Igneous Ore-forming Processes

Introduction
Igneous rocks host a large number of different ore
deposits both mafic and felsic rocks. The obtained compilation of
mineral production data of a function of host rock type can be used to
measure the economic importance of ore deposits hosted in igneous
rocks.
Magmas and Metallogeny
Different igneous rocks host ore deposits with different
metal associations and characteristics inherited from various
situation as a product of the environment where magmas are
generated. For instance, chalcophile and siderophile elements (Ni,
Co, Au) are most likely to be associated with mafic rock types
whereas concentration of many lithophile elements (Li, Sn, W) are
associated with felsic or alkaline rock types.
Crustal Architecture & Mineral Wealth
The greatest concentration of siderophile & chalcophile
elements almost certainly reside in the mantle and core of the Erath
which make them inaccessible due to their very great depths. In fact,
most of the exploitable mineral wealth lies on the surface or just
below the surface of the Earth. Many mineral commodities are
formed much deeper in the crust than 4 km and some are derived
from the mantle. Hence, understanding ore genesis requires a
knowledge of lithospheric architecture.
Wilson cycles have rearranged the configuration of
continental fragments several times in geographical time by a variety
of magmatic, sedimentary and orogenic processes taking place along
with active plate margins or within the continent themselves.
Magma Types & Metal Contents
The nature of the rock undergoing melting and the extent to
which it is melted are the main factors that control the composition of
the magma that is formed. As a result, this composition dictates the
nature of metal concentrations that are likely to form in the rocks that
solidify from that magma.
FUNDAMENTAL MAGMA TYPES
1. Basalt
Forms in almost every tectonic environment but majority of
its production takes place along the mid-ocean ridges and in
response to hot-spot related plumes to form oceanic crust. Basaltic
magma may also be intrude or extrude continental crust either along
well defined fractures or rifts, or in response to interpolate hot-spot
activity. By partial melting of mantle material also forms basalt which
can be generally described as periodic in composition.
2. Andesite
Rocks that crystallize from magmas of composition
intermediate between basalt and rhyolite. Occurring dominantly in
orogenic zones either along island arcs or on continental margins
beneath which subduction or oceanic crust is taking place. Andesite
can be formed both as primary magma composition and by in situ

fractionation. The andesitic magma is produced by direct melting of

hydrous oceanic crust. Andesite appears to have little or no metal
specificity and are characterized by trace element abundances that
are intermediate between those of basalt on the one hand and either
granite or alkaline rocks on the other.
3. Rhyolite
Formed from felsic magma crystallized in depth forming
spectrum of rock compositions.
4. Alkaline Magmas & Kimberlite
Magmas that are depleted in SiO2 but highly enriched in
the alkali elements. are relatively rare, but may be economically
important as they frequently contain impressive concentrations of a
wide range of ore-forming metals. Kimberlitic and related magma
types (such as lamproites) are the main primary source of diamonds.
Main primary source of diamond; nephelinite most
common alkaline mafic magma crystallizes to give a range of rock
types comprising unusual minerals like felspathoid and carbonate
assemblages.
Kimberlites and unrelated ultramafic magmas crystalize to
form very rare and unusual rocks containing minerals both mica and
olivine. Kimberlites are rich in K, hydrated and carbonated, contain
diamond xenocrysts. The enrichment of incompatible constituents in
kimberlite as with alkaline magmas indicates that metasomatism of
the mantle has played an important role in the provision of a deepscated environment capable of producing highly enriched or fertile
magmas.
WHY ARE SOME MAGMAS MORE FERTILE THAN OTHERS?
Magma may inherit surplus potential ore-forming trace
elements because of the source material it came from. The
concentration of incompatible trace elements into residual magma or
compatible trace elements into crystallizing phases take place during
cooling and solidification of the magma. Geochemical inheritance is
an important factor in understanding the nature or ore-forming
processes in igneous rocks.
LATE VENEER HYPOTHESIS Gives a clue as to why mantle
might be relatively enriched in siderophile metals due to the fact that
their abundance ratios are generally similar to chondritic abundance
ratios as determined from analyses of meteorites that have fallen to
Earth. This hypothesis also suggest that much if not all, the Au and
Pt that is mined from ore deposits on the Earths surface today
ultimately had an extraterrestrial origin and that the planets own
inventory of these metals is presently locked away in the core.
DIAMONDS AND THE STORY THEY TELL
Most diamonds are brought to the Earth by kimberlitic
magmas or compositionally similar melt known as lamproite. These
magmas that transport diamonds to the surface are typically much
younger than the rocks they intrude forming discrete episodes in the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras.
Diamonds are generated deep in the mantle, in the layer
known as the Transition Zone between the lower and upper mantle.

Because the upper mantle is relatively depleted in carbon it is

unlikely to be a viable source for the primordial carbon that makes up
diamond.
The more fertile lower mantle is more likely to be the
source of the carbon supported by the presence of very high
pressure minerals occurring as tiny inclusions in many diamonds.

Metal concentrations in metasomatized mantle and their transfer

into the crust
First, that metasomatism and fluid flow are very important
processes in redistributing and concentrating incompatible elements
in the mantle; second, that partial melting is the main process by
which matter is transferred from the mantle to the crust; and, third,
that inheritance is critical to the nature and formation of igneous
hosted ore deposits, as well as to whether subsequent fluid
circulation is likely to form viable hydrothermal deposits.
I and S TYPE GRANITE MAGMAS & METAL SPECIFICITY
Orogenic granites can be subdivided on the basis of
whether their parental magmas were derived by partial melting of
predominantly igneous (I-type) or sedimentary (S-type) source rock.
I-type granites tend to be more oxidized than S-type granites, whose
magmas were originally fairly reduced because of the presence of
graphite in their source rocks

up the protolith, as well as local pressure, temperature and

water/volatile content. Melting processes are more complex and
usually involve the fusion of more than just one mineral at a time. It is
also pertinent to note that the presence of even a small amount of
water in the system will catalyze the extent of melting and also allow
anatexis to occur at lower temperatures.
The extraction of a partial melt from a residue, whether it
be from an igneous or sedimentary protolith, is a process which
segregates chemical components and is referred to as fractionation.
Partial melts can be considerably enriched in certain elements, but
depleted in others, relative to the source rock.
Trace element distribution during partial melting
Two theories limiting extremes by which partial melting can
occur.
1. The first envisages formation of a single melt increment that
remains in equilibrium with its solid residue until physical removal
and emplacement as a magma. This process may be applicable to
the formation of high viscosity granitic melts known as batch
melting.
2. The second partial melt process is referred to as fractional
melting. It is a process whereby small increments of melt are
instantaneously removed from their solid residue, aggregating
elsewhere to form a magma body. This process may be more
applicable to low viscosity basaltic magmas where small melt
fractions can be removed from their source regions.

Porphyry CuMolybdenum mineralization is typically associated with

I-type granites, whereas TinTungsten mineralization is more
generally hosted by S-type granites.

For very small degrees of melting the changes in trace

element concentrations relative to the source material are extreme
and vary from a maximum value of enrichment to depletions in the
magma as melting progresses.

PARTIAL MELTING AND CRYSTAL FRACTIONATION AS OREFORMING PROCESSES

1.4.2 Crystallization of magmas

When rocks undergo partial melting trace elements

partition themselves between the melt phase and solid residue.
Those that prefer the solid are referred to as compatible, whereas
those whose preference is the melt are termed incompatible.
1.4.1 The conditions of melting
Despite the fact that temperatures in the upper mantle
reach 1500 C and more, melting is not as widespread as might be
expected because of the positive correlation that exists between
pressure and the beginning of melting of a rock. The asthenosphere,
the zone in the mantle where rocks are closest to their solidus and
where deformation occurs in a ductile is the engine-room where a
considerable amount of magma is formed. However, major magmagenerating episodes do not occur randomly and without cause, but
are catalyzed by processes such as a decrease of pressure or
addition of volatiles to lower the solidus temperature.
Partial melting, so called because source rocks very
seldom melt to completion, invariably leaves behind a solid residue. It
is a complex process that is affected by a number of variables, the
most important being the nature of the mineral assemblage making

The melt sequence for peridotite can be used in reverse to

illustrate the crystallization of an ultramafic magma as it cools down.

BASALTIC MAGMA Mineral assemblage and the

crystallization sequence have commenced with olivine, followed
by orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene together with plagioclase.
MAFIC MAGMA - Since minerals of one composition are often
physically separated from the compositionally different magma
from which they form. Once minerals are removed from the
magma there is little or no further chemical communication
between the solid and liquid components of the chamber.

These processes are referred to as fractional crystallization or

Rayleigh fractionation.
Geometry of cumulate rocks that form during these
processes, are both very relevant to an understanding of ore
deposits hosted in igneous rocks. The stage of emplacement and
crystallization of magma is generally accompanied by varying
degrees of assimilation of country rock by the magma.
The form and internal zonation of igneous bodies

Basaltic intrusions are typically quite different in shape and form

from granitic batholiths. In addition, the mechanisms of crystal
fractionation within a mafic magma chamber are also different to
those applicable inside granite intrusions. These differences are
relevant to ore formation in crystallizing magmas, as exemplified by
the stratiform nature of chromitite seams in mafic intrusions.
Mafic intrusions - The low viscosity of mafic magma and the high
densities of minerals crystallizing imply that minerals such as olivine
and the pyroxenes will typically sink in a magma at velocities of
anywhere between 40 and 1000 m yr1 depending on their
composition and Whereas less dense minerals, might float in an
alkaline magma as they have densities less than 2.5 g cm3.
Plagioclase would float in a basaltic magma at pressures greater
than about 5 kbar, but would sink in the same magma emplaced at
high crustal levels.
The sequence of layered rocks that result from
gravitationally induced crystal settling are referred to as cumulates
and their compositions differ from that of the starting magma. Crystal
settling is, therefore, a form of fractional crystallization and this
process explain the segregation of chemical constituents and their
possible concentration into either of the solid or liquid phases of the
chamber.
Trace elements that are readily incorporated (by
substitution) into cumulus minerals are referred to as compatible
elements. Trace elements which are excluded from the cumulate
assemblage are called incompatible elements and they will, naturally,
become progressively enriched in the residual magma as the
cumulate assemblage is formed.
The pattern of density variation has major implications for
the behavior of crystals settling in a magma chamber, particularly
when a new injection of magma takes place into an already evolved
chamber.

If the new magma has a density that is greater than the

liquid residue in the chamber then a rather muted fountain-like
feature will form and mixing between the new and evolved liquids will
be limited to a layer along the base of the chamber. If the new
magma is injected late in the crystallization sequence, there is a
possibility that its density will be less than that of the residual liquid
and a more impressive plume-like feature would and the new magma
would rise to its own density level, or to the very top of the chamber.
The processes resulting in crystal fractionation, density variations
and changes in magma composition are all critical to the formation of
ore grade concentrations of chromite, magnetite, platinum group
elements, base metal sulfides and even gold in layered mafic
complexes.
Felsic intrusions - Granite intrusions do not exhibit the well defined sub-horizontal layering that typifies large mafic intrusions due
to the fact that felsic magmas are several orders of magnitude more
viscous than mafic ones. Although crystals are not being removed
from the magma by the settling process applicable in mafic
intrusions, they are effectively isolated from the residual melt by the
crystallization front which advances in towards the center of the
chamber. This process, referred to as sidewall boundary layer
differentiation, can also be regarded as a form of crystal
fractionation and is characterized by concentration of incompatible
elements in the center of the intrusion where the final increments of
differentiated granite melt accumulate.
Filter pressing as a process of crystal fractionation
Another mechanism by which crystal melt segregation can occur is
the process known as filter pressing. The residual magma within a
network of accumulating crystals in a partially solidified chamber can
be pressed out into regions of lower pressure such as overlying noncrystalline magma or fractures in the country rock. The process is
considered to apply even in more viscous granitic magma chambers
where evolved, water-saturated melts are filter pressed into adjacent
fractures created during hydrofracturing.