraca and Name Stones from the Tomb of Sen-Mut at
7%06er (New Yolk. 1942).
Hqiei^ W.C, The Soeplar ofEgypt, Pirt n (Gnenwicfa, Cooil, 19S9).
Hddc, W. and S. Vleming, "Masse und Gewicfate," Lexikon der
Agyptologie, Vol. 3 (Wiesbaden, 1980),
cc.
1199-1214.
Hultsch,
F.,
fully revised in
ment d'un
I
PaiQTus, p. 135.
und ihre Eintheilung in Phiund kistorlacke ANtantKmgen der kOidgttdiai Akademie der Wiszu
Berlin.
Aus
dem
1865
(Berlin,
1866).
Jakre
aenschaften
Lepsius, C.R., Die altagyptische Elle
lologische
Museum
's
New Kingdom
in the
QSGU4P.
in
347-51.
Neugebner, O., Vorksmigen lAer Getdiichte der antike madtemaWIsaensdufiiai, Vol. 1: Vorgriechische Mathematik (Berlin, 1934X pp.
137^.
284
BIBUOC^APHY
Neugdwuer, O., "Zur flgypUschen Bruchrechnung," ZAS, Vol. 64
(1929), pp. 44-48.
Nuns, CF., *The Bread and Beer Probtems of the Moaoow Mathematical Papyrus," JEA. Vol. 44 (1958), pp. 56-65.
Peet, T.E.,
"Mathematics
in
"A Problem
pp. 1(XM)6.
Feet, TM., Review of Stmve's editioii of the Moscow Mathematical
Papyrus in JEA, Vol. 17 (1931), pp. 154-60.
Peet, T.E., The Rhind Mathematical PapyruK British Museum 10057
an</
shire,
England, 1926).
Ritler, J.,
and Berlin,
1992), Chapt.
1.
An-
Rodet, L.,
lateor
^yptien (Pspynis
mannd dn
calcn-
pp. 184-232,290-459.
Sarton, G.
25 (1936),
pp. 399-402.
Schack-Schackenburg, H., "Die angebliche Berechnung der Halbkugel," ZAS. Vol. 37 (1899), pp. 78-79.
SGhack-Schackeiibafg,
Vol. 38
(1900XPP. 135-40.
Schack-Schakenburg, H., "Das kleinere Fiagment des Beriiner Papyrus 6619," ibid. Vol. 40 (1902), pp. 65-66.
Schiaparelli, E.,
di
La tomba
Cha
nella necropoli
and HR.
Hall,
Museum
idate.
Scott, N.E.,
seum ofArt,
n.s.,
Mu-
Von Zahlen und Zahlworten bei den alien Agyptern und was
isL Bin Beitrag zur
Geschlehta von RechentamstmidSprache (Stiastag, 1916).
Sethe, K.,
f^
285
(197S),
pp. 248-49.
Simpson, W.K.,
edit.,
Papyrus Reisner
I.
I:
Transcription
and Commentary
UI
(Boston,
(Boston,
1969).
in
Van
Bruchrechnung,"
I:
Vorgeschichte und
68.
Wolff, G.,
Wiesziiidd, W.,
1922).
286
^jdpzig,
True Type, a
Windows. It
are given in
under
Word
for
was
throughout
my
number.
If brackets are
letter
edition
on the
two
indicated page.
signs for
*'s*'
Words
(i-C-
begins
and P) are
in the uidex.
added to the
indexes found
When
third volume.
of the Moscow
edition
also find
many
(Beriin,
of these authors
1921; re-
is helpful.
Also
Names and
Index of Proper
287
iiiit
hv ("long"): 228
n. 4,
270.
9
9 9
I, II
iwn
("pillar"
233
n. 18.
irt
itr
n. 6,
213,252.
= 20,000
cubits): 7.
<3 ("great"): 8.
7r ("provide"); 229 n.
6g.
"i^^'Cquantity,"
i.e.,
n. 52,
117.140.144,150,250.
Cgood coaditioB"):
w
ivimt CIkhiT): 98
a 13.
whHbt
Mi
("malt-grain"):
230
n. 7.
P
pfhv or p^w ("cooking number" or "cooking ratio," i.e., the
strength of bread or beer): 60, 174, 202 n. 103. See also pefsu and
pesu
in the
288
EX OF EGYPTIAN WORDS
pr-m-w
("altitude"
phdt. 235
n.
1.
20.
/
f&i ("to cook"): 60;/iH': 60,
202
n.
103.
m
my Apr ("as foUows"):
134
196
n.
229
n. 5,
231
n.
13.
mr ("pyramid"):
mh
90, 166.
i.e.,
1/100 of an
mknl'swt C*royalcubit**=7|)a]ins):7,8g.
mft n4s Cshoit cubir 6 palms): 8g.
mbfw ("some part of a buildingT*): 277.
jii^C'<leptli'0:270.
n
n: 104 n. 47.
nyt. 118.
232-33 n.l8g.
r
r ("part,"
For the
i.e.,
differing
in
signs
of the Horus-eye
fractions,
see
the
rmn
("1/2 aroura"): 4, 99
n.
14,
used as "1/2
14.
5 palms); 8g.
289
ri": 12,
99
n.
or r-mn-'^wy 10 ("equivalencies"
237
pairs"): 226,
or "up to
10
n. 34.
96.
n.
("knowledge" or "reckoning" or
"list"
or "amount"); 75,
hnw
lit.:
99
(1 hin
n. 16,
i.e.,
ca. .48
lit.):
14; or .503
180.
hi ("Oh"): 228
n.
3g.
hmw ("rudder"
htf
hkit
247
n. 7.
"a heqat"
half a peck; in
MK
ca.
about 4.8
lit ):
14,
99
little
n. 17. 149;
more than
SI,
hsb ("IMaroura"):
4.
hsbC'MAtry 12,99n.l4.
bsb Cenlistee" or " worked): 270, 279.
jiidC^on"):
172.
b
^1 C* 1000^, also "a 10-aroura measure" 10 stit =1000 ti
=100,000 sq. cubits): 4g; also though by Hdck to be used as a
"lO-ir measure,
i.e.,
1000
99
n. 14;
^-r? ("1000
hpnw
(a kind
n. 78.
of beer): 68.
fist"
290
279
ht or
removed
in
n. 4.
199
n. 78.
^-I^w n
''S
h
hir,
= 20 heqat):
and P)
J (for both
si C'l/S aioiira measure**): 4,
99
n.l4; used
by Hdck (and
247 n.
5.
277.
5i ("scribe"): 143.
stit
the "square
khef or
ti, i.e.,
100 x 100
99
n. 14,
195
n. 65.
221.
S
Si.
Sit
235
n.
20g.
S (or pt
291
=3
pahns): 8g.
i.e.,
on p. 201, note
92.
ii ("grain"): 154.
hp
palm = 4
(a "palm,"
digits): 8g.
i.e.,
the sign
(two such
a hand without
is
ispt:
thumb =
signs,
228
n.
is
the
4g.
is
10, 245.
gm
("find"): 127.
t
155.
for a discussion
1,
of
its
use in
title
186
247
n.
pp. 183-84g.
of a
triangle;
lit.
n. 18.
tnwt ("counting"):
3.
d
dbh
n. 14,
d
4it ("remainder"): 101 n. 27, 186 n. 9.
292
for"):
229
n.
6g.
db^w ("sand
[drt]
fill"):
275, 277.
("hand" or "handsbreadth,"
i.e., flUl
five fingers,
= 4 palms):
293
8g.
cf.
My
plete
is
quite complete.
is
common
volume
sections in the
of,
that consider
The reader
will find a
list
in the
entities.
analysis
section heads
is
this
list
of
in the
volume.
Though
in the
preceding index
have given,
in their accept-
e.g.,
hk^t in the
The reader
is
reminded
often there
is
page
that, as in the
case of
cited.
The Bibliography is not indexed here since it is a single alBut the names of the
list of the works used and cited.
phabetical
A.
Abd
el-Rasoul: 205.
accounts
and This:
at Illahun
Aha (King): 3.
Aha problems
(i.e.,
n.
those involving
Egyptian Words.
Ahmose: 113,
unknown
122.
295
227
quantities):
n.
in the
1,
and see
Index of
n.
118.
Miy:
36.
270, 277.
algebra: 49-51, 53-55, 57, 65, 82, 86-88, 93, 104 n. 49,
n. 55,
n. 1,
107
237
n. 59,
n. 36;
110
n. 71,
187-88
n.
wprewcd
106
227
as atgebiaic
"fidse
posttkm."
193
1 17,
n. S6;
195
68, 197-98
Amenemhet HI (Nymatre):
Amenofi n [Amenhotep
Ammenemes 1:
5, 1 13,
II]:
97-98
122, 185
a 3.
10.
262.
96
218-219, 231-34
"eUipse."
arithmetic progression:
193
17, 55-58,
296
1.
117,
154-56, 170-71,
107,
227
n.
n.
n. 6,
233-34
1,
n.
99
10,
n.
236
18,
n. 30,
n.
240-41, 253
n. 1,
202
n.
262-63,
236
n.
n. 14,
230
n. 9,
13, 122,
184
n. 2.
B.
Baillet,
J.:
104
n.
36.
234
n. 18,
n. 19,
[?] container):
in
&
1,
n. 8,
202
nn.
104
making portions of both: 67-68, 178-79, 202 n. 108, 207-09, 21417, 220, 225-27, 229 nn. 6-7, 231 n. 17, 237 n. 35; 1/2 1/4 beer or
1/2 1/4 malt-beer: 63, 214-17, 220-21, 225-26, 229-30 n. 7, 231 n.
15; sdi-hQev and hpnw-httr. 68, 107 n. 61 (where they are alluded
to but not named); and see "des-jug" and " pefsu."
Benoit, P.: 95
Berlin:
11;
its
n. 1,
99
n.
17, 49,
its
Museum,
n.
67,
S.:
114, 120-21
183-84
n. 6,
n.l.
245-46.
107
200
n.
n. 13,
n.
61, 108-109
90.
Boston,
18,
96
n. 7,
ment IV.6.
bread:
*'beer" since
19, 60-68,
107
n.
297
"Upper Egyptian
British
Museum:
of
"Leather Roll
grain."
113-16, 120
Brooklyn Museum:
Brugsch,
n.
121
1,
n. 9,
14.
114, 121
n. 7.
& 29,
116.
n. 68.
C.
Cairo
Museum
1 1
n. 5.
n.
&
52,
206.
cattle
n.
99.
Cavemg,M.: 99
Cha (or Kha as
tomb: 97-98
n. 20.
it is
n. 10.
120 nn.
Ift3&5,
circle:
a 22,
105
n. 37,
184 n.
1,
n. 50,
106
&
17,
see ''areas."
common denominator: 18, 26-27, 29, 52, 66, 100 a 21, 101
a 35, 119, 190a 30, and see "red auxiliary numbers.*'
103
187
16, 191
& 88-89.
a
a measure of length:
vohim^
a 34.
(bdow
67,
1, 7,
in this entry)
298
16,
10,
195-96
96 na 5
68,
237
ft 8, 166-
of a se^at or
aroura, q.v.): 4,
n.
96-98
n.
10,
98
n.
13,
and see
D.
Daressy, G.: 109
deben: 201
n.
67.
92.
Democritus: 95
Den, King:
n.
n. 1.
5.
des-jug, a liquid
measure and
"Table of Two."
divisions
by
fractions: 143-48.
Djer, King: 3.
Djoser, King:
5.
Eisenlohr, A.: 28, 30, 32, 101 n. 22, 114-15, 121 nn. 8-10,
184
n.
1,255-56.
Elephantine: 11.
ellipse, its area: 79,
108-109
n.
67.
n.
96, 203
n.
118.
n.
212
n. 8,
n.
230
Erman,
A.,
[Es]neh: 11.
299
5.
Example or exemplary
some
of the
examples
(translating
tp;
184
appearance
n.
term
of the
1;
and
"example"
at the
beginning
LQ5
50, 187-88 n.
2L15Qn.30,152n.44,193n.55,2ainn. 93&95,227ilL23J
n. 14,
247
n. 4,
n.
47,237n.34,279n,4,28Z
114.
n.
109
ti
68, 167-
tions," "reciprocals,"
G
Gardiner, A.H.: 4, 24-25, 95
152
n.
46,
23D
n.
n. 4,
99
nn. 14
&
16-17
& 20,
n.
56, 179,
203
n.
109-10
&
96
n. 5,
1D6
n.
53,
m7 nn.
58-
& 64-66, 116, 187 n. 16; precepts for the Table of Two:
41-42; his G rule: 47; 2/3 table of fractions and other tables: 46-48,
104 nn. 38 & 41-46; on two-term equalities: 47; on harmonic mean:
59
67,
61
202
n.
107,
236
n.
32;
on the area of a
circle:
300
n. 61; on the
on the area of a
n.
18;
on red aux-
nil
22;
n.
"Lower Egyptian
Museum's and
MO,
21LJ2
2, 7, 74,
n, 18.
95n.4,96nn. 5^&9,99n.l4,109
n.68,121n.l0,152n.46;his Petrie Papyri: 158, 239, 247 n, 8,
and Document IV. 3; his "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus": 101 nn.
23-24, 121
n. 10,
lB4n.
Gunn,
156
94,107
nn.
61&66,mn.
68.
n.
n.
40, 115-16,
"Peet....hisandB. Gunn's."
tt
Hall,
H.R.:257n.l
228
n. 4,
226
n.
1-9, 48,
236
n. 68,
219,
32.
harpedonaptai: 95
n,
Hatshepsut: 102
25.
n.
107,
109
8.
n. 10,
98
n.
H, 102-103
n.
35.
228
n. 4;
of a
301
n. 2;
of a
or cone
pillar
(?):
215, 229
n. 5,
m)
86, 90,
2U
of a
nn, 13-14;
&
71-72
nn.
LU
75,
pyramid and
right
n.
its
frustum: 83,
n.
of the
96
5,
99
nn. 14
&
16.
of a hemisphere: 154
hen or henu,
n.
60.
46-47, 180-81.
its
its
fractions (see
152
n.
2,
95
10
n. 75.
2.
6.
from
7/2, 1/4...
46, 201
n.
94,
203
is
twice
its
series
of fractions
successor): 13-15,
nn. 110-11,
of Egyptian Words.
Hultsch,
F.:
Hyksos:
5,
13,
n, 12.
L
Ibscher, H.: 261.
Illahun,
Temple of
19, 68,
211
n.
5,
n.
118
counts."
7Z
J.
James,
TGH
lH
302
K.
201
n.
5,
m1
158
n.
7,
23D
n. 9,
236
n.
^5
Khnum (Chnum):
11.
L.
land measurement:
M,
"setjat."
IV. 1
Document
Lenormant,
F.:
14,
120
n. 5.
7^ 95
nn.
n.
109.
& 4, 9 6-97 n.
10,
m9 n.
68.
Lower Egyptian
grain: 182.
n.
67,
lli
M.
malt-date beer: see "beer."
95-96
Metelis:
n.
LL
303
tri-
Metropolitan
Museum (New
York): 10-11.
5,
17, 91,
Arts:
202
205-06, 211
103, and see
n.
n.
5;
its
Document
IV2
multiplication: 20-21, et passim, multiplications
of fractional
N.
Nag'^edDeir:
Narmer:
2dL
2,
mi
n.
n.
29, 105-106
52, LQ2
57; his Exact Sciences: 103 n. 35; his Vorlesungen: 93, 1111 n.
29,110n.72,Uln.76,211n,lihis
rechnung": 101
n. 29.
its
Society:
14.
UX
height at Flooding:
20,
264.
Ninetjer, King: 5.
III): 1 13,
122,
O.
n.
15,
64
n.
P.
palm (= 4
1D9
272-78
n. 35,
n. 68,
fingers):
3,
7^
166-68, 2Q0nn.
98
n. 13,
83&90,223,236n.29,
103
265-67,
&
12,
230.11
n.
13,
304
n.
19 5-96
60
& 62-63, m n.
1
Moscow
the
Document
"Mathematics
68; his
il
9L
69,
1 1 1
105-106 n.52,
im
nn.
n.
Papyrus:
IV.2: his
in
5L
"A Problem
in
&
23J
Petrie,
n. 7.
W.M.F.:96
n: 74-75,
Pithom:
107, 207-09.
17,
212
n. 32,
a
227
8,
214-17. 220.
35,
5&8.
nn.
a 61
108-09
IL
place-value system:
4::5,
20.
236
in
na 6
&
7,
mQa20,m)a75,187a2L 202al0L211al4;
in artistic representation: 94, LLl
proportion
77.
6.
Pythagorean theorem:
9,
Q
quantification in Ancient Egypt: 1-20.
quantity: 25, 50,
Ramesses
III:
79.
reciprocals:
3L
33-36,
a1
LL
example of their use
in
42,44,58,66,94,169,186a7;
reciprocal notation
m2a30,nMa43,119,253aL
rectangle: 6^ 19, 68, 78-79, UB a 67, 162, 1^ a
214-15, 230 nn. 9 & LL 245, 247 a 7, 251; its role in
of
unit fractions:
207,
305
71,
the
156
n.
62, 163-64,
n.
68, 197 n. 69, 214-15, 23J n. 14, see "areas" and also hiyt in
numbers
auxiliary
or
red
auxiliaries
75,
8L mi
auxiliary
n.
35,
26L
Reisner Papyrus
remainder
or
22, 102-103
n.
18, 43,
I:
(i.e.,
n.
a L
189
n. 9,
n.
27,
1^
n.
61,
^5
n.
67.
of Egyptian Words.
Rhind, A.H.: 113,255.
Rhind Papyrus: 5^:6, 14, 16-17, 28, passim, and see Document IV. 1, and the entry "Chace."
Ritter.
J.:
95
n.
/320 of a heqat):
Rodet,
L.:
m6 n.
56,
203
n.
4.
S.
UL
Schack-Schackenburg,
Hj
249-50, 252
n.
and Document
lYA
Schiaparelli, E.:
Scott,
Scott,
9 6-98
n.
UL
A.:256,257n, 1
N.E.:98nn. 11-12.
Selincourt, A.
95
n, 2.
n.
306
see
95 n. 2; Sesostris I: 262.
epagomenal birthday: 203-04
Sesostris: 2,
Set[h], his
K.:99n.
Sethe,
setjat
of the
n.
118.
19, 116.
n. 9;
first
in
in
normal
hieratic
Egyptian
rather than with the special Horus-eye signs): 13, 164-66, and see
siit in
shadow-clock:
11.
Sheikh
n.
92.
shoemaker-problem: 226.
Shu: 11.
Silverman, D.: 99
n.
20.
of pyramids and
pillars
252-53
n.
n.
or as
measures such as
n. 8,
99
n.
all
and thus
14,
1 1 1
n.75, 120
203
n.
56,
1,
and see
St.
307
finally as the
n.
n. 6, et
passim
tables
of:
n. 56.
109.
Fig. IV.23.
48;
Document
184
n. 1,
195-97
n.
68,
202
n.
IV. 2 passim.
T.
Table of Division by
10: 19,
among 10 men:
n.
13,
271-
134-35; divisions of a
its
Document
IV. 5.
Table of
Two
(the division
101): 16, 17, 19, 24-42 (and the endnotes to these pages),
102
n.
Thebes: 97
This,
n. 10,
102
n. 35, 1 13,
255.
a 68,
197-98
n. 71,
198
110.72-74.
triangles: 6, 70-74, 163-65, 195-97 a 68, 197-98 a 71, 212
a 8, 213-15, 222-23, and see spdt in the Index of Egyptian Words.
Tsinserling
207,211-12
a 6.
Turin: 9, 97-98
211
a 5.
10.
U.
Upper Egyptian
''alge-
and "equations.**
grain or bariey: 63, 177, 216-17, 220, 231
17.
308
Van
41, 101
n.
16; his
n. 4,
"The
256, 260
n. 5; his
'Die Ent-
n. 1, 1
Vleming,S.: 95-9611.
10 on. 69
& 71.
110 n. 71.
4.
n. 75,
195
256.
&
in a granary.
W.
water-clocks:
1 1,
200 n.
82.
n. 92,
and
see "deben.**
Wol^G.: 109 n.
68.
Y.
year of 365 days: 22, 171, and the epagomenal di^: 201
96, 203 n. 118.
309
n.
Part Four
Illustrations
Illustrations
The
illustrations
the most part, been taken from the chief publications in which
many of them
are used
to
illustrate
or
in this
supplement
While
volume.
my own
ol'
them
in
mentioned by
their
Document IV. 1:
Document IV.2:
Document IV.3:
Document IV.4:
Document IV.5:
Document IV.6:
Figs. IV.6a-t.
Figs
IV 12
and IV.15a-b.
appear
find
Figs IV.2a-aaa.
in
ography
at the beginning
of Part
III
313
of the volume.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. IV.O
Pellegrini
from right
to left).
The
1.32).
The
of that
Note
left
line, the
that
In line 5, bo.xes
and
in
4,
wc
box
sign for 2/3: fr^; and in line 6, box 4. the sign for 3/4: fv".
Gardener
in his
Grammar,
p.
that of 3/4 as
315
and
\.
\ 5nC
3'
1
*
<i
<*
^;
<lH
1* A'i
^ *
a
I *
.IS
i_
41
\ i
At
ill;
<
<
s 1 <
VMJ
5I
I
ill
^-1
Ml
55,
^li
1
ce
cc
e*I
ce: -
2 a
"5
CSC
c:=
ii
o.
a,
Ja
ll
ti
WW''
a i
3--
-a
T-
3}=
I'll
r=
tf
-i
-J
5^
?^
-*
IC
"
2.
..S3
si
J,
III
J*
2'
5
a
o
O
i
C C3C3
OBI
ca
II
1"
316
Copyrighted material
ILLUSTRATIONS
C. Hunderter.
a:
T->
tl
J}
*<
&
pf)^
>4
CM
at
tm
u
mm
57>
111
im
^.^
111
Li
ma
la:
lai
at
ni
srjT
MO
Ik*.
e. Zehniausendcr.
wo
Ml
f!
1,
n
n
GA2
111
(Jim.)
ou Mow.
HundertUusender.
CM
!
J.
n(.IV.lb Olker|ioiicaonai.lUd[.n.61-3.
317
Copyrighted material
318
ILLUSTRATIONS
Ir07-T]9
1
MhW
MahM
ekws
Matt.
Bruchteifs
Ma^W
mm.
vom
o
M.W
707
713
y?
4^,11.
z
708
714
4-
o.
...
CJ:
j
i
1
<^
o
709
*
V2. fa
715
/
i\
"U
"I
III
716
710
(^]
-!.
I-'-
1
fix
1 1
D%
* im
717
Mfff
718
'7'
712
719
-Lo.
3i
ri
Fig. iy.ld
Honis-^e
319
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
ILLUSTRATIONS
II
C.
UmrS226
P.
HohlmaPse.
Leuvr* 3226
RoHin
696-713
Uiivri3226
Hlrrlj
P. Roilln
p.
Rollln
Mania
6i>5
()
I i
697
J'
(V)
miu
2i
2M*|j
Tf
s
Bruchteile
vom
Os,\
iMumt
lMr* 3226
-<
711
708
SIM
11
liS
2ir2a.
2V,
o
709
i.
o;
712
)^
A.
in
710
i-o..
713
Tliirtmoila
III.
S(hoi
t.
R*ins
II.
Rjmjn
Thulmesis
IV.
til.
Sethes
1.
R*m>>
II.
Rjmsei
IV.
1
i
I--
Fig.IV.lh DiyiiieMiiic8aiidHoni>^ftictioiisorahe(|Bt.iM^^
323
Cop/righted material
Copyrighted material
II-
1-^*
lis
""
II-
1'
rs"
i* Si!
to
CO
04
n
Q
Q
>
Q
SI"
O C
r
\
vt
m
u
II'
10
"
9-
lU
*-
Cr'
fM
as
DO
o E c
I)
.y
Q.
J2
>
>
,^
So
#-f^^fll()vk(^r:i:(Ei
5. c
Copyrighted material
55
Q
<
4
>
'11
Q
Ed
Q
>
"I
.8
8
s-
.5
ii
'
II-
Si
Jl
gsQ
t'^
!?
ski's
ft.>
_
an?
-us
is
I-
i
^^
Or
- 0:
fl-
.1
I:
3'
04
n
Q
>
<
U
4*
327
Copyrighled material
0":-
J!
0: -
0=J-
''''
5.
0\
Oc..
01..
i-
0=
II
2
at)
Q
>
Q
OS
<
JS
O E
u
.S
'
00
I
0^
(N
e
TD
tj
5
Of:
<5
Q
>
Q
4^
:1
Oh-
II
Copyfighled material
Iv
<
>
to
4)
>
"0
Q
Q
>
00
tii
Q
F1
"
(N
.2
.=
a.
>
i
j=
4)
I*"
5
\
S
(jr.-
It-
(i:
I-
s1
{!;
las
m
Q
Q
5. II:
lis
Cop/righted material
DIVIDED BY 29
AND 3I
-A
"m
iiniigt
.
iiiiW
*1
Iff
4
4I
Ill
.1
ft
t
!Tfr
A^l
no=l
linn 9
II
..t
fWt
*.!
Jtf.
PtaimiU,
A-
II
nn 9
11
Plum ii-iii
Phte 10
DIVIDED BY 33 AND 35
'I.
"nn
WIUM
"
U.1
ii"""
*
HI
Ml
nop
$^
Fig.
IV.2e
B.
330
PUte II
DIVIDED BY 37 AND 39
nl
'
tal
Mi
MWI
unao
HI *
(I
""S^
*l
im
B5
III
III
til
HI
111
Bk
I
"I
'linn
III*
I-
III*
Ml*
M MkIt
"
Plate 12
"
jUI
h"!
iiiinw
mino
im^
ium*w
ii
Mi
<'
inn"''
".
Mt
DIVIDED BY 4I
-^
""
*J
"^.i
'iM
It
.-iiiii**'^
""nn^' ""im
Mi
'S3
"'
T?!
JIi
"/TV"
>
'!
'
*T'A'.'nTl,
M|
"/ "If"
<
'n
tj'
to
1 j
Fig. IV.2f
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., 77?^ Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (OberUn, Ohio. 1929). Plates U-12.
Cop/righted matBrial
DIVIDED BY 43
on
...
llln>
nn
"
III
i
HI
t
Plate
DIVIDED BY 45
^J-
AND 47
lJU
-A-
nnn
i
II
^^
.III
An
iiinn
i.i
III
^
'iM9
III'
Uttgrafi 1 V, Rigutwt
3-4.
Vkut 15
DIVIDED BY 49 AND
5I
==A
I.
nn
ulna
III
III
iiiDiai
ml
iiiinn
1
III nn
.1
-,
ml y'
iiSH f
"i
in
AA
4I
II
nn
II
'9 V
^
I
>
>
nf
Pitttgrafk
iv,
JUguttrt $-6
B.
Plate
DIVIDED BY
53
AND 55
AH-.
Mil
".r
'
iiinnn
99
II AMI'
II
ITT
'"'88'
'11'/
ii
lil
999
II
Hon f
*>
II
99
OAS
II
I
II
mi
III
iii_
f
III
iir
IV.2h
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
MmthemattemI Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlln. Ohio. 1929). Pistes 15-16.
Fig.
Plate
DIVIDED BY 57 AND 59
1^1
iiiin.
>
11-^
iiiin
*<t
Ij
>
inn'"
n f
HI
III
n
ti
II
'*
1
iniA
III n
I
nn
11
"n^"'
t
MIAMt
*
MMtw
MMtf
III)
Ui
.MMI
'
81
HI
t
Fhte
DIVIDED BY 61
1^
X -
Hil
itn
nil
nnno
noon
Vnnw
.nnn
nnno
nnn
1P>
III
4
rfrT
II II
Fig.
IV.2i
Hieratic
text
Hiinnmfm
AJKApMy^MHwiv^
nil
^^-^
M
ID
*
UUUIII
Q
>
I
cu
re
1)
CO
>.U
Z e
.i
CL
Ok
>
fci'
u n a
\
'V.
obi
CO
NO
>"
D
Q
>
335
Copyfighled material
Fbte ai
DIVIDED BY 67 AND 69
<>
ilinn<:>
iini
II
Mt
iTu
MM
a
^
nn
on
[Si
iiinno
="
mil
1P
nmn^
*
11
(iimw
Mil
Ul
II
>
flu
.1
n ff
ill
-1.
iiiinn
nil
iiinn
n t
llllVI
iiiinn.
Plate
Phttgrafk
Fig.
IV.2k
DIVIDED BY
VI,
Rigutv 4
jif.
71
text
la
CQ
Q
Q
>
Q
-S
n
(N
M
a.
re
c
n
(N
O
00
^ ^
vt
c 3
re
0.-X
re
c c
<0
re
re
JZ
re
(II-
.2
fSI
>
T)
n
Q
Q
>
Q
?CC-
11
Copynghied
material
Copyrighted material
13
OH-
si-
CO
oo
m
Q
u
"rs
g
>
Q
00
I
(N
a.
L.
v>
C
(0
u
Q.
<7
(N
0^
O
00
tee
ccc
2 i
.ii
c 3
u
le
(N
ce
51?
fi
00
m
Q
Q
>
Q
a-
cc
cc
cc
"
Copyrlgtiled maleriat
I
\
to
J.
ccc ^
ccc
fee
Cc
J."
f$
<
s=
!c
Q
Z
<
Hi-
>*
="
U
.1
.5^
0-
J= .=
I*.
He
<
{^..
<n
9
6^
^^
C
u- IV
c
O
^4
cn
o
U u
TO
>U
0 E c
1 o ^
T3
u,
C
n
>
CL i>
CO
TO
j= ^
a^
oo
Q
<
QO
CQ
>
Q
Or
I
^
Copyrighted mateiial
DIVIDED BY 93
iUl{
J4l
^1.
ffT
Plate
AND 95
U
"*8R
fvin
ArtAO 9
-1
nnnn
P/ioiograph
viii,
R^ittert
3-4.
Plultgrafh
ix,
V9
niYi
ill
Plate
DIVIDED BY 97
AND 99
III
I
nnn
HI
III
nn
III
nnn
nnn
nnn
71
iiin/v^
111
nn
'
ii-nnnn
nil
nnn >>
III
;;;
11
nnnn
nnn
III
at*
I.
1/
HI
iiiiRI^H
nnn
III
III
lllnnn
nil
1
Phttograph
viii,
Regiitert 5-6
fi.
1 1 1
nnn
nnn
onn
onn
nnn 9
nnn
M K Hutorical
Sociity
Fragmtntt
IV. 2p
Hieratic
text
Plate 33
DIVIDED BY
lOI;
THE NUMBERS
Pkttagrafh
jllst
x,
R^istirs 2-3
Photograph
ix,
B.
M.
N. Y. Historical
I-9
lO
Frtgnunts
IV. 2q
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus From Chace
Fig.
DIVIDED BY
transcription of the
et
al..
The Rhind
<
I
z -
*-
-aA
'
I
ro
m
o
5S
u
V
(N
St
If
1
.y
So-
O
o
I
u
fN
Acs Acs
e*5
;
^1
...
n
O
a*
343
Copyrighted material
00
1:^
^^.^
i
VO
-S
00
1^
OQ
,2g
lA
t>
+-*
re
Oh
"
c i
*>
rsi
re
>:u
o
u
u
^
ca
re
^
E
(N
- -a
I
_
r)
feo
OQ
O
II
344
Copyrighted materia)
IT
Q
s:
<
0:
CQ
o
0\
OO
04
^ *
^rn.
(1
\i
c
rsi
CQ
o o
5
0Ur
a.
>:u
t P u
4)
c 3
u
(0
O
(N
>'
0\
00
r,2"y
-113
Q.
>
In
i5
Of.
1
'
05.
CQ
Qui
345
Copyrighled material
1c
t i
Q
.
(rf
in
\h
Oi- i
C/3
If: r.
*-
:5 (N
11:
II
CQ
1-
OE-
SP
15
-o
Q.
>
(0
>
Q
Z
<
I- 11-
il
5:
fid
CQ
o
Ji-
(10L,
0 c..
if
Hi- ll.
S *
a
01.
Il1
Copyrighted material
Plate
PROBLEMS
I7 l8, 19,
AND
43
30
''s'il
IS V;
""no
*l
'
>
""""
n
ti*i
Ti
iiiimn
lit
TTi
.1,
T^
*i
III
ml
a
iin
"
1
1 i
Plate
PROBLEM
21
-V-
ti
Fig.
IV. 2v
Hieratic
^
^.Ml
II
II
text
Ilr^'
r = -II-IM
1-
to
to?
IN
c:
\0
I
Hi04
Q.
u
u
C
1st
ass
TO
TO
j:
to
CL
0^
(N
r*
ax
e
(U
E
O
C 3
n u
O
jE
00
>,
TO
Q.
>
re
u
TO
^1 7
>
c
BO
I
cc;
1^
<
fiQ
ic 8
s *
ZS
^6
CC
<
- -
-O
=-
3!
- ^
'
Copyrighted material
M
M
CCS
<4
fid
-Id
.9-
10
is
I-
2 E
'i:
c ?
T3
\
02;==-
=s
0>-<
=j= -
_C_ ;
CQ
I-
>
^
>
flu
=S
>o ?
^
O
0 s
**
Ok
^
1
<
c s
0 =
Copyrighted material
ILLUSTRATIONS
W
\
II
'
Dr
3S0t
I
.1-1
c-s
V S
zc
V:
OS
i*>
()'.
(0
&
(N
(0
*-
Oc-:
00
S -
fN
a"
u ?
re
"
^2
>
.
<:
9v
i!P
;i
r>
2
s
=
j= '5
o:
Ml?;
fl
= -
=S
9
4.
351
cc
Cop/fighied materia)
Pbte 53
PROBLEM
T
UK
HI
31
_
111
SIR
(1
4l
in Z ~^
n
>>
t-ll
III!
till
I"
<iu 111
rtrt
ti
-a
<
Ml
aM T
MA *
nn
lit
kit
iiHonnA'
ti
*l
abl
UI
^^
ir
It
akin
flK
14
111
Mania
It
Tf?;
ml
HI 1 V,
Tnt
Hi
V**
Plitte
PROBLEM
^
A "c^* ''^^
tA-^x-^^'-^
u
ife
iO
,
"""T
iiiinM
<
411
^* d
>>> o f
54
32
ji
im n
k
li
Hi
^nmnlli^awiiiVi
nil
""MSr
^im
Ml
'
'
I
(I
iiinn*Miiii>fi
*14
ai4
ii^
iH]Mr
,,rt(i^
"<w inn
II
J-4j
'nn999
noo 9
!>
Ill
mm**"*'* "n
itlti
i4
m4
(4
nn
"nn
"Com
4i
il
iii'rt*^*--**
mm
II
irn^^i -^L
tl<
INM
mi
*(
nil
* >
Minn
111
mi
Minm^>
4S4
n mi n i"
ei
lltinn
...
4i
n
t4
A^B tmr^
IMA**
im
4
""^M
m0r'
<<
u
M
r
SBS
II
*
H
H
*.
441
tm*
*%
(at
B.
M. P^timUt, PltmiM.
Copyrighted material
Plate 55
PROBLEM
<
iiiinn
at
Vfi^noo
'
114
ill!
33
iiion
III
III
TC^^ i
T\A
^ ^ = ^ ^* V*
"'mi '"'fon
iiiinn
"nn
I iii'nni
111 t
III
14
'm
HKWi
nnnn
'
"
i..
>
nnnn hm
'.'InnoW m^DT
'
mi
.fPO
IBt
!Ln
<=
nrmnjc
Ml
nm
III"
iii rvi'
fm;;;'S^Mi'"
\\vt\9i^
*i
*i
fi*
IN
7T
ml
iinn
iii
at
IIII2S
^
^Min
limn
j*'!'"^
.1
=''="inin
t a u
!=:
II
t*i4
11
"nn>I
4 4
iiiinnI
Pluttgraph
al
B.
5-6
XIV, Rigisters
>
41
M.
^IIIIIK
iiii
III
""iiii
>>
=:i
li
Plate 56
PROBLEM
34
<^mll
iiiin
liiuvi
""o
nil
<
41
Til
iiiiAO
ml
It
'
=^
"I
II
1!!;
iiinnn
III
f
4>
iiii> iiii<=>
,,"= ffff
""n ""n Vu
minn
iiiinn
(i
*i
41
II
nil
nil
II
III
II
111
Q T
/S^M^
nil
Fig.
IV.2bb
B.
M.
Facsimile, Plate xi
ct
al.,
The Rhind
00
I
\
s.
a.
fl
111.
Of
08-
is
01:
-:
OR
c2
=<=!
0 1
ii..
PI*
Mi
U "0
-= .C
f
1
^"
5c
u.
I'll'
l!
lO
i-
6;
fS
J
"ES
CL.J=
11
OP?
3
if:
Hi
X
o
E =
flV-;
= =
*J
P u
-o
CO
U(M
C 3
X k'S
iiCL>
>.
0
<^
Co
IB
'
y "
11
I
Biv
(N
3t
>
III
It
.;n*^
is
<9
to
CO
u. a:
<
as f
CQ
O
o<
Ou,
J-:^-
(1
Oc5 Qci
Copyrighted matorlat
Plate
PROBLEM
59
37
^K^^mjL
il^ai
I.
ii
lit
AAA
If
DM
It
m
"on .Mn
iiinm
4i
4
"."
44i
hi
gk
iiiinnfin
iiiTT
-^
(1
iii.nrtno^nrtST
<
'
"^1111
>t 4
'
mn
ii
4l
41
>i
>1
<ifn
ill
^
ITT
>.>
1ft
II
t
III
tin Mil
44
nil
.1
vl.
-a
k(
fti
1
iiiifmnn**
nil
IS!
iii>"^n iiin
iiMwrns^
iiinrti^
fti
Minn
ml
llin
1111
llllo
III
.a.
1,1
III
1*
?fi
-m U
viK
i>
(4
i
Ill
>
'
4 *mi
111
111
01
n
DO
1^
i i
041
4i
t 4>4
&
xiv-rv, Rigattr 3
Phtiegraph
x-xi
Plate
PROBLEM
"ij
l#v
iiift
ol
r'
"is^
iiiftAo
iis;
iv>
>i
44
cn Wi
S
li
i"Wi,iiS;iT=>
:k
44
si
li
44
imn
>i
41
V n
utok'lio
1J(k
i,l
.f
i(
^ "Tiki A
.ifrt la
iiinw
11
114
M199
4i
SOI.
x\
^tt^
44
41
i 44.
4i
mm
li
38
lA
ti
m!Kiiii'^r^=
Htnnn
n A
m"''X!r
101
1.4^
>
It
XkX
|d-td
tk
41
l-m^J
* di44
>/
44
4l
iTf
4i
I>
44
li
li
J >
li
"9r
5.
^.
"miSinC"^
li >1
li
li
Ml
111
l/i
"t
>
>
>>
ml
/
U4
i
11 >
IV.2dd
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et at., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin, Ohio. 1929), Plates 59-60.
Fig.
Rhind
it
;!"
60
Hi:
J,'
I
-
fl
-=
0\
ll<
Vz
1-1
n
o
u "0
A*
S3
CI.
I*
flj
01
-w
fl s
01
flirt
" " o
^.
^u
60
o
.E
M O
3^
I
?
I-
s
9
>o
=s
II-
111=
o
^^^^
S5 V"' ||: =.
%:
f:
i:
I-
t-
I-
Or -
0= -
OS"
I-
''^'^^^
OJ- Ji" i
Copyrighted material
PUte 63
PROBLM
nil
Mil
>9
m
41
1
nil 'ML >
t-ld
nno
'^^
nn
\ff99
UM^
""ftrtO
'
lilt
innrwinn
Phetagraph
xviii,
Rigisun t-s
044
oi
!i>
"
ta
J9L
Plate
64
PROBLEM 42
.-A|>*infJJA-.4.^xll^A4A^^ci2L'2,
"I
Ml
It
..J
1.
1IM<=. <=>
lilt
jr
'""XS' Ml S
iMl
n 111^
4i
n<=.ti.i..||nnon,
icir III rmn
ns
nil
MM
a lU
4
bh
Ol
41
11
nil
? 0
WpS
illu
II
1.,.'^"^
"
fi
M h
0
I
'
"n9s>9
>
"infmn
nil
;;i
!>
pi
iiii=>
1 (
1)
'
>!
nnn
01
I
imnnn
nil
^>I!Ir>n
t
f-4
wnnn
Ml
4
1*
no
at
^
on ^
iiKi "n
si
41
tl
iiil
>
rt
nil
>
40i
4I>
ill
nn
li
iiH
ml o
4i
nil
!!!
iiii-i"i=
n-=-
noo >
II
HI
fl
M,~V,
II
r,r.
<
ont
4i
in
11
ID
inmMiinMim
Mi
Ml
iiH
mnn
'
It
IMl
4
ll(l>
MM
Nil
Hnn WA
*!!!!
4
Phuttgrafki xviii-xix,
R^utrt
3-4,
15
oi
III
in
It
III
11
4 y
Copyrighted material
Pbte 65
PROBLEM
43
nnn
iiiiO
oi
*i
'I'ffn
n no
4
11"
nil
<=>
r\r\
St
OS
>
MKT
MM
fin!
Ill
^m'
Tit
Ml
'
'
III
II
il ^
i
>
i V
JBl
"i"""?*
no 99
]^Tni/i
inn"
i
Af. ftcrfwatt
>ll
M
V
fiiwr mi-mh
Plate
66
PROBLEM 44
B.
M.
Copyrighted material
Plate
PROBLEM
^*
rt
,
^
*"-^iiO"'| <=^
Pktagrafht
f !
a S
>
A if AaMtk AkMr
xix-xx. Roister j
67
45
al
asi
at
9???
y i
iiifwnn
II
mv
non
'
att
Plate
68
PROBLEM 46
i't
If
1 >
aa W-^a
f a!
ai
a S
f-*>
aa
f.al a*
k-at-fclaa
at
|-aiaial
il
iwi
wf V*^m
aai aai^a
Pkmgrtfki
XIX-XX, Rifiittr
<
a^'ifl
^ I - ^ta
k>a|-Bt
aaa
*o
f-ai a alatf
nnn9
no
i|tvM aa at
xiii-xiv
Fig. lV.2hh
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et a!., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin, Ohio. 1929). Plates 67-68.
::r
I '
'it
O^r
31'
.
0??
(f
c S
I*,
tm?
fSf
0=2
O C"
in
ti
11-:
V o
T3
C
(0
^
^
'
s.-
ar
4-
rn
Jc'
j.
0
'
1^
^4
ifet ai
ii
II c.
5'
360
til
I
I
Plate 71
PROBLEM 49
ftbO.<
w.
MOMi
oi
000,1
It
fk
.(1.
t .;
fi.
,,1^
W.
Plate 72
PROBLEM
11
50
mill
z"*^
'a
"
11,1
nil III JL
ii
l")?
Illl
ni>n
nil
'
I
lu
c^fmx.
Ink
IV.2jj
:;;;,'^;;;;^'a-n--i--;;;;^,:i
III'
Fig.
r'
Hieratic
text
Copyrlgtiied maienal
Phte 73
PROBLEM
51
mi
'
.fi
t.
<l
hi
6f(
I'll
pt
>
wp
^-t-fcl
fki|tt
rf-t-kl
Plate
PROBLEM
74
52
eeo.t
ooe,'
nil
>
t-kl
o ,*
t-fcl
OOV
> mf
tf-t^*
Fig. IV.2kk
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 COberlin. Ohio. 1929), Plates 73-74.
CopyrigMed
material
OXUSTRAHONS
I
>
u.
\
Oi---
.2 ;5
4- 0-1
04
it" is i
_r ST
M ^'
C
If
(0
ij
8":
J,.
E =
C 3
n
"-'
^ m O
*-
a.
>
5'
re
I.
5 J
V
4-
CO
::7
4^^
v-
0^?
hi
^*
''
U
f^^^ 1^1 4-
363
4^:
J^
2:
tj5
Hate 77
PROBLEM
55
Ml
tn
r^-hiH
ik
>..k.>t i*-H
>i-!!>
"-^
'
A ^. FttimiU, Plst* m
7
PROBLEM 56
0g
si
M^-kiw
MMfniyiirnHBai, Jtffnar
ipu
B.
ikf
ikwa
art
<
^,
M. FaaMJb, Pkutx*
Fig. IV.2mm
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
Mmthematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin, Ohio. 1929). Plates 77-78.
PROBLEM
PAlUgrapAi
JUti-Mii,
Router
B.
79
Plate
80
57
M.
PROBLEM
Plate
Facsimile, Plate xv
58
nno
I
T7
Fig.
lV.2nn
Copyrighted material
Phte 81
p.<r.
,.dT<
k'**-*'
- I' (
t-kt -
b-
HII
lit
t-^ f"
tIM
lU
"
Oi
iki
fc-Ah-:
Plate 82
PROBLEM 60
1A -
1]
'
-^i'^^tM^A'^-':i:zA::^
IV.2oo
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et a!., 77?^ Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin. Ohio. 1929). Plates 81-82.
Fig.
Rhind
Copyrighted material
Plate
PROBLEMS
6l
AND
83
6lB
ml
t
II
' eD
ft
Mil
*l
ti
f>
('^;
ins
III,
t-r^*
Ul
Ul-p&
Mi4C^=a>ii>
km
Mt-i
li
4 )
Hi HISS
ai
""TT
Pkt^rafJk
B.M.Naimih,Flum\
Plate
PROBLEM
%^
It.
Ai
^-^
..
uv.', ;Tr =
1)
N.,"*^
.
IV
Xf'^
^1
''^
t., ..
^"4,?,^ (w,,.?^^^p5|i
-S-
-lrf1^-Sif^-^l- 'Sit
w>wp
mitfc*kf|)l
r^sx:11)
^I'tf
i-|w;
III
/o
t-l<
62
k-
k:
/>iUr<i/>/i>jaiii-xHv,itviiMMr>i-3
Fig.
IV.2pp
Jl JUL Ante
Mm* m-m
84
Plate 85
PROBLEM
m;^ ='--^--1
^^s 3
63
SI
,.^-^^M\^iZ^%iCm
o
lift
i-lA'IP:^
iall^-7-
iJF^?^^i::i^_1< Tw^^^-^
bn
miw'u-
311
-T^
c:i
rr
Ml
la
^ n
e94
9W
>b
M
999
I
'
^^^^
*=>
m4
3
t<<
41
,5
|.
ff
034
=,
Facssmilty
Plata
xvi-xvii
Plate
86
PROBLEM 64
-3^C-ai>
oi
dMd
bi A 4
4i
-fiat's -aot
i(
41 4 i
^X"
'^^O
41
ft
4r
4t
'
41 4
^3,^.-sii>
41 t 4
41*
IV.2qq
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1929), Plates 85 86.
Fig.
Rhind
Copyrighied material
Plate
PROBLEM
aM-
Z^':ZZ>
.1
..
..,.r
i"-?'!:'-
-f -
''All
87
65
i"**
i-i.4-.rt--'*
'--I
nil
n
4i
'
...
Plate
PROBLEM 66
^ ^iAi,=r^%i.t
3J3^^itrr.i4.iAn-U3-
.ft
1Mi
V.
sail
fah
A JC JtwrfwflK Mm mi
Fig. IV.2rr
88
Plate
89
PROBLEM 67
-i-
^1
K,
no/v*
...
____
^
i
np .(nm
i>
tvj
iji
"1""
ti
"
"
k h
pi
f n u.iii
In
6l
>
on
15
KM n
i.^.-^iu
iHt (f-wi
l-ivk
up w^nm n
JJ
Is''
k-
If
"
'
nil n
dmd 6i
111
wi
-*,t
"'I
J
s
uUwt
o litt '"^^4
tnh
^.V)-yfi\
5.
Plate
90
PROBLEM 68
ir^f-CIO| iill^'f^^Ooo*!
SJa*l4>M4
)4feM4
^f-iJO|
IJll
nil
ijA44*t4IM
9 41
'ri'=>J.<JO~|
iMl/o^
jyA4*i4Sl
HI
4 U/ntmh
.11
or
UNi
MX
4i a
dmd
>
ifpt
l>>)
ool
mj
ain^i
dud
n
05
^
imi
nil
OH
^mjj
-f-
"its;
^
n in
II
=*^*^
IAS It
^inn ff-=>
i
JR 44
>
wA'tnb
1^*1^
-CJOo,.|
41
M.n.
nil
'
[t|J<t)l>k-4
tt
Or
41
fl.
M.
Fig. IV.2ss
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1929), Plates 89 90.
Rhind
Copyrighted material
Plate 91
PROBLEM 69
noon
imnn
08
tnif
(I.I
OXil dmJ
IM
4ll
<
wit
t-M
t'w
OZ5
%ff
eft
ft
4i
I)!'' j
td*
J4
11
IJ
14
lA.
M1.4 ii
2 >
M 4
i>
Mil JJ
Fkise
91
PROBLEM 70
411
14 i
II
miff
"I
,^i
ii
tAzli4t
01
0211
t-m^
CBI
<
!1
"
9
II
/-i-r?i?::4iAiP
n-
"'#'H'i!ni5C5!:i"'
mi
II
oM
liifll
in"n
Mai *l4
>
t.i|t
bit.
3^
iiii
>
4 Ml
t4
Fig. IV.2tt
Hieratic text and Hieroglyphic transcription of the
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from Chace et al., The Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, Vol. 2 (Oberlin. Ohio. 1929), Plates 91-92.
*\0t
8
I
ICS
':
t9
11 :
J =
o<3>
">
C *
5
"
0
m
o
as
5
J
-c:
u-
fr"
.2
Q-
CO
^'
C
*'
PM
4>
^a.j=
:e
CO
i5
^
0^
.r
II
60
Ji
_^
n
C 3
T>
.5
"Z
g-
CO
Ml
73
C
Ta
^O
.0*
U.06<
III
2'>*
01
a?
\:
a4
.J
n
o
fli^-??
"
I
Oi'
=
-
^ :
Copyrighted material
Phte 95
PROBLEM
fl
tf
tl
lt
Ibd
Ml
i y).t
73
;ifhi|at>i
i- lit
k,-t>,h
Ji,
Plate
PROBLEM 74
96
00
NO
OQ
:5 00
u- ^<
u
t/i
c
10
u
!>-
15
it
- 0I-;
S E c
tN.
0.
a<9
ct,
>
^0
oo
1C3
t.'
it
(1
CQ
o
flu
in
374
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
.It.
MS
MS'
ii
oi-
00
eq
Is
1^
"
M
^"
C
.9-
'
a*
a
i"''
.ii
re
.E
60
T3
C
re
<fl
upj
re
e c2
"
Plate 103
PROBLEM
8l
j&n
tin
IV n
Bii
kk
K vp 3
^:
.1
ft
t tlOl
>
Mail)
n iWp S
^
2S.7
wa
Ink
nil
V wp
UN
(Jip
31=
O
4
"II
II -
It
'it^
uu
ft
'
^.'htl.'i
so
75 en
or^
SO
[Ti
ft)
ft
B k
Ikl,
9D
ft,^
II
lap 4
* 4
.p 4 i ftinl
Dfr|i; o "illftZfc-
ft
IM^
ft
M'p
Uh
fi
Mft
uuti i
>
0 ao"^
* !
9D
^.Mll
4i
t Ikl) ftlip
ftft
'
fi
"P
|j
la
9av; 0
>
"I
z>
'," 9
lap
f fllk
0
i
MOk
1^4^
ft!
IMi
MP
op.
0=V.','I
Map 4
Ikl)
a! gc I""
til
VA*
t-INft
90=;'.','.
aip
41
k aftk
c Ifth
A Af. FaaimiU,
ft
MP 4
wp
Platti xv ii:-xx
Plate 104
PROBLEMS
AND
82
82B
82
dpi -
l"*-!
"Jjv'
^1
ei^pinnuidl'ili
ei
n!
o9<-[ji
Ihkon
ti
ft
r7:^y/i>:ni = c3,i
3
Ki ti
'f-=-r^ft~ftiMi
U44
41
82 B
4 i4
lll>
Ml
III
im
lltl
'1144 4 t
"'^
L 'S'
II
<a
i h n
Ikk
A => O <3
da M Mn
4=
tn
(A
l(f
4ft|
ft
la
II
4 04
o-^^fttft^ti^^iL-;
01
l\44iS4i
dpi
thK
di
ronw
82 B
O 9<=>01I^
tn
mi
4*
4 4(
t-Skk-t
4t
PAngrafA
Fig.
. <r>
4Mt
t J
ftftlt
Ci,-^
ei
tJK44
Xf\44 4i4
^-a*!^
^.fitiil
III
thi
l4fti.^
t-tUooi
IV.2zz
fi.
Af. Facsimile,
Plata xix-xx
et
al.,
The Rhind
flu
= ^ r-
2
OS
o 5
4
0
Hi
ft
-5
O
IT)
S
i$
<
*>
^^^
^-
0
.
O
C
.2
six
Cff
2 E c
CO
*- D,
>
- -
^'
IS
B.
1-
0 r d -
EOS
(N
T>
[Z:
a^
o
On
I
378
Copyrigtued material
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. rv.3
Fig. IV.4a
(6D
Diagram
fat the
Gunn and
379
Peet,
p. 173.
mayt
"Four Geometrical
1+
khet
is
altitude.
The bottom
380
it
abo an
itWCTltf
ILLUSTRATIONS
IV 5a
ig
ij^ure for Problem 53 of
Text and
Mathematical Papyrut with the figure recopied and
numeral! replaced by oiodern numeralt.
l
382
the
its
Rhind
hieratic
oxustrahons
Fig.
IV.5c
translation of the
384
53
ILLUSTRATIONS
The Illustrations
continue
385
Copyrighted
m atari al
Copyrighied material
Copyrigtiied material
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
ILLUSTRATIONS
0 0 D
^^T
^^
f
f
s s
Oe
?
:: 0- i""
s ' - 1
of)
0
0
j)
E
u
a.
r
>
^
c<
lb
<e s r$ o 0
z-
'3
S *^
{I]
a
I
^
46'
^^^^^^^^
Dcd
6^
6N
1^
i
^
D
391
oo
o=9o
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
Copyrightad material
ILLUSTRATIONS
397
(J
(J
cc
cc
cc
I
-R -
cc
=50:
(J
0;oD
-1
j
OD
IS
J3
00
c
CI
JD
CC cc cc
c.c cc cc
cc
cc
J^-.
398
Copyrtghtod material
Copyrighted material
400
Copyrightad maieriai
Copyrigtiled mateftalj
ILLUSTRATIONS
403
Copyrighted maierial
ILLUSTRATIONS
Copyrighied materiai
|
ILLUSTRATIONS
page.
413
Srciiuti Cj
as Plate 13 in
My
424
ILLUSTRATIONS
c.
*(^)
Z.
Ml
2.
2-
ninnnn ^
on
III
iinfiii
III
III
III
z.
tau
r>
MM 'y
2,
11
Z.
nn
111
(in
n
*i
Ni
III!
nn
III
Ill
^*
na
n
2.
2.
nnn
Ml
nn
II
II
11
14
Vi'll
IS
2.
II
-11
1?
Willi
Scclioa
Fig.
1V.I8J
Reisner
L Given
433
Copyrightsd material
Line
b.
d.
G5
G 6, H 32
8
8
6
.3
t
1
G 14
G 15
G 16
G
G
17
18
H 33
H 34
H 31
H7
15
Units
I
1
n
L
n
L
t
1
3 i
2 2
2
*
H9
H 11
H 17
4 2
2 ?
H 26
2 2
2 4
H 27
3 2
Sc In
Ic
12
T
19
18
11
I 7,
10
18
19
3n
ft
Volume Enlistea
10
a
o
AO
424^
IIS
ID
Eastern Chapel.
?20
2 10
Or
6 4 10 20 Footings.
Jo
3 2 10
lo ^ 4
A
Q
T- o
4 X Z
Footings.
Great Chamber.
Z 4 o
14 9
9C ip
22c 6p
0 Z
o
L
Q
^
J 'J
DetaU
Z
T
Z
4
K '5
13
Z
15
Great Chamber.
30
Great Chamber.
37 Z
9n
JM
August Quunber.
Eastern Chapel.
I3Z
32
Western.
52
39
Eastern.
24
5p
8c 4p
26
5p
111c 3p
Carrying srfu
10
20
5p
71c 3p
Carrying srfu
12
27
378
112
For tower.
113
I 14
115
120
22
2 2
11
48
Fig. IV. 19
Papyrus
I.
For tower.
p.
221.
434
Copyrightsd material
TLLIJSTRATIQNS
Line
Lb.
d.
Uniu Volume
C8
35
11
H35
Slbr9 1
1 16
I 17
3 3 2 2
4
2 2
118
10
B.
Deuil
Eniuiees
192 2
19 2 for 19
18
25 ?lbr26 ?
For the
36 for 30
flbrl
55
Brick day.
UTon, AUsreuuigB,
or
5 2
Line
h.
d.
Dais
Votume
G7
09
22
2 2ler
IS
11
12
214 2
G 10
G 11
G 12
CIS
H20
52
39
4 for 3(2 3
32
85 for 64
8 2 correct
3 2
10
C Bfinor
Ic
5 20 correct
for : 2.
21 2lbr2l 4
S.
15)
for 85.
43
27ier29 2 4
2 for (3 To 30).
2 2 5 correct for
Sc
3p
27.
Emm.
Line
b.
10
4c Ip
H 13
H 14
2e 3p
2e 2r
le
15
Enlttiees
2 4 6
8 2
Se 3p
letircr.
d.
Uniu
Volume
2c 3p
5p
(3c
6p
Ic Ip If
(Se
4p
20 for Oe 4p 20(2
5p
H 18 3c 2p Ic 2p 6p
H 22
Ic 3p
3
H24 3c Sp Ic 2p 6p
H28 4c4p IcSp Ic2p
1
(3c
3p 2
(2c
2p 2r)
(20c Ip
4p 2r){2
4p
2p
2 3f)(5
4
I
2if).
2&).
3r)iI5ir).
2 Sf).
15) approx.
40 appm.
D. Major Emns.
Line
b.
2c 3p
Ic
16
4p
5p 2r
H Scap2r lc3p I
H2I leSp
lc3p I
H23 4
lc6p 6p
Units
Volume
(2c
(4e
{2e
(4c
4p l...0for(2c 3p 2 140.
10 for (6c 2p 2 4028.
E. Possible Restorations.
Line L
H 2 2c 5p
H3 2 4
H4 24
H5 2 ?
H6 44
b.
d.
Uniu Volume
Raunatioa
6p
[ ]
4c
d = 6p
6p
[ J
Ic
6p [] []
6p [] 1
[]
t]2
3f
2p 2...f
1...2p2...fdK5p
Ic 3p
2r
d - 5p
1
624
(ujiiu
1 ,
au above).
b6p
IV.20
Calculations with errors by the scribe of Reisner
Papyrus I. Taken from Gilllngs. op. clt. Table 22.3.
pp. 222-23.
Fig.
Copyiighled
inalerial
fingers
palm
palms
cubit
IP
4p
Sp
14
2
2
1i
17
4>
Fig.
IV. 21.
Gillings. op.
3p
2p
c
2
e
e
c
9I
Taken from
cit..
length
b rcadth
3 c 5 p
2p
depth
units
volume
6p
4c
f.
Then,
c
\1
\
Totab
Totals
P
5
2
1
24
30
10
3.
18
4.
436
CopyriglUed material
ILLUSTRATIONS
437
Copy lighted
material
^1
^1
<I0
<3 O
:1
Mf-J
Jii;
0:
01
0:
Oi
id
01
.id
Oi
c c
>H
Of
I
n
13
1
~
u
c -
< D"
O
C
it
(0
0^
Q.
c o
.2 c
o
ra
^1
o n
u _
51
rfw
>
'
Ml*
"
wm
6
c
-o
o
'TO
5-3
-=1
*-
5
h
n
ho
El
U.
i53
nil:
j-
(i
'.c
tl
4t
ll
)1
It
Copyrighted material
iS
E ^
o
o
1^
w
^
U
10
a.
ID
Xw
^ T3
c
O
J5
U.
O _
<
00
d
c
^^
>
Copyrighted material
443
444
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
o
E
O u
Q. ^
re
c u
o c/i
>-
re
[_
o
OJ
c
u
'
u.
c:
CJ
u
JO
>
-o
c
re
re
rM
00
PI
Copyrighted maBriai
Fig. IV.27d Enlargements of one of the heads and the frieze of the
Cubit-rod pictured in Figs. IV. 27b and IV.27c. Taken from
Fig.
the
IV.27e
448
2-4-5
]{
If
H
n+i
11
,v
+
+
+
iV
iV
iV
iV
18
li
15
H
*
H + iV
19
SI
23
1*
+*
+i
25
li
i|
1*
29
U + iV
H+A
i
H
+i
H
*
*
31
88
1^
+
+
+
+
+
iV
+ Tfr +
+ rU
89
i*
41
43
Wi
45
+ i4
H+i
U
51
if
+ iV
55
57
59
li
A + iV
61
Vi
65
If
v.
67
69
li
li
,v
li
81
77
7
lit
tJt
T*
*r
lir
jfr
riy
A + Ti + T*W
78
li
riff
A + rh- + H +
A + Ti
63
+
+
tV
A + Ti
A + fr + TU
A + T+T
58
tV
rfr
47
49
71
-rfr
A + t4t + Ti
35
87
75
17
lir
T^T
+ tH
+i
83
li
88
If
87
li
^v
A + tIt
89
91
93
U + tV
H
i
101
tV
T,V
95
97
U + i + iV + iV
Vtt
+
+
+
+
-rirr
xir
liTT
rfo
A rhr + T+T
W + tK
(London, 1923),
p.
37.
BY ODD NUMBERS
DIVISION OF 2
Nun*
Fint
bar
MHUfliv
H
H
B
A
11
13
15
Ko
17
Ki
BD
A
A
19
21
A
AD
c
A
BD
7S
73 Tie
H
H
HHe
HKs
HHe
n 7u net
IHH
1
1
K2
H*
1
1
Ms
25
27
Ks
Ks
H
Mo
1
1
1/ 1^
H
H Hor
H H2
H
HHH
IMH
Ha
HiHn
H
H
HMi
H Ho
H
H
a
Ks
Kb
H
Ho
H3
1
1
Ka
A
C
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
HH
1 H He
1 H
1 H H4
c
c
AD
AD
C
AD
BD
C
C
BD
C
BD
AD
c
C
AD
59
61
63
65
67
69
71
73
75
77
79
81
AD
c
83
85
87
AD
E
C
AD
BD
C
E
IV. 29
89
91
93
95
97
99
101
KH
a
Ho H2
/ou
H
HH
M Hs
Km
Hse
H4B Has
Ho Hse Hot
Ho
K41 Hto
HH
KHHe
H3e
IM
HeHteHeeHie
)iHm
IM
He Hee
HHKe
MH
HeHu^fte
H
MKo
He Hee
Ho Hse Hie
Ho His Hm Hu
H
H H He
Ho Kso
H4 H08
Ho H37
Hu Hee
/* /a /o
H
HHH
Ho
>^
Kia Hbs
Ha
/do /K74
X 4%
Ho Hs
IMHHo
1
Ho
Hi
Ho
He
H Ko Ho
1 HKo
HHe
IH
IHHb
Hi Hss
HH
IH
Two"
Hm >^
HH
HH
H
HHH
IHHHtHe
of
Ko
Ho K30
Ket
The "Tabic
He
lM)&Ke
1
Hu
HaHt
H He
u
KKe
HH
H3
Kob
K02
His Hee
H30
HKe
H4
He
He
H*
Ka
Ho
Ho
Kb
H
Ho
Ho
Me
HH
KmKu
Hb
H4
Ks
H*
He Kre Ha
HH
H
H HH
MHh
H
H Kb
HH
Ho
Ho
Ht
Ml
He
Hi
Me
Ko
He
Ke
Ho
Ha
M30
or
H2
Ho
Mo
Hu
K2 Kb
K4 }i2
Mo
AD
BD
HsHiHe
31
33
}i
KoHe
MM
HH
yii
35
HH
iH
23
29
MK
AD
l-ig.
as tabulated
Vol.
He Hee Hie
Ha H79 Hto
Hei Hes He* Hee
by
(Oberlin,
D. Chacc,
Ohio,
1927),
The
pp.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Feuilk
5>
I recto,
page
opi9au QA]
TO
I/}
^ 9
de
de
tfiv
Ay'
"CUV
TUV
Tuiv
de
i, colonnt I.
au nombre 4000
unles*^}
de
100
66
3/j
Ttjj[v
PATy'
de
200
133
:'J
Tu[v T]
de
300
200
P]
Td)[v
= VJ
I '/I
de
T(Ij[v
de
400
266
de
3 VI
'ra)[v
*]
TATv'
de
500
333
'di[v
X]
de
600
400
Tfbiv
IF]
/j
Toiv
<7
de
Toiv
A>
de
vj
TWV
Er'
de
./J
-uv
Toiv
<7
de
toiv
de
10
6 VI
TUV
20
xm
Tuiv
TUV
tfiv
'^
ITv'
de
de
30
10
M
N
s
E<J9
de
40
26
Aiy
de
50
33
700
466
de
800
533
de
900
600
de
1000
666
2/3
ATATy' de 2000
1333
./J
E
A
0
n
de
tATy'
/j
de
60
de
70
46V1
de
80
53*/}
de
90
6d
tuv
TUV
Twy
3-
BXZq^
de
3000
2000
'/J
de
4000
2666
/}
de
5000
3333
./5
de
6000
4000
,AXSq^
de
7000
4666
/j
^ETATv' de
8000
5333
/j
de
9000
6000
.9.
tSr
./J
.ITATt'
,9XZ<79 de xoooo
66661$
Fig. IV. 30
J. Baillet,
451
Copyrighted material
TABLE 4.3
of
4
6
8
12
13
24
10
30
3
3
5
6
"12
36
14
15
3
3
18
54
10
20
60
IT
22
66
12
24
72
U
15
TABL 4.4
One-third of tmit Elections.
3
2
3
of
24
15
15
35
7S
20
60
15
24
72
Ts
3
3
3
6
9
84
95
24
15S
57
8
9
lo
45
1^
30
11
44
132
33
12
48
l44
36.
28
32
2T
TABU 4.5
One-half of unit
2
2
2
2
of
fractions.
8
8
15
15
2
2
2
2
8
9
10
11
T2
li
15
15
24.
Mathematics
p. 31.
in the
Note that
unit fractions.
nn nun
t
"
= E
ai a III
mm
153
Fig.
IV. 32
hieratic characters
under the Tomb of Senmut (No. 71). Dynasty 18. The hieratic text
is taken from Plate XXIX and the hieroglyphic transcription from
its facing page in W.C. Hayes, Ostraka and Name Stones from the
Tomb of Sen Mut (No. 71) at Thebes. The Metropohtan Museum
(New York.
of Art, Egyptian Expedition Pubhcations, Volume
XV
1942).
Copynghiod maicfial
wie
lautet
4,J a,
C3
folgt:
1
<=>r
Ji^
JJ
-a*^!
Id
no
i-Mio
Di
20
ef9
410
63
340
28
340
28
70
35
1*/
1
1
in
^0
172
172
^ % mm
30/,
115V,
OS/
1/
fi>/
>/
/s
Qt/
lAli
11k
/+
A
D
62
ii_
I-
f fllJI
390
^^\XiJ
^^
Qui
MA
oil
1/
lo/t
If
+ Vi.
t
OS /
1 \
3V.+
1*/
4
m
ft*/
IV.
/tt
ell
1 2/
V.
2V.+V-
V.
r/.
V.
V.+V-
cas
70
1 /
iVi+ Vi.
91/
111/
V.+
11'/
A*
1'/
7.
IV.
2V.
+ V
3% + Vi.
'A
+ v..
iV+'/3+V,
V4
+ V-
V.+V4+V-.
35
115%
Taken from
454
Copyrighted material
ILLUSTRATIONS
Tem-
Brote
Bier
Stuck
Sdi-Kriige
390
62
20
410
63
340
28
28
66'/.
35
1167.
^nw-Kruge
172
Aiiistellung(?),
172
nachdem daTon
geopfert worden*
840
70
Aufstellung (FVatelliiiigf) dieses Restes*
Erster
und Tempelvorsteher*
10
IV.
'/.
16V,
87.
10
7.
2V.
+ 7
2(7JV,
der in dleecn
Ifiwft^
Dienst hat<
8% + 7.0
17.
27.
/.
ifrf/tp.
Thiirhuter
Hauptvorlesepriester
167. +7
.....
der in dieaem
hat.
der
/Nir.iif.r;-Frieeter,
....
37.
IV.
57.
BV.
1%
+ 7
57.+V-
dieeem Mo-
der
Priester,
Thurliuter,
11V
der in die-
37.
diesem
in
*Kdniglicher
n+%
17.
Monet Dienit
W/to-Priester,
+ 7..
Vorleseprieeter,
der nachts
10
167.
ii7
v.
/.+7.
17.
V.
n+%
v.:
17.
v.:
7.
1'^
87.+V.
Dienst
hat
Tempdailwiter*
7*
+ 7u
70
Fig.
+ 7-
in
.
1V.34
Berchardt. tM..
German
translation
p. 115.
455
35
of
Fig.
+ 7..
+ 7-
i7.
V.
1157,
IV.33 made by
+ V34-V
+ 7 + 7.
ig.
IV.358
ig.
triangle,
a trapezoid.
456
ILLUSTRATIONS
1.
^^^^^^^^
38
Fig.
IV.37
Three Figures
457
Text
1
Beispiel zur
Berechnung einer
nb.t
Korb
Halbkugel
= Halbzylinder
2b
Ml tp-fi
von Mundung
rAjm'd
zu 4-^ in Erhaltung
Nimm
9 von 9
Pext
Korb
^_
ist
i\nr]
(i)
Kugel
|von 4^1 an
Mundung
zu 4-j an 'i
(i)
(a)
i\p(\
9-1 = 8
9-8 = 3 + 6+18
8-(3+6 + l'8)7 + 9
(7
+ 9) (4 + 2) = 32=Fliche
F-4
Ftg.
IV.38
Fig.
IV .39
An
illustration of
10
of
in
the
458
CopylgfiiiKi inaUrlal
ILLUSTRATIONS
(32
+ 14) - 81
(9
8)
81
17
64.
Connaissant les mesures des aires des triangles rectangles, le scribe pouvait
aini cakuler la inesure de I'aiie de roctogone. Mieux, meme, conpie temi de la symioie
de la fifBe fl pOBvaii ''pawti^ Itettfone selon scholia sutvant
Autrement
dpte
Y^ln da
carrd
dit,
PQRS. Cenes
fait
plausible
'geometrie
right figure.
459
tcl
que
odre ^gypden
^ soil
le
gj. Or nous
avons
5a785
-a766
^1
-0,790
^1
^ ShJ* 0,785390
"
0.785398<^|
j^J
-031.
-^J
mieux
celui choisi par les anciens Egyptiens. Nous pouvons noier que
est rentier qui convient le
et c'est precis^nient
0.785402.
n'en
op^ratoire
Tl
^ 1* place de ^1
n'offre pas
de
ii*M]-(ii*5k)=(i*5*"nf>
^^D.(voirR42).
Mais cette excellente approximation arithmdticuie nous pousse k rejeter une
heurisdque "g^om^trique". Autrement dit. "I'exeniple* 48 don toe consid6r6 comme 6tant
une "explicadon g6om6trique" de la formule mise en oeuvre. La flgure et les calculs
aff^rents jouent le meme role que les signes des Ventures ^gypdennes. Ce n'est sans
doute pas un hasard si cenains probl&mes sont rfduitt i cede senle pvtentadon on si
celle-ci consritue la deuxifcme parnc de R51. Les commcntaircs ne servent alors qu'i
devoiler les explicadons plus ou moins secretes qui sont absentes d'un tel schema. Soit
par incapacit6. soit par un souci de sauvegarde, le scribe n^ pas vonln MMit nous dire
lorsqu'il a ^crii le "problimc" R48. Mais ce demier reprdscnte un moment important dans
I'histoire de la pens6e maUi6inadque celui d'un essai de "jusdficadon gdometrique" d'un
gtfsuliat obicnu cinpiiiqucinc nL
:
Fig I\'4I
M. Guilk mot's remarks on the computation of the
quadrature rule for the area of a circle, as given in his article
quoted In the legend oF Fig. IV.40. p. 140. R.42. R.48. R.5I, and
R.52 refer to the numbered problems of the Rhind Papyrus.
460
Copypighled material
461
Copyrighied maUrial
IV.43
portable Sketch oF an arc on limestone From Dynasty
at Saqqara, sliowing Ihc use of oidinnlcs of speciricd lengths in
palms, and fingers to guide the form of the arc. The
Fig.
cubits,
Copyrighted material
Copyrighted material
PROBLEM
51
PROBLEM
52
-I-
3
^5.
PROBLEMS
59
AND
-srB-
59B
tt-
PB.OBLEM 60
CupyiiyliliiiJ r.ufcdLiI
Ancient Egyptian
Science
A Source Book
Volume Three:
Ancient Egyptian Mathematics
MARSHALL CLAGETT
THIS
VOLUME CONTINUES
Marshall
Clagett's
its
predecessors,
has two
it
main
objectives: first to
analysis
first
Egyptian
measurement
work the
part of the
that
lay
behind
the
model problems
that
to
complete
measures.
practical
were
in their
The
author includes detailed descriptions of the various kinds of tables that the Egyptians
upon
in their calculations,
of
division of 2 by the
Two
depended
an important one
presented
that
and
their
form of notation
unit firactions, a
form leading
as the
significant fractional
fi-ac-
sums of
to the use
the
3 to 101.
of a
that
of
approximations achieved by
lesser fractions at
techniques
of finding
their
and volumes
areas
first
figures
halting steps
bounded by
Following the
series
of documents in Part
II
III
a bibliography,
an Index of
and Subjects.
Finally, in
Names
is
an
ments with
texts
of the docu-
Marshall Clagett
is
Society,
Advanced
is
the
Oresme and
the Medieval
Geometry of
in the
American Philosophical
Society.