Jishnunath

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INTRODUCTION TO
EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
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SERIAL POSITION
EFFECT
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MULLER - LYER
ILLUSION
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Zakir Husain Delhi College
(University of Delhi)
SERIAL POSITION
EFFECT
OBJECTIVE(S)/AIM(S):
1. The effect of a position of an item on ability to recall that particular item. (To study serial
position effect in verbal learning).
2. The effect of differing (meaningful list and non sense syllables list) difficulty lists on
serial position curve (on ability to recall those items) or (To verify McCrary and Hunter
hypothesis.)
3. The effect of type of recall (serial and free recall) on serial position effect.
4. The effect of gender (male and female) on serial position effect.
BASIC CONCEPTS
WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning is a hypothetical it cannot be directly observed, but only inferred from
observable behaviour. Learning normally implies a fairly permanent change in a person's
behavioural performance (temporary fluctuations in bahaviour can occur as a result of fatigue,
drugs, temperature changes, and so on. However, permanent changes in behaviour can also result
from things that have nothing to do with learning, such as the effect of brain damage on
behaviuor, or the changes associate with puberty and other maturational process so, if a change
in behaviour is to be counted as learning, the changes must be linked to some kind of past
experience (regardless of whether there was any attempt to bring about that change.
For these reasons, psychologist usually define learning as 'a relatively permanent change in
behaviour due to past experience' (Coon 1983), or 'the process by which relatively Permanente
changes occur in behavioural potential as a result of experience' (Anderson, 1995).
definitions
Learning is a key process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes, skills,
and values inevitable to meet the demands of life.
REFLECTION VERSUS LEARNING
Instincts: Behaviours that occur as a result of the organism's genotype

Reflexes: Behaviour that occur as a result of an automatic reaction to some
environmental change or condition
Instincts and reflexes are not considered as learning.
LEARNED VERSUS S LEARNING PROCESS

In everyday conversation, the emphasis is usually on what is learned, such as learning to
drive a car, use the internet or speak French.
But when psychologist use the term, their focus is on how the learning takes place.
LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMENCE

Anderson's definition has one major advantage over coon's, namely that implies a
distinction between learning (behavioural potential) and performance ( actual behaviour).
If you can swim, you're almost certainly not doing so as you read this chapter - but you could
readily do so if faced with a pool full of water. So what you could do (potential behaviour based
on learning) and what you're actually doing (current performance) are two different things.
Ultimately, Of course, the only the proof of learning is a particular kind of performance (such as
exams). Performance can fluctuate due to fatigue, drugs, and emotional factors, and so is much
more variable than learning, which is more permanent. (Exams come to mind again ' many
students have left as exam knowing what they could not demonstrate during the exam itself).
LEARNING HOW VERSUS ACTUAL DOING

Experience may be provide us with immediate knowledge (e.g., we receive instructions
on how to perform a skill) But, in science we must measure learning by actual changes I
responses ( e.g., later in the day we perform the skill)
Example: We took all instructions to swim from coach, this is learning how. But we can't
perform that skill, this is actual doing.
LEARNING VERSUS OTHER ABILITIES
Howe (1980) define learning as 'a biological device that functions to protect the human
individual and to extend his capacities'. In this context, learning is neither independent of, nor
entirely separated from, several other abilities, in particular memory and perception. Indeed,
learning and memory may be regarded as two sides of the same coin.
According to Howe, learning is also cumulative: what we learn at any time is influenced
by our previous learning. Also, most instances of learning take the form of adaptive changes,
whereby we increase our effectiveness in dealing with the environment. Similarly, Anderson
(1995) define learning as 'the mechanism by which organism can adapt to a changing and non
predictable environment.
BASIC LEARNING PROCESSES

1. HABITUATION
(Passer
& Smith)
Habituation is a decrease in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus. It may be the
simplest form of learning and occurs across species ranging from humans to dragonflies to sea
snail (Glanzman, 2009). Touch the skin of a sea snail in a certain location, and it will reflexively
contract its gill. With repeated touches, this response habituates, and the gill no longer retracts.
Habituation serves a key adaptive function. If an organism responded to every stimulus in its
environment, it would rapidly become overwhelmed and exhausted. By learning not to respond
to uneventful familiar stimuli, organism conserve energy and can attend to other stimuli that are
important.
Habituation plays a key role in enabling scientists to study behaviour. Whether observing
animals in the wild or schoolchildren, a researcher's mere presence may initially disrupt
participants natural response. Thus, before collecting data, observers often allow people and
animals to habituate to their presence.
2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is when a stimulus acquires the ability to cause a response that
was previously caused by another stimulus. This learning process essentially allows us to predict
what is going to happen.
In 1879, Ivan Pavlov, the Russian Psychologist and pioneer of classical conditioning,
began his research work on the digestive process, primarily with dog.
Classical conditioning: The Theory
A type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting a response that
was originally the response to a natural stimulus, a stimulus that was meant to produce that
response; it so happens because the neutral stimulus had been closely associated with the neutral
stimulus.
Basic terminology in classical conditioning
I.
Reflex
An automatic, unlearned response resulting from a specific stimulus.
II.
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response reflexively naturally and reliably.
III.
Unconditioned Response
A natural, reflexive reliable response of the unconditioned stimulus.
IV.
Conditioned stimulus
A primarily neutral stimulus which, when paired with the UCS, starts evoking a
response (different from its own natural response) and the same as the UCR.
V.
Conditioned Response
After conditioning, the CS begins to a elite a new, learned response
3. OPERENT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning is type of learning in which a voluntry response becomes stronger

or weaker depending on its positive or negative consequences.
The organism plays an active role and 'operates' on environment to produce the desired
outcome.
Operant conditioning forms an association between a behaviour and a consequences.
Consequences' have to be immediate, or clearly linked to the behaviour. With verbal humans, we
van explain the connection between the consequence and the behaviour, even if they are
separated in time. For example, you might tell your friends that you'll buy dinner for them since
they helped you move, or a parent might explain that the child can't go to summer camp because
of her bad grades. With very young children, humans who don't have verbal skills, and animals,
you can't explain the connection between the consequence and the behaviour. For the animal, the
consequence has to be immediate.
Four possible consequences
Something good can start or be presented
Something good can end or be taken away
Something bad can start or be presented
Something bad can end or be taken away
Applying these terms to the four possible consequences
* Something good can start or be presented: behaviour increase = Positive Reinforcement
* Something good can end or be taken away: behaviour decrease = Negative
Reinforcement
* Something bad can start or be presented: behaviour decrease = Positive Reinforcement
* Something bad can end or be taken away: behaviour increase = Negative
Reinforcement
4. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNINIG
How did you learn to write, dance, and drive a car, or even to spread peanut butter and
jelly across a piece of bread rather than piling it up in the center? Reinforcement certainly was
involved, but so was observational learning, the learning that occurs by observing the behavior
of a model. Teachers, parents, and coaches often help us learn by intentionally modeling skills,
but observational learning extends beyond such contexts. We also learn fears, prejudices, likes
and dislikes, and social behaviors by watching others (Olsson & Phelps, 2004). Through
observation we may learn desirable responses, or like the two boys in our opening vignette who
overzealously emulated their TV wrestling heroes, we may acquire undesirable behaviors. When
parents who swear in front of their children complain to one another, Where did our kids learn
that damn language? the answer should be apparent. Observational learning can be highly
adaptive. By observing others, an organism can learn which events are important, which stimuli
signal that such events are about to occur, and which responses are likely to produce positive or
negative consequences. For example, hens may learn which other hens they can reasonably pick
a fight with and which ones they should avoid by observing the hens that emerge as victors and
losers in battles (Hogue et al., 1996). And monkeys may learn adaptive fearssuch as a fear of
snakesby observing other monkeys react with fear (hman & Mineka, 2001). Humans
capacity to learn by observation, which is also called modeling, far outstrips that of other
creatures. It helps us bypass the potentially time-consuming and dangerous process of trial and
error. For example, we wouldnt want each new generation of brain surgeons or airline pilots to
learn their craft only through trial and error
ADOPTING WITH ENVIRONMENT
(Passer
& Smith)
The concept of learning, like that evolution, calls attention to the importance of adapting
to the environment. But whereas evolution focuses on species' adaptation, passed down
biologically across generations, learning represents a process of personal adaptation. That is,
learning focuses on how an organism's behavior changes in response to environment al stimuli
encountered during its lifetime. In humans, much of what we learn varies across culture-different
skills, customs, languages, and so forth. Likewise, the contents, learning vary across species. We
have yet to encounter a deer that has learned to order take-out food. Still, all animals species face
some common adaptive challenges, such as finding food. Because environments contain many
events are, or are not, impotents its survival and well-being, Which stimuli signal that an
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important event is about to occur, and whether its response will produce positive or negative
6consequences.
VERBAL LEARNING
(Psychology an Introduction., Ciccarelli K.S. Psychology.,
Carole W. Psychology.)
Memory largely as a verbal phenomenon. Indeed, most human learning and memory does
involve words and numbers basically verbal materials. The study of verbal learning began with
the German psychologist HERMAN EBBINGHAUS. He chose to study verbal learning via
poetry, plus a special set of nonsense syllables that he developed.
Soon he discovered that even this nonsense syllables which carry no intrinsic meaning
often sound enough like real words to create a problem e.g. BOS, read BOSS so he eliminated
such words from his list. Ebbinghaus invented the syllables by assembling all possible
consonant- vowel- consonant (CVC). The most often used methods of presentation of materials
in verbal learning research are called serial learning and paired associates learning.
1. SERIAL LEARNING
The first verbal learning task that Ebbinghaus devised became known as serial learning.
In this task 10 or 15 nonsense syllables are presented at random intervals either orally or visually.
Time to time again, the list is repeat in the same sequence. The subject attempts to anticipate the
next word before it appears. The time the subject beguines to correctly anticipate every word on
the list is a measure of his learning, In such serial learning, called serial position effect makes
subjects tend to remember items at the lists beginning and at the end much better than those in
the middle.
2. PAIRED ASSOCIATES LEARNING
This method mimics S-S conditioning and S-R learning it is used in learning a foreign
language. First a list of paired associates is prepared. the first word of the pair is used as the
stimulus and the second word as a response. the learner is instructed to remember and recall the
response after the presentation of each stimulus. one by one each is presented and the responses
are noted. trails continue till respond without errors. the total number of trails for the criterion
becomes the measure of paired associate learning.
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EBBINGHAUS
(Experimental Psychology.
Barry H.K.)
The experimental investigation of human memory was began by a German psychologist ,
HERMAN EBBINGHAUS. His main achievement was demonstrating empirical research could
answer interesting questions about memory. This research was published in 1885 in a remarkable
boob, "A contribution to experimental psychology".
One of the first question Ebbinghaus faced was how to measure memory. The materials
he invented to be memorized are called nonsense syllables. He typically used meaningless
syllables that contained a vowel sandwiched between two consonants (CVC model) e.g. WAP,
BOK, QEN so on. By using these syllables , he hoped to minimize the influence of linguistic
association.
One measure of the difficulty of recalling a list that Ebbinghaus used is the number of
such study test trails needed for one perfect recitation of the list. this is called trails to criterion.
The saving store that Ebbinghaus used was the percentage of trails saved in relearning a
list relative to the original number of trails it took to learn the list in the first place
Hermann Ebbinghaus was the first to experimentally investigate the properties of human
memory. Ebbinghaus served as his own subject, and his procedure involved the serial learning of
nonsense syllables. He selected these syllables at random from a master set of 2300 and placed
them into lists that varied in length. If the list continued say 30 nonsense syllables, Ebbinghaus
would read the syllables out loud to himself at a uniform rate. Immediately afterward, he would
cobber up the list and then try to repeat it back to himself or write it down. Obviously, on the first
trial, this feat was impossible, but he could measure the number of syllables he was able to recall
correctly. Then he would read the list aloud a second time, attempt to recall, and so on. One
measure of the difficulty of recalling a list that Ebbinghuas used as the number of such trails
study or test needed for one perfect recitation of the list, this is called a trials to criterion
measure of memory.
MEMORY
NCERT)
(Experimental psychology. Barry H.K., Psychology a Biographical Approach.,
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What is Memory?
The term 'memory ' is derived from the Latin word memoria, which means long
remembrance or historical account. Memory is the ability to recall or remember information,
events or skills learnt in the past. The memory have three key processes involved in memory:
Encoding (getting information) Storage (maintaining it) and Retrieval (getting it out).
TYPES OF MEMORY
There appear to be three or more different kinds of memory. Sensory memory, Short
term memory, Long term memory, etc. The source of most memories is the environment. Which
act first upon the sensory system.
1. SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory memory is very rich, but the information in it is quickly lost unless it is
transferred into short term or long term memory. Sensory memory retains information from our
sense, including a large portion of what you think you ignore. The sensory memory takes in
innumerable pieces of information, but the raw data are retained only briefly.
2. SHORT- TERM MEMORY
The second stage of memory is also temporary, though not nearly as short lived as the
sensory store. According to George miller, five or nine items (the magical number seven, plus or
minus two) can be held in short-term memory at any time.STM is the recovery of information
shortly after it has been perceived, before it has even left conscious awareness(JAMES, 1890).
People can retain more information in their short-term memory by a process chunking.
3. LONG- TERM MEMORY
Memories that last are stored in long- term memory. since every one of us can remember
vast amount of information. It appear that long-term memory is just about limitless. Long- term
memory codes information according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics. Long- term
memory refers to retrieval of memories that have disappeared from consciousness after their
initial perception.
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4. EXPLICIT MEMORY (Episodic memory)

Refer to the conscious recollection of events (or episodes) in one's life.
5. IMPLICIT MEMORY
Refer to the expression of past learning in which a person need not make any conscious
effort to retrieve information from the past (Roediger and McDermott 1993).
TYPES OF RECALL
(NCERT)
1. FREE RECALL
In free recall method a list of words is presented before the participant and asked to recall
the words in any order they like.
2. CUE RECALL
Cue recall is when a person is given a list of items to remember and is then tested with
cues to remember material. Researcher have used this procedure to test memory.
3. SERIAL RECALL
Serial recall is an aspect of memory relating to the accessing of information retained in a
serial learning task.
MEASURES OF RETENTION
(Woodworth., Gardner S.L.
Psychology.)
The measure of memory is the measure of retention, determining what is remembered out
of all that an individual experiences. there are four basic methods for ganging retention have
been used in laboratory investigation of memory. They are Redintegration, Recall, Recognition
and Relearning.
1. REDINTEGRATION Or (Reconstruction)
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A Redintegration memory is the prompted recall of a past event that is triggered by a

stimulus from that past events. redintegration memory depends on the subject's ability to
"relive" an experience.
2.RECALL
Recalls the ability to extract from memory a specific bit of information, usually devoid of
context. The ability to recall specific item diminish rapidly as time passes with the most dramatic
loss occurring immediately after learning. A man who had learned the six or seven strangers he
had met a wedding party properly will not recall the names in two weeks he probably will have
forgotten all but the first names of three or four the wedding guests.
One of the factors that exert a very powerful effect on recall is the interfering effect of
other learning. New learning interfering effect of past memories is called "Retroactive
Inhibition" in opposite "Proactive Inhibition".
3. RECOGNITION
Recognition is simply identifying an item on has experience rather than wholly recalling
that item from one's memory. Recognition memory is more accessible than recall.
4. RELEARNING
Relearning determines how efficiently an individual can re-acquire material he has
previously mastered. this measure of retention also called saving method. relearning takes are
conceptually more complex than other measures of memory, in part because they involve
learning variables in addition to memory variables.
DESIGN
1. HYPOTHESES
1- Serial position effect will be observed i.e. first few and last few items will be learned first with
fewer errors while items at the middle of the list will be learned with maximum effort.
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2A- Serial position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will show much more
marked piling up of errors in the middle of the more difficult list.
2B-When the errors in each serial position are expressed as percentages of the total number of
errors for the whole list the two curves will appear identical.
3A- Serial position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will show much more
marked piling up of errors for a difficult recall (serial recall) compared to an easy recall (free
recall) in the middle of any list.
3B- Serial position curve plotted in terms of relative percentage of errors for the whole list the
two curves will appear identical (or overlapping).
4 -There are no gender differences will be observed in serial position effect.
2. VARIABLES
Independent Variables
1. Position of an item (in a list)
2. The nature of materials:
a) Meaningful words list.
b) Nonsense syllables list.
3. Types of recall:
c) Serial recall
d) Free recall
4. Gender.
e) Male
f) Female
Dependent Variables
1. Absolute number of errors in each serial position.
2. Relative percentage of errors in each serial position.
3. Number of trials taken or required to produce one correct recall (serial or free recall).
and/ or The number of trails taken for male and/or female subjects.
Control Variables
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1. Same number of items in both the lists (15).

2. Three letter CVC items in both the lists ( number of words influence so it must be of
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
same number of letters )

Font, Size, Ink Color, should be uniform throughout.
Duration of exposure should be uniform throughout. (i.e., 2 seconds per word/syllable).
Method of learning and recall same throughout.
Uniform lab condition throughout the experiment
Rules for making lists:
a. Glaze's list of 20% association value should be referred for selecting nonsense
b.
c.
d.
e.
syllables.
Number of items should be same in both the lists.
The syllables should be in the format of CVC (consonant vowel consonant).
No two items to begin with the same alphabet in the entire list.
No vowel or last letter should be repeated till the fourth place. Same rule applies for
the last and the first items.

f. Ending and beginning letters of two consecutive items should not be the same. Same
rule applies for the last and first items.
g. Alphabetical progression(s) of initial and final letters should be avoided in direction
or any two consecutive items, as well as first and last items.
h. Avoid rhyming items together. (any particular pattern should be avoided).
i. No two items in the same list should have two letters in common.
j. Avoid emotional words in selecting meaningful words (take only neutral words)
METERIALS REQUIRED
1. List of nonsense syllables.
2. List of meaningful words.
3. A Laptop or a Memory drum.
4. Pen, pencil, eraser, color pens or sketch pens.
5. Recall slips (coded).
6. Data sheets
7. Informed consent form.
8. Screen
9. Stapler
10. Envelops
11. Instructions copy
12. Introspective report form
13. Experimenter observation form
PRELIMINARY
SUBJECT 1
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Education Qualification
Name of College
Place of Experiment
Time of Experiment
Duration of Experiment
;- Saleem Sulfikhar
;- 19
;- Male
;- ************
;- Plus two
;- Zakir Husain Delhi College
;- Lab 1
;- 14 hour 10 minutes
SUBJECT 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Name of College
Place of Experiment
Time of Experiment
;- Nisha Jasmin
;- 18
;- female
;- ************
;- Plus two
;- Lab 1
;- 55 minutes
SUBJECT 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Name of College
Place of Experiment
Time of Experiment
;- Farooq
;- 19
;- Male
;- ************
;- Plus two
;- Lab 2
;- 35 minutes
SUBJECT 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Name of College
Place of Experiment
Time of Experiment
;- Archana
;- 19
;- Female
;- ************
;- Plus two
;- Lab 2
;- 40 minutes
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PROCEDURE
1. ARRENGMENT OF METERIALS
The experiment was conducted in lab 1 of department of psychology Zakir Husain Delhi
College. Before the list was shown, the subject was seated on the (non-preferable) side of the
subject at an angle of 90C. Laptop was placed on the table. All the materials (mentioned in
material section) were placed at the right hand side, for the convenience of both the subject and
experimenter.
2. RAPPORT FORMATION
The subject was seated. He/she was asked about his apprehensions and was assured that
the experiment would be kept confidential and would not be shared with anyone else.
3. INSTRUCTIONS
a) You will be shown a list of meaningful words one at a time on a slide.
b) Please read out the letters separately and not as a whole.
c) Please try to learn them in the same order as shown in the presentation.
d) After you have seen the entire list, you shall be required to recall as many words as you can
and write them on a slip of paper provided to you in the same order.
e) Please pay attention; each word will appear on the screen for a short duration.
f) The process will continue till you can recall words correctly in serial order.
g) You can take as many trails as you want to learn the list.
h) Another list of nonsense syllables will be shown to you. The syllables will have no meaning
and no sense.
i) Read out the letters loudly and separately, not as words.
j) After you have seen the entire list, you shall be required to recall as many words as you can
and write them on a slip of paper provided to you in the same order.
4. PRECAUTIONS
a) No errors in power point presentation.
b) No distraction or noise.
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c) Word are spelled out loudly and clearly

d) No feedback should be given to the subject.
e) The subject should be made to sit on the non-preferable side of the experimenter.
f) Data sheet should be kept hidden from the subject.
5. CONDUCTION
After forming rapport and taking the necessary precautions, the conduction was done.
The subject was shown the list of meaningful words first and asked to record the words on the
recall slips provided. This process was continued until the subject was able to recall the list
perfectly. A rest pause of five minutes was given to the subject. After that the list of nonsense
syllables was given and the subject was asked to recall and record them on the recall slips
provided .The recall slips were taken away from the subject and the result was recorded on the
data sheet.
6. INTROSPECTIVE REPORT
SUBJECT 1
Primarily I wasn't well informed about the purpose of the test. It felt just like a usual
memory test. Since it was simple and without a time limit, I felt very relaxed throughout the test.
The way Saleeq conducted the test made me feel like I was playing a game. The first experiment
was somewhat boring. After on it provoked my interest. Primarily I felt that the test should have
had a time limit so that it wouldn't take much of our valuable time. I think the lab should be some
more systematic to provide a good environment for the test.
SUBJECT 2
At first I was worried about was going on. But when the experiment started I felt relaxed
and began to enjoy it. The lab was noisy since others were busy working. The noises were
distracting so please try and provide better settings next time. He was a good listener and
encouraged me to take my time. He was very nice. I hope we become friends after the
conduction.
SUBJECT 3
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When Saleeq called me, I was really thrilled to be here and to be a part of the
experiment. It was a different and unique kind of experience to me. Saleeq was really friendly
and a good companion throughout the experiment. The atmosphere in the lab was really silent
and comfortable to me. When I came here, Saleeq communicated and introduced the experiment
properly. His behaviour toward me was really good.
SUBJECT 4
Before the experiment I was in a playful mood . I was worried about what he
would be doing with me in the lab, but when he started the experiment I began to be interested in
doing it. I enjoyed the experiment until the very end until he thanked me and told me I could go.
The lab's infrastructure is good. He was cool and made me feel really comfortable and good
during the experiment..
7. BEHAVIOURAL REPORT/EXPERIMENTER'S OBSERVATION:
SUBJECT 1
Saleem was a good subject. He was well-adjusted to me and he participated in the

experiment following the instruction. He found associations between some words. He took 6
trials for the list of meaningful words and 13 trials for nonsense syllables.
SUBJECT 2
Nisha did her work very well. It was difficult to communicate with her because of my
language problem. But she became easily adjusted. For me, she was a good subject. She took 9
trials for the meaningful list and 7 trials for nonsense syllables.
SUBJECT 3
Farook was a subject with a strong memory. He completed the experiment with 35
minutes. One reason for the obtained results was that he made many associations and completed
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the experiments quite easily. He only took 5 trials for both the lists. However, he did not follow
many of the instructions properly.
SUBJECT 4
Ajchana was a good subject. But here too, I had some communication problems. But she
did well. A proper environment couldn't be provided due to the noises in the lab. She completed
the meaningful list within 5 trials and nonsense syllables within 7 trials.
RESULTS AND DATA ANALISIS:

DATA SHEET
SUBJECT 1
Meaningful words
Sl no
Meaningful
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
Words
Absolute number
Relative % of
of errors
errors
BOP
2.1
KEN
2.1
VIZ
4.3
LAC
6.4
PUG
6.4
REB
8.5
YON
8.5
DIT
10.6
HAJ
10.6
22
10
SUB
8.5
11
GEL
8.5
12
COR
8.5
13
FIX
6.4
14
ZAP
4.3
15
MET
4.3
15
13
10
47
100
Total number of
Errors
Nonsense Syllables
SL
Nonsense
no
syllables
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
Absol
Relative
ute no.
% of
of
errors
0
VAK
errors
0
MEZ
XOF
W W R
W R
3.5
CUJ
W W W W W R
5.9
GIT
W R
5.9
WEQ
W W W W W W W W W W
10
11.8
TAH
W W W W R
9.4
FUP
W W W W W W W W R
11
12.9
ZIX
W W W W W W W W W R
11
12.9
W W W R
W W W
23
10
QON
W W W W W W W W W W
12
14.1
11
SAJ
W W W W R
4.7
12
LEB
W W W W R
W W R
7.1
13
DIW
W W W R
W W R
5.9
14
POH
W W W R
3.5
15
BUQ
W R
W R
2.4
13
11
11
85
100
Absolute
Relative
words
no. of
% of
BOP
errors
0
errors
0
KEN
VIZ
3.1
LAC
3.1
PUG
6.3
REB
9.4
YON
12.5
DIT
12.5
Total number of
11
errors
SUBJECT 2
Meaningful Syllables
SL No
Meaningful
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
24
9
HAJ
12.5
10
SUB
12.5
11
GEL
12.5
12
COR
6.3
13
FIX
6.3
14
ZAP
1.6
15
MET
1.6
13
11
64
100.2
T1
T2
Total
numbe
r of
errors
Nonsense Syllables
SL
Nonsense
T3
T4
T5
T6
No
syllables
VAK
MEZ
XOF
CUJ
GIT
WEQ
T7
Absolute
Relative % of
number of
errors
errors
1
1.8
3.6
7.1
5.4
8.9
7.1
25
7
TAH
10.7
FUP
8.9
ZIX
8.9
10
QON
10.7
11
SAJ
8.9
12
LEB
7.1
13
DIW
7.1
14
POH
3.6
15
BUQ
14
12
11
10
56
99.8
T5
Absolute
Relative %
words
number of
of errors
BOP
errors
1
4.3
KEN
8.7
VIZ
4.3
LAC
8.7
PUG
17.4
Total number of
errors
SUBJECT 3
Meaningful Words
SL No
Meaningful
T1
T2
T3
T4
26
6
REB
13.1
YON
4.3
DIT
8.7
HAJ
10
SUB
11
GEL
13.1
12
COR
4.3
13
FIX
4.3
14
ZAP
15
MET
8.7
Total number of errors
11
23
99.9
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Absolute
Relative %
number of
of errors
Nonsense Syllables
SL No
Nonsense
syllables`
VAK
errors
0
MEZ
XOF
8.3
CUJ
16.6
27
5
GIT
4.2
WEQ
8.3
TAH
FUP
12.5
ZIX
10
QON
12.5
11
SAJ
16.6
12
LEB
4.2
13
DIW
12.5
14
POH
15
BUQ
4.2
24
99.9
SUBJECT 4
Meaningful Words
SL
Meaningful
No
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Absolute
Relative % of
words
number of
errors
BOP
errors
0
KEN
VIZ
28
4
LAC
6.9
PUG
6.9
REB
6.9
YON
13.8
DIT
10.3
HAJ
10.3
10
SUB
13.8
11
GEL
13.8
12
COR
6.9
13
FIX
6.9
14
ZAP
15
MET
3.4
11
29
99.9
Nonsense Syllables
SL
Nonsense
No
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
Absolute
Relative %
syllables
number of
of errors
VAK
errors
1
1.9
MEZ
1.9
29
3
XOF
5.9
CUJ
7.8
GIT
5.9
WEQ
7.8
TAH
11.8
FUP
7.8
ZIX
11.8
10
QON
9.8
11
SAJ
11.8
12
LEB
5.9
13
DIW
5.9
14
POH
3.9
15
BUQ
14
12
51
99.9
Total number of
errors
RECALL SLIPS
SUBJECT 1
MEANINGFUL WORDS
30
TRAIL
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. GEL
14. MET
15. ZET
TRAIL
TRAIL
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. COR
10. HAJ
11. SUB
12. GEL
13. LAC
14. MET
15. ZEP
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. REB
7. YON
8. DIT
9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. GEL
12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
NONSENSE SYLLABLES
TRAIL
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. YON
5. DIT
6. 7. 8. 9. LAC
10. GEL
11. HAJ
12. SUB
13. COR
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. DIT
7. YON
8. 9. GEL
10. SUB
11. GEL
12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. REB
7. DIT
8. YON
9. COR
10. HAJ
11. SUB
12. GEL
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
31
TRAIL 1
TRAIL 2
TRAIL 3
TRAIL 4
TRAIL 5
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. OKZ
4. GIT
5. OXZ
6. QUZ
7. SUB
8. XET
9. ZEX
10. BUQ
11. ERZ
12. GXE
13. TEZ
14. ERX
15. BUE
TRAIL 6
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. ZOF
4. XIF
5. GIT
6. QOB
7. CUJ
8. LEB
9. QEW
10. XEF
11. RUK
12. QEB
13. BUK
14. XEW
15. BOQ
TRAIL 7
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. GIT
5. LEB
6. CUJ
7. QEW
8. XON
9. MER
10. QOE
11. WEZ
12. ZRX
13. QON
14. TIW
15. BUQ
TRAIL 8
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. ZOX
4. XIF
5. CUJ
6. GIT
7. FUP
8. 9. -SAJ
10. -LEB
11.
12.
13. DIW
14. POH
15. QUB
TRAIL 9
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. GIT
5. CUJ
6. QON
7. TAH
8. 9. 10. 11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. QIW
14. POH
15. QUB
TRAIL 10
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. QON
7. TAH
8. QEW
9. TON
10.
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. QUB
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. QON
7. TAH
8. QEW
9. FUP
10. ZIX
11. SAJ
12. DIW
13. LEB
14. POH
15. BUQ
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. FUP
7. QON
8. TAH
9. QEW
10. ZIX
11. SAJ
12. DIW
13. LEB
14. POH
15. QUB
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. QEW
7. QON
8. FUP
9. TAH
10. ZIX
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. WEQ
6. GIT
7. QON
8. FUP
9. ZIX
10. TAH
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
32
TRAIL 11
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. WEQ
7. TAH
8. QON
9. FUP
10. ZIX
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
TRAIL 12
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. WEQ
7. FUP
8. QON
9. XIZ
10. TAH
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
TRAIL 13
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. WEQ
7. TAH
8. FUP
9. ZIX
10. QON
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
SUBJECT 2
MEANINGFUL LIST
TRAIL 1
1. -BOP
2. -KEN
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. -
TRAIL 2
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 3
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 4
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. COR
13.
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 5
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
33
TRAIL 6
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 7
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. 6. REB
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 8
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. REB
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 9
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. REB
7. YON
8. DIT
9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. GEL
12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
NONSENSE SYLLABLES
TRAIL 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15. BUQ
TRAIL 2
1. VAK
2. 3. 4. CUJ
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. BUQ
TRAIL 3
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. POH
15. BUQ
TRAIL 4
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. POH
15. BUQ
TRAIL 5
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. 4. CUJ
5. 6. WEQ
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
34
TRAIL 6
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. WEQ
7. 8. FUP
9. ZIX
10. 11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
TRAIL 7
1. VAK
2. MEZ
3. XOF
4. CUJ
5. GIT
6. WEQ
7. TAH
8. FUP
9. ZIX
10. QON
11. SAJ
12. LEB
13. DIW
14. POH
15. BUQ
SUBJECT 3
MEANINGFUL WORDS
TRAIL 1
1. BOP
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. 12. 13. 14. ZAP
15. -
TABLES
TRAIL 2
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. 5. 6. 7. YON
8. DIT
9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. 12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. -
TRAIL 3
1. BOP
2. 3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. 6. 7. YON
8. -DIT
9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. 12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 4
1. 2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. 6. REB
7. YON
8. 9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. GEL
12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
TRAIL 5
1. BOP
2. KEN
3. VIZ
4. LAC
5. PUG
6. REB
7. YON
8. DIT
9. HAJ
10. SUB
11. GEL
12. COR
13. FIX
14. ZAP
15. MET
35
Table 1 (Participant 1)
Nonsense syllables
Meaningful words
85
13
47
6
Nonsense syllables
Meaningful words
56
7
64
9
Nonsense syllables
Meaningful words
24
5
23
5
Nonsense syllables
Meaningful words
51
7
29
5
Number of errors
Number of trails
Table2 (Participant 2)
Number of errors
Number of trails
Number of errors
Number of trails
Number of errors
Number of trails
Table 5
Participant1
Participant2
Participant3
Participant4
Types of
Number of
Number of
Number of
Number of
recall
trails for
errors for
trails for
errors for
meaningful
meaningful
nonsense
nonsense
list
list
syllables list
13
7
5
7
syllables list
85
59
23
51
Serial recall
Serial recall
Free recall
Free recall
6
9
5
5
47
64
23
29
36
Table 6 Serial Recall Versus Free Recal
SL
Graph
No
No
Serial Position Curve is
Absolute
Type Hypothesis 3
Observed/Not
no./relative
of
percentage of
list
errors
Free recall Serial recall
11
12
16
s 3B
Absolute no. of
(P4, F)
(P2, F)
errors
Observed
Observed
Absolute no. of
(P4, F)
(P2, F)
errors
------------
Relative percentage MW
Verified
-----------
14
15
is 3A
Observed
----------4
Hypothesi
Observed
13
MW
Hypothes
Verified
------------
NSS
Verified
-----------
of errors
Relative percentage NSS
-----------
-----------
of errors
Weakly
Observed
Absolute no. of
(P3, M)
(P1, M)
errors
Not
Observed
Absolute no. of
(P3, M)
(P1, M)
errors
Verified
-----------
MW
Verified
---------
NSS
Verified
----------
(Retained
)
17
Relative percentage MW
-----------
---------
of errors
or
-----------8
18
Retained
Relative percentage NSS
----------
-----------
Verified
of errors
---------
Verified
or
Retained
37
Table 7 Male vs Female
SL
Graph
No
No
Serial Position Curve
Type of
Serial
is Observed/Not
list
position
effect is
Male
Female
Hy Remar
yp po
better
ot
observed
he sis
in
the conclus
sis 4B
4A
ks or
ion
38
19
yes
yes
MW
Females
Re
je
ct
ed
20
Yes
Yes
NSS
Males
Re
je
ct
ed
21
Re
tai
ne
d
22
Re
tai
ne
d
23
weak
yes
MW
Females
Re
je
ct
ed
24
Very
weak
Yes
NSS
Females
Re
je
ct
39
ed
25
Re
tai
ne
d
26
Re
tai
ne
d
Table 8
Sl
Su
Gen
Type of
Graph
no
bje
der
recall
No
List
Hypothe-
Rema
sis 1
rks
ct
Hypothesis 2
2
2A
Verifi
Verifi
ed
ed
No
1
Serial
3&4
M
W
d
N
SS
2
Serial
Verifie
Verifi
ed
Curves
5&6
are not
MW
Verified
overlap
ping but
for MW
she did
more
Verifi
Remark
40
NSS
mistakes
Verified
ed
compare
d to NSS
Not
verified
Free
7&8
MW
Not
verified
Strong
Memor
y of
curve
and
s are
Free
overl
Not
verified
free recall
(The
subject
recall
NSS
Because of
appin
Verifi
ed
g)
''
Not
Verifi
ed
Free
9 & 10
MW
Verified but
Free
not better
recall
than serial
NSS
Verified but
Free
not better
recall
Verifi
Verifi
ed
ed
than serial
LIST OF GRAPHS
1. Graph 1 - Showing serial position curve for absolute number of errors for each
serial position of meaningful words ( participant 1, MALE, Serial Recall)
2. Graph 2 - Showing serial position curve for absolute number of errors for each
serial position of nonsense syllables ( participant 1, MALE, Serial Recall)
41
3. Graph 3 - Graph comparing serial position curves for absolute number of errors for
each serial position of meaningful words verses nonsense syllables ( participant
1,MALE, Serial Recall)
4. Graph 4 - Graph comparing serial position curves for relative percentage of errors
for each serial position of meaningful words verses nonsense syllables ( participant
1, MALE, Serial Recall)
each serial position of meaningful words verses nonsense syllables ( participant 2,
FEMALE, Serial Recall)
2, FEMALE, Serial Recall)
MALE, Free Recall)
3, MALE, Free Recall)
FEMALE, Free Recall)
4, FEMALE, Free Recall)
11. Graph 11 - Graph comparing serial position curves for absolute number of errors of
free recall verses serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 2 & participant 4,
FEMALE VERSES FEMALE)
42
free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 2 & participant 4,
FEMALE VERSES FEMALE)
of free recall verses serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 2 & participant
4, FEMALE VERSES FEMALE)
of free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 2 & participant
4, FEMALE VERSES FEMALE)
free recall verses serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 1 & participant 3,
MALE VERSES MALE )
free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 1 & participant 3,
MALE VERSES MALE)
of free recall verses serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 1 & participant
3, MALE VERSES MALE)
of free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 1 & participant
3, MALE VERSES MALE)
male serial recall verses female serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 1 &
participant 2, MALE VERSES FEMALE)
male serial recall verses female serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 1 &
43
of male serial recall verses female serial recall for meaningful words ( participant 1
& participant 2, MALE VERSES FEMALE)
of male serial recall verses female serial recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 1
& participant 2, MALE VERSES FEMALE)
male free recall verses female free recall for meaningful words ( participant 3 &
male free recall verses female free recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 3 &
of male free recall verses female free recall for meaningful words ( participant 3 &
of male free recall verses female free recall for nonsense syllables ( participant 3 &
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

The aims/objectives of the experiment were to study the following:
1. The effect of the position of an item on the ability to recall that particular item. (To study
serial position effect in verbal learning).
2. The effect of differing (meaningful list and non sense syllables list) difficulty lists on
serial position curve (on ability to recall those items) or (To verify McCrary and Hunter
hypothesis.)
3. The effect of type of recall (serial and free recall) on serial position effect.
4. The effect of gender (male and female) on serial position effect.
44
To test/verify these objectives, testable hypotheses were made. The four hypotheses
corresponding to the above objectives are:
1. Hypothesis 1- Serial position effect will be observed i.e. first few and last few items will
be learned first with fewer errors while items at the middle of the list will be learned with
maximum effort.
2. Hypothesis-2A: Serial position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will
show much more marked piling up of errors in the middle of the more difficult list.
Hypothesis-2B: But, when the errors in each serial position are expressed as percentages
of the total number of errors for the whole list, the two curves will appear identical.
(McCrary & Hunter, 1953).
3. Hyothesis-3A: Serial position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will
show a much more marked piling up of errors for a difficult recall (serial recall)
compared to an easy recall (free recall) in the middle of any list.
Hypothesis-3B: When serial position curve is plotted in terms of relative percentage of
errors for the whole list, the two curves (serial recall versus free recall) will appear
identical (or overlapping).
4. Hypothesis-4A: No gender differences will be observed in serial position effect .Serial
position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will show a more or less
equal piling up of errors when male serial/free recall versus female serial/free recall in
the middle of any list.
Hypothesis-4B: When serial position curves are plotted in terms of relative percentage of
errors for the whole list, the two curves (Male serial/free recall versus female serial/free
recall) will appear identical (or overlapping).
SUBJECT 1
The result of the experiment for subject 1 showed that meaningful words list was
easily learned where as nonsense syllables list took longer time . One correct serial recall
took 6 trials for meaningful words list and 13 trials for nonsense syllables list.
Hypothesis 1
According to the hypothesis-1, we were supposed to verify or observe serial
position effect. After observing the graph number 1 & 3, when the absolute number of
errors for the two lists (meaningful and nonsense syllables lists) was calculated and the
graph plotted taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items
45
on X-axis, it was found that there is amore piling up of errors for the middle items for
both the lists, but comparitively less number of errors in the meaningful words list. This
means that serial position effect can be seen/observed.i.e, the first and last items can be
learned faster and retained better when compared to the middle items. The number of
errors for the first and last items are very less. This is because, these words come first to
the mind and are the last to leave. This means that hypothesis 1 is confirmed or verified.
In other words, these findings show evidence in favor of hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis 2A:
In graph-3, it is seen that the curves tend to rise in the middle for both the lists because
the absolute number of errors increase in the middle. The curves are not overlapping
because of the difference in difficulty or association level. The subject made more
mistakes while learning the middle items of the list of nonsense syllables as compared to
the list of meaningful words. This finding is consistent with McCrary and Hunter
hypothesis ,i.e, Hypothesis-2A is verified. In another words, these findings show
evidence in favor of hypothesis 2A.
Hypothesis 2B:
When the relative percentage of errors was plotted on Y-axis as shown in graph4, the differences in relative percentages of errors is almost nil and the curves can be
observed to be overlapping.. It is seen that curves initially rise almost with similar
relative percentages of errors , i.e, the two curves are almost parallel or run near to each
other. The difference in relative percentage of errors for both the lists is minimal or
negligible. Thu, the relative percentage of error in each serial position is
constant(relatively) confirming McCrary and Hunter hypothesis, that states that serial
position curves for the two lists differing in association level will be overlapping when
plotted with relative distribution of errors rather than absolute number of errors. This
means hypothesis 2B is confirmed. In another words the evidence is in favor of
hypothesis 2B.
SUBJECT 2
The result of the experiment for subject 2 showed that nonsense syllables
words list was easily learned where as meaningful words list took longer time to learn for
subject-2. One correct serial recall took 9 trials for meaningful words list and 7 trials for
46
nonsense syllables list. This is contrary to subject 1. This may be because of practice
effect (that is, for subject 1, we have presented NSS list first whereas for subject 2
meaningful words list first).
Hypothesis 1
position effect. After observing the graph number 5, when the absolute number of errors
for the two lists are calculated(meaningful and nonsense syllables lists) and the graph
plotted taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis, it can be found that there are much more marked piling up of errors for the middle
items for both the lists, but less number of errors in nonsense words list. This means that
the serial position effect can be seen/observed, that is, the first and last items are learned
faster and retained better when compared to the middle items. Errors in the first and last
items are less. This is because these words come first to the mind and are the last to leave.
Hence hypothesis 1 can be said to be confirmed or verified. In another words, these
findings show evidence in favor of hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis 2A
In graph-5, it is seen that the curves tend to rise in the middle for both the lists
because the absolute errors increase in the middle. The curves are not overlapping
because of the difference in difficulty or association level. The subject made more
mistakes to learn the middle items of meaningful words list as compared to nonsense
syllables list. This finding are not consistent with McCrary and Hunter hypothesis that is
Hypothesis-2A is not verified because according to McCrary and Hunter hypothesis the
difficult list should have more mistakes than the meaningful words list. But in this case,
the differences are less and that may be because of practice effect as the MW list was
presented before the NS list.
Hypothesis 2B
When the relative percentage of errors were plotted on Y-axis as shown in graph6, the difference in relative percentages of errors can be observed to be almost nil .The
curves do not overlap for the first few words. The difference in relative percentage of
errors for both the lists is minimal or negligible. Thus, the relative percentage of errors in
each serial position remain constant confirming the McCrary and Hunter hypothesis that
states that the serial position curves for the two lists differing in association level will be
47
overlapping when plotted with relative distribution of errors rather than absolute number
of errors. This means hypothesis 2B is confirmed. In another words we get evidence in
favor of hypothesis 2B.
SUBJECT 3
The result of experiment for subject 3 showed that meaningful words and
nonsense syllables lists were learned without any difficulty and even more surprising is
with equal number of trials as can be seen in his data. One correct serial recall took 5
trials for both meaningful words and nonsense syllables lists. Generally, subjects take
more trials for learning the nonsense syllables list in comparison to meaningful words
list. This may be because meaningful words list was presented first to the subject. This
practice effect can be seen in learning nonsense syllables list as the subject took same
number (5) of trials to learn both the lists of different difficulties.
Hypothesis 1
position effect. After observing the graph number 7, when we calculate the absolute
number of errors for the two lists (meaningful and nonsense syllables lists) and plot the
graph taking the absolute number of errors on the Y-axis and the serial position of an
items on the X-axis, it was found that the subject did not take more effort to recall middle
items in comparison to the first and last few items for both the list as a result of which
serial position effect is not seen/observed. The middle items, especially 9th and 10th
items for meaningful words and 7th and 9th item for nonsense syllables, the subject did
not make any mistake. These items were learnt faster and retained better when the
compared to the first and last few items. Errors for the middle items are less. This may
partly be due to the influence of free recall, i.e, the subject can recall items in any order.
The subject had formed association between the items. Therefore he learned faster and
these words were the retained better in comparison to first and last few words. The graph
also shows no particular pattern which means that we have no evidence at all in favor of
serial position effect. Hence, hypothesis 1 is not confirmed or verified.
Hypothesis 2A
In graph-7, it is seen that the curves rise high and comes down very fast. The
curves are very much overlapping - the errors made in both the lists are almost same or
similar. The two curves do run parallel or nearby. The subject made more mistakes to
48
learn the 4th and 11th items of nonsense syllables list and 5th item in meaningful words
list. These findings are not consistent with McCrary and Hunter hypothesis, which states
that for difficult list (NSS) marked piling up of errors in the middle compared to easy list
(MW) , i.e, the difficult (NSS) list should have more mistakes than the meaningful words
list. But in this case the differences in learning the two can be observed to be very less.
The reasons may be because of
1. Practice effect (that is MW list is presented before to Nonsense syllables list)
which made learning the NSS list easier or of the same difficulty as MW list.
2. Free recall: in free recall subject has the facility of recalling items in his own way.
He may organize the items the way he wants. This facility made it easier for the
subject to learn the lists. This also influenced the observed results.
3. Subject's memory: Subject memory can be said to be very good since he took
only 5 trials in recalling both the lists. This means that when the subject's
memory is very strong, it is difficult to verify serial position effect and McCrary
and Hunter hypothesis.
Therefore the results of the subject 3 have to be carefully interpreted under the above
reasons.
Hypothesis 2B
When the relative percentage of errors were plotted on Y-axis as shown in graph8, the difference in relative percentages of errors was not big but there were slight
differences and the curves overlapping each other in many place. Where the McCrary and
Hunter hypothesis 2B is concerned; the difference is further reduced when compared to
absolute number of errors. So Hypothesis 2B is verified.
McCrary and Hunter hypothesis has to be interpreted under the light of above
mentioned 3 reasons.
SUBJECT 4 (Female, Free recall)
The result of tye experiment for subject 4 showed that the meaningful words list
was easily learned where as nonsense syllables list took longer time to learn for subject-4.
One correct serial recall took 5 trails for meaningful words list and 7 trails for nonsense
syllables list. In this case Nonsense syllables list was presented first and then meaningful
words list second.
Hypothesis 1
49
According to the hypothesis-1, we are supposed to verify or observe serial

position effect. After observing the graph number 9, when the absolute number of errors
are calculated for the two lists (meaningful and nonsense syllables lists) and the graph
plotted taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis, it is found that there is a much more marked piling up of errors for the middle items
for both the lists, but less amount number of errors in meaningful words list. Thus, the
serial position effect can be said to be seen/observed, that is, the first and last items are
learned faster and retained better than the middle items. Errors in the first and last items
are very less as these words come first to the mind and are the last to leave. Hypothesis 1
is confirmed or verified. In another words, these findings show evidence in favor of
hypothesis 1.
Hypothesis 2A
In graph-9, it is seen that the curves tend to rise in the middle for both the lists
because the absolute errors increase in the middle. The curves do not verlap because of
the difference in difficulty or association level. The subject has made more mistakes to
learn the middle items of nonsense syllables list as compared to meaningful words list.
This finding is in consistence with the McCrary and Hunter hypothesis 2A, that is
Hypothesis-2A is verified.
Hypothesis 2B
When the relative percentage of errors are plotted on Y-axis as shown in graph10, the difference in relative percentages of errors is almost nil and the curves are very
much overlapping with each other. It can be seen that curves initially raise almost with
similar relative percentages of errors, that is, the two curves run parallel or nearby. The
difference in relative percentage of errors for both the lists is small or negligible. The two
curves first run nearby each other, overlap at the centre and finally run nearby each other.
Thus, the relative percentage of errors in each serial position remain constant confirming
McCrary and Hunter hypothesis 2B that states that the serial position curves for the two
lists differing in association level will be overlapping when plotted with relative
percentage of errors rather than absolute number of errors. This means that the hypothesis
2B is confirmed. In another words we have strong evidence in favor of hypothesis 2B.
To conclude hypothesis 1: serial position effect was tested for 4 subjects with 2 lists (MW
and NSS). Out of four subjects, the first 2 subjects are serial recall and the last 2 subjects
50
are free recall. 8 graphs (graphs 3 to 10) are plotted out of which the serial position effect
can be clearly observed for 6 graphs. For the third subject(male), the serial position effect
is not observed which may be due to the subject's superior memory and practice effect. In
case of subject 4(female), where she was asked to recall in any order, even though the
serial position effect can be observed, the extent is not as pronounced as in the case of
subjects 1&2(free recall). Therefore, one can say that the serial position effect is verified
and that it can be observed better in case of serial recall and nonsense syllables than free
recall and meaningful words respectively (Table no:6 ). However, whether serial recall
yields better serial position effect is to be explored in detail. This issue is discussed in
hypothesis 3.
To conclude hypothesis 2: For two subjects (1&4), hypothesis 2 is verified. For
subject 2 and 3, McCrary and Hunter hypothesis could not be verified. This may be
because of practice effect. A need to verify whether either any other extraneous variables
which are unknown to the experimenter or improper conduction might be contaminating
the research arises(Table no: ).
The third hypothesis of my study is:
3A- Serial position curve plotted in terms of absolute number of errors will show much
more marked piling up of errors for a difficult recall (serial recall) compared to an easy
recall (free recall) in the middle of any list.
3B- Serial position curve plotted in terms of relative percentage of errors for the whole
list the two curves will appear identical (or overlapping).
Graph 11 showing the comparing of serial position curves for absolute number of
errors for free recall verses serial recall for the meaningful list. The absolute number of
errors for the two types of recall (serial and free recall) are calculated and the graphscplotted
taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. It is found
that the serial position effect can be observed in both (serial and free) types of recall. But serial
recall took more trials than free recall. Serial recall took 9 trials and free recall took 5 trials.
Serial position curve of serial recall is better than free recall which implies that the subject has
made more mistakes in recalling middle items of the list in serial recall compared to the case of
free recall. These finding are in favor of hypothesis 3A. So hypothesis 3A is verified. We can
51
conclude that the serial position effect is better observed in case of serial recall compared to free
recall in case of subject 2 and 4 for meaningful list.
Graph 12 shows the serial position curves for absolute number of errors during
free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables list. We calculated the absolute
number of errors for the two types of recall (serial and free recall) and plotted the graph
taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. We
e are able to find that t serial position curve is observed for both (serial and free recall)
recall. Serial recall and free recall took 7 trials. The differences in absolute number of
errors are almost nil. The serial position curve is slightly better observed for serial recall.
This finding are in slight favor of hypothesis 3A. So hypothesis 3A is verified. We
conclude that the serial position effect is better observed in case of serial recall, subject 2,
when compared to free recall(subject 4) for the list of non-sense syllables. But the
evidence is weak in comparison to the meaningful words list (Graph 11).
Graph 13 shows serial position curves for relative percentage of errors for free
recall verses serial recall for meaningful list. We calculated the relative percentage of
errors for the two types of recall (serial recall and free recall) and plotted the graph taking
the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. The two
curves can be seen to be overlapping. This finding says that the relative percentage of
errors in each serial position remain (relatively) constant. The curves are very much
overlapping. Therefore hypothesis 3B is verified.
Graph 14 shows serial position curves for relative percentage of errors for free
recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables. We calculated the relative percentage of
errors for the two types of recall (serial and free recall) and plotted the graph taking the
relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. The curves
are overlapping. This finding says that the relative percentage of errors in each serial
position remain (relatively) constant. Therefore hypothesis 3B is verified.
Graph 15 shows serial position curves for absolute number of errors for free
recall verses serial recall for the meaningful list. We calculated the absolute number of
errors for the two types of recall (serial and free recall) and plotted the graph taking the
relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. We can see
that serial position effect is observed for serial recall but is very weak in the case of free
recall. Serial recall took 6 trials and free recall took 5 trials for a perfect recall. In free
52
recall, the subject recalled the middle items very fast because of personal associations and
organizing items as per his convenience. This finding is in favor of hypothesis 3A. We
retain hypothesis 3A and conclude that the Serial position effect can be better observed in
the case of serial recall - subject 1 compared to free recall - subject 3 for meaningful
words list.
Graph 16 compares the serial position curves for absolute number of errors for
free recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables list. We calculated the absolute
number of errors for the two types of recall (serial and free recall) and plotted the graph
can find that the serial position curve is observed for serial recall, but not in case of free
recall. Serial recall took 13 trials and free recall took 5 for a correct recall. The subject
recalled middle items within a few trials in free recall because of personal associations
which was made between the items and organization of materials as per his convenience.
This finding is in favor of hypothesis 3A. We retain hypothesis 3A. And we conclude
Serial position effect is better observed in case of serial recall compared to free recall in
case of subject 1 and 3 for nonsense syllables list.
Graph 17 showing serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of free
recall verses serial recall for meaningful list is plotted. We calculated the relative
percentage of errors for the two types of recall (serial recall and free recall) and plotted
the graph taking the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on
X-axis. The curves are overlapping . This finding says that the relative percentage of
errors in each serial position remained (relatively) constant. This finding is in favor of
hypothesis 3B. We retain hypothesis 3B.
Graph 18 showing serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of free
recall verses serial recall for nonsense syllables. We calculated the relative percentage of
errors for the two lists ( serial and free recall) and plotted the graph taking the relative
percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on X-axis. The curves are
overlapping at all places. This finding says that the relative percentage of errors in each
53
serial position remained (relatively) constant. This finding is in favor of hypothesis 3B.
We retain hypothesis 3B.
To conclude hypothesis 3A and3B are verified for both male and female and as
well as nonsense syllables and meaningful items. So we can safely say that serial
position effect is observed better in case of serial recall compared to free recall.
Fourth hypothesis of my study is:
Hypothesis 4 - No gender differences will be observed in serial position effect.
Graph 19 compares the serial position curves for absolute number of errors of male serial
recall verses female serial recall for meaningful words. We calculated the absolute number of
errors for the two genders (Male serial recall and Female serial recall) and plotted the
graph taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis. We find that the serial position curve are observed for both gender. But females took more
number of trials (9) compared to males (6) to recall in serial order. Female has done more number
of mistakes in the middle compared to males. Over all serial position effect can be seen/observed
better in case of female (subject 2) compared to male (subject 1). This finding is not in favor of
hypothesis 4. So we reject hypothesis 4 and conclude that the serial position effect is
better observed in case of female serial recall - Subject 2, compared to male serial recall Subject 1, for meaningful words list.
Graph 20 showing the serial position curves for absolute number of errors of male
serial recall verses female serial recall for nonsense syllables is plotted . We calculated the
absolute number of errors for the two genders (Male serial recall and Female serial recall)
and plotted the graph taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of
items on X-axis. We can find that the serial position curve is observed for both the genders
(male and female). The female subject only took 7 trials to recall whereas the male subject
took 13 trials to recall items of the list in serial order. Overall, the serial position effect can
be seen/observed better in the case of the male (subject 1) than the female (subject 2) as far as
nonsense syllables list is concerned. This finding is not in favor of hypothesis 4. So we reject
hypothesis 4 and conclude that the serial position effect is better observed in case of male
54
serial recall - Subject 1, compared to female serial recall- Subject 2, for nonsense
syllables list.
Graph 21 shows serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of male serial
recall verses female serial recall for meaningful list . We calculated the relative percentage of
errors for the two genders (Male serial recall and Female serial recall) and plotted the
graph taking the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis. It is seen that the curves initially raise almost with similar relative percentages of
errors, that is, the two curves run parallel or nearby. The difference in relative percentage
of errors for male serial recall versus female serial recall is minimal or negligible. The
two curves run nearby each other, the differences significantly reduce at the centre and
they finally run nearby each other. Thus, the relative percentage of error in each serial
position remains constant confirming hypothesis 4B. So we retain hypothesis 4B.
Graph 22 shows the serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of male serial
recall verses female serial recall for nonsense syllables . We calculated the relative percentage
of errors for the two genders (Male serial recall and Female serial recall) and plotted the
graph taking the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis. It can be seen that the curves initially rise almost with similar relative percentages of
errors and run parallel or nearby. The difference in relative percentage of errors for male
serial recall versus female serial recall is small or negligible. The two curves run nearby
each other and the difference can be seen to reduced significantly at the centre. Toward
the end, they run nearby each other. Thus the relative percentage of error in each serial
position remains constant confirming hypothesis 4B. So we retain hypothesis 4B.
Graph 23 showing serial position curves for absolute number of errors of male free recall
verses female free recall for meaningful words is plotted. . We calculated the absolute number
of errors for the two genders (Male free recall and Female free recall) and plotted the
graph taking the absolute number of errors on Y-axis and serial position of items on Xaxis. The two subjects took same number of trials for a correct recall.. We can find that the
serial position curve is only observed for female free recall. Male subject recalls the middle items
very easily. This finding is not in favor of hypothesis 4A. So we reject hypothesis 4 and
55
conclude that the serial position effect is better observed in case of female serial recallSubject 2, compared to male serial recall- Subject 1 in case meaningful words list.
Graph 24 shows the serial position curves for absolute number of errors for male free
recall verses female free recall for nonsense syllables . We calculated the absolute number of
errors for the two gender (Male free recall and Female free recall) and plotted the graph
can find that serial position curve is observed in case of female free recall. Female took 7 trials
to recall whereas the male only took 5 trials. Male subject recalls middle items of list
very easily. This shows that the memory of the subject is very strong. This finding is not
in favor of hypothesis 4A. So we reject hypothesis 4A. We conclude that the serial
position effect is better observed in case of female free recall- Subject 4, compared to
male free recall- Subject 3 for the nonsense syllables list. It is also to be noted that subject
3 has very good memory. Therefore one should be careful while interpreting the results
as the differences observed in male and female could be due to the memory of the
subject 3.
Graph 25 showing serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of male free
recall verses female free recall for meaningful list is plotted. We calculated the relative
percentage of errors for the two gender (Male free recall and Female free recall) and
plotted the graph taking the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of
items on X-axis. it is seen that curves initially rise almost with similar relative
percentages of errors, that is, the two curves run parallel or nearby. The difference in
relative percentage of errors for male free recall versus female free recall is small when
compared to the difference of absolute number of errors. The two curves run nearby each
other, the difference reduce significantly at the centre and finally they run nearby each
other. Thus, the relative percentage of error in each serial position remained relatively
constant confirming hypothesis 4B. So we retain hypothesis 4B.
Graph 26 showing serial position curves for relative percentage of errors of male free recall
verses female free recall for nonsense syllables is plotted . We calculated the relative
percentage of errors for the two lists (Male serial recall and Female serial recall) and
56
plotted the graph taking the relative percentage of errors on Y-axis and serial position of
items on X-axis. it is seen that curves initially raise almost with similar relative
percentages of errors that is the two curves run parallel or nearby. The difference in
relative percentage of errors for male free recall versus female free recall is small
compared to the difference of absolute number of errors. The two curves run nearby each
other and the differences reduc, significantly at the centre and finally they run nearby
each other. Thus the relative percentage of error in each serial position remained
relatively constant confirming hypothesis 4B. So we retain hypothesis 4B.
To conclude, the serial position effect is observed better in case of female recall
compared to male free recall in both lists (MW and NSS). And serial position effect is
observed better in case of female serial recall in meaningful words and vice versa in NSS.
This finding needs to be interpreted carefully under the light of subject 3's (Male) good
memory.
REASONS/EXPLANATIONS TO SERIAL POSITION EFFECT:
Serial position effect can be explained in many ways. It can easily be seen in the data
obtained that, for both the lists, the first and last items are learnt without any difficulty or fault. It
can be described as the outcome of primacy and recency or finality effects. Subjects interest in
the beginning item is more wholesome and gradually declines with the presentation of similar
items on the list. The items at the end of the list provide a break from monotony which is the
result of End Spirit i.e. a feeling of satisfaction that list is going to be over. As a result the
beginning and end items are more easily recalled than the middle ones. Being once recalled, their
probability of recall in subsequent trials further increases, hence, they came out to be more
frequently reproduced items.
The better recall at the beginning of the list which contributes to the serial-position effect
is known as the primacy effect; item encountered first remembered relatively well. The better
recall at the end of the list is known as the recency effect; items encountered most recently are
remembered well.
GLANZER&CUNITZS EXPERIMENT:
57
The serial position effect has two components:

1. A primacy effect: reflecting the superior recall of the earliest items,
2. Recency effect: representing the superior recall of the most recent items.
Causes of the primacy effect:
According to 3 stage model, as the first few words enter short-term memory, we can
quickly rehearse them and transfer them into LTM. However, as the list gets longer,
short-term memory rapidly fills up and there are too many words to keep repeating before
the next word arrives. Therefore, beyond the first few words, it is harder to rehearse the
items and they are less likely to get transferred into LTM. If this hypothesis is correct,
then the primacy effect should decrease if we are prevented from rehearsing the early
words, say, by being presented with the list at a faster rate. Indeed, this is what happens
(Glanzer, 1972).
Causes of recency effect:
As for the recency effect, the last few words still linger in short-term memory and have
the benefit of not being bumped out by new information. Thus if we try to recall the list
immediately, all we have to do is recite the last words from short-term memory before
they decay (i.e., fade away).
In sum, according to the 3 stage model, the primacy effect is due to the transfer of early
words into LTM, whereas the recency effect is due to the continued presence of
information in short-term memory.
If this explanation is correct, then it must be possible to wipe out the recency effect (but
not the primacy effect) by eliminating the last words from short-term memory.
This happens when the recall test is delayed, even for as little as 15 to 30 seconds, and we
are prevented from rehearsing the last words.
58
To prevent rehearsal, we might be asked to briefly count a series of numbers immediately

after the last word is presented (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966; Postman & Phillips, 1965).
Now by the time we try to recall the last words, they will have faded from short-term
memory or been bumped out by the numbers task (6789) (Figure 8.6 from
Passer and Smith) shows that under delayed conditions, the recency effect disappears
while the primacy effect remains.
Inhibitory tendencies in learning:

The serial position effect can also be explained as due to the inhibitory tendencies in
learning. According to Lepley and Hull (1934,1935, 1940), when a list is presented for a free or
serial recall, each item becomes associated not only with the item preceding or following it, but
also with other items. The associations of the beginning and the end items have only one
direction, either forward or backward, other items have bidirectional associations; they are
associated with those preceding as well as those following them. As a result, the item that
immediately follows the item which is exposed has to compete, in order to be recalled, with
several other items with which the exposed item is associated, and the number of such remote
associations is larger for the middle than for beginning or the end items. The greater the
competition exerts greater interference on the correct recall of the immediately following item.
Successful recall accordingly, becomes more difficult for the middle item than for the beginning
or end items.
ROBINSON AND BROWNS (1926) FINDINGS:
The greater difficulty at the middle of the list shows up at all stages of learning (Robinson &
Brown, 1926). It is found in both massed and spaced practice although it is less pronounced in
spaced practice (Patten, 1938; Hoveland, 1938). This latter finding is consistent with the
inhibition theory. It states that there are adjacent and remote associations which result in
inhibition. We learn things in serial order and make adjacent associations (which are the
associations formed with the items immediately preceding and succeeding a particular item) and
remote associations (these are the associations formed with rest of the items as well). The first
and the last items have only unidirectional associations while number of associations in middle
59
items are more, thus increasing the complexity and difficulty to learn as compared to the first and
last items through errors we make, which are of four kinds:
i.
Error of anticipation
ii.
Error of omission
iii.
Error of preservation; and
iv.
Error of phonetics
Because of these associations there is a lot of piling up of associations in the middle which
results in inhibition or insecurity in the subject. Because of retroactive and proactive inhibition,
the middle words are difficult to learn.
Also in a list of words, starting items are transferred to the LTM, last words in STM as
they are fresh in the mind and the middle ones go to LTM but after some trials. Learning is
faster in list of MW because of organization and meaningfulness. This means list MW words are
easy to pronounce like LIK, PAC, JAN, ROP, PUC etc, and also these words are in some
way look like English language words, LICK, PACK, JAN, ROPE, DUCK etc.
Anchor points:
Feigenbaum & Simon (1962) proposed the information processing theory of serial
learning. Its fourth postulate, namely anchor points, gives the idea that for serial learning, the
attention is focused on specific items, items at the so-called anchor points. In the ordinary serial
learning task, before any learning, these anchor points are at the first and last items. Once the
first and last items have been learned, they in turn, define anchor points for items adjacent to
them and the process goes on. Thus learning proceeds in an orderly sequence starting from these
anchor points and working towards the middle.
Howards Dual storage theory (1983):
Dual storage theory suggests that items in the beginning of the list have time, during the
presentation of the list, to be put into long-term memory. Therefore, better recall of the first few
items is attributed to the long-term memory. On the other hand, the last few items are still in
60
short-term memory when the presentation of the list stops. Therefore, better recall of the last few
items is attributed to short-term memory.
CONCLUSION
1. The serial position curve is observed for three subjects out four. Only for subject 3 (male)
it is not or weakly observed.
2. Hypothesis 2A is retained in case of three subjects. But it is rejected in case of subject 2,
it may be because of practice effect (MW list was presented before). Over all nature of
material influences serial position effect and/ ability to recall items. Difficult list (NSS)
requires more number of trials to learn. Subject does more number of mistakes in the
middle of NSS list compared to MW list.
Hypothesis 2B is retained for all subjects.
That means over McCrary and Hunter hypothesis (2A &2B) is retained.
3. Serial position effect is better observed in case of serial recall compared to free recall for
all subjects and for both the lists. Therefore hypothesis 3A is retained.
4. Hypothesis 4A rejected as there are differences in males and females as far as serial
position effect is concerned. Serial position effect is observed in case of females
compared to males. And one should interpret this finding under the light of subject 3's
(male) good memory.
LIMITATIONS
1. Sample is too less.
2. Even though we tried to make a list of items which are equal in difficulty. Later we found
that it is not the case for subjects. Some items subjects find easy than others because of
their personal associations, which is very difficult for experimenter to control.
3. Higher statistics (such as t-test, regression) are not used to substantiate the findings.
4. In between group designs (serial versus free and male versus female), subjects are not
matched thoroughly.
5. Since the experiment is done only on college going students, findings cannot be
generalized all.
61
REFERENCES
Robert, A. Baron. (2001). Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited.
Ciccarelli, K.S. & Mayer, E.G. (2012). Psychology. Published by Dorling Kindersley India
Private limited Licensees of Pearson Education in South India.
Woodworth & Schlosberg. Experimental Psychology. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing co.
Barry H.K., David G.E., & Henry L.R. (2001). Experimental psychology. (Seventh Edition).
Wadsworth. Thomson learning, Inc.
Passer, W.M. & Smith, E.R. (2013). Psychology. (Fifth Edition). New Delhi: McGraw Hill
Education India Private Limited.
Passer, W.M. & Smith, E.R. Psychology. (Sixth Edition). New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education
India Private Limited.
62
Malinda S.L. Psychology A Biographical Approach.

Gardner L., Calvin S.H.,& Richard F.T. Psychology.
David C.E. General Psychology.
Aron F.W. Psychology an Introduction.
Carole W. Psychology.
MULLER LYER ILLUSION
63
AIM
To study the extent of Muller- Lyer illusion on the participant using the Muller -lyer apparatus.
BASIC CONCEPT
PERCEPTION
It is the process discriminating among stimuli and of interpreting their meaning. It
intervenes between sensory process, on the one hand, and behavior, on the other. Being an
intervening process ,it is not directly observable. It can be investigated and understood only by
observing responses made to stimuli under vario
us conditions.
DEPTH PERCEPTION
Depth perception has been a source of puzzlement to scientists and philosophers for
hundreds of years. They have been bothered by the problem of how we can see a third
-dimensional retina in each eye. Our retina is able to register images of the world only in terms
of right-left or up-down, yet we perceive the world about us as having the extra dimension of
depth.
64
We are a little more sophisticated about the problem today. We realize that the ability to
perceive depth is no more amazing than any other perceptual accomplishment. As we have seen,
all awareness of ourselves and of the world depends upon physical energy in various forms
striking special sense organs. What our brain receive is various pattern of neural impulses, not
tiny copies of various objects.
When we look at near object or at a far object, a flat object or a solid object, the retina
receives different patterns of stimulation even though the profile of the objects may be the same.
As we shall learn, differences in shadows, in clearness, and in the size of the image in the eye
provides cues on the retina as distinctive as if the retina were able to register the third dimensiondirectly.
In the case of perception, different cues, such as shadow and clearness, are the symbols
that represent the physical world. The book lying on our desk or the automobile parked across
the street form of images on the retina. At the sometime, senses other than vision are being
stimulated too. When we reach for a book or walk to the car, all these sensory cues or symbols
are somehow simultaneously perceived so that we judge correctly the distance of the book or car.
Visual cues for depth perception are usually classified into monocular and binocular cues,
that is, those that may be utilized by one eye alone and those that require two eye.
MONOCULAR CUES
Monocular cues, as the name suggests, are cues for depth that operate when only one eye
is looking. Presenting a three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional canvas is essentially the
same problem of giving our retinas are faced with. Let us examine some of principles the artist
accomplish this.
1. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
Objects which are farther away project a smaller range on the retina than do near objects.
In addition, the distance separating image of far objects is smaller. To understand this point, think
of standing between railroad tracks and looking off into the distance. The ties become smaller
and the tracks gradually become closer together
until they appear to meet at the horizon.
2. CLEARNESS
In general, the more clearly we can see an object, the nearer the object is. The distant
mountain seems farther away on a hazy than on clear day, because the haze in the atmosphere
65
blurs the fine details so that we see only the grosser features. If we can see only its general
outline we perceive it is relatively far away.
3. SHADOWS
The pattern of shadows or of highlights in an object look solid. The surface closest to the
light source receives the most light, and as the surface recedes froes form the light less and less
light falls on it. Such appearances of lighting and shading are important cues for depth
perception.
4. MOVEMENT
Whenever you move your head, you can observe that the objects in your visual feild
move relative to you and to one another. If you observe closely you will find that the objects that
are nearest you appear to move in the opposite direction, while distant objects appear to move in
the same direction as your head. This of course, is an obvious cue to the relative distance of
objects, because whether we see real movement or move our heads, the relative amount of
movement is less for far objects than for near ones. Although movement is an important cue to
depth.
5. INTERPOSITION
Still another monocular cue is interposition. This occur when one thing obstructs our
view of another thing. When one object is entirely in view, but another is partly covered by it, the
first object is perceived as being the nearer. Interposition is illustrated.
6. ACCOMMODATION
It is the adjustment of the shape of the lens of the eye so that it bring an image into focus
on the retina. This adjustment is accomplished by the ciliary muscles, which are so attached to
the lens that they make it bukge when they contract, thus accommodating for near objects.
Conversely, they let it become thinner when they relax, thus accommodating for far objects.
BINOCULAR CUES
There are some cues to depth perception that depends on the fact that we have two eyes
rather than just one. There are called binocular cues.
1. RETINAL DISPARITY
One such cues is retinal disparity the difference in the images falling on the retinas of
the two eyes. You may understand the factor of retinal disparity considering the geometry of the
66
situations in which the two eyes view an object. In the centre of each retina is foveathat is much
more sensitive than the rest of the retina. When we look at an object we fixate our eyes- point
them, so to speak -so that the image of the object falls mostly on the fovea of the retina of each
eye. But since the two eyes are separated from each other by several inches, they get slightly
different views of any solid object, and the two images are not exactly the same. Moreover, the
image are more dissimilar when the object is very close, say a few inches away, than when it is
far in the distance. From these differences we get cues to depth.
2. CONVERGENCE
We know that retinal disparity serves effectively as a binocular cue to depth. We are not
so sure, however, about another possible binocular cue. This is a kinesthetic cue from the
muscles concerned in turning and pointing the eyes. For object farther away than 70 feet, the
lines of sight of the eye are essentially parallel. For nearer objects, however, the eyes turn more
and more toward each other, that is, they converge. If such convergence aids in depth perception,
the cue is probably kinesthetic impulses from sense organs in the muscles that make the eyes
converge.
SIZE CONSTANCY
Since the eye works essentially like a camera, we know that the size of the image on the
retina depends upon how far away the object is. The farther the object, the smaller the image.
The geometry of this fact is illustrated in the figure. We can also see from this figure that an
image of constant size can be prouder on the retina either by a nearby small object or by a larger
object at same distance.
The constancy of object sizes in perception is closely related to our perception of
distances. If the cues to depth or distance perception are present, we have good size constancy.
Instead of perceiving distant objects as smaller, we perceive them as farther away. If, on the other
hand, the cues to depth perception are gradually eliminated, our perception of the size unfamiliar
object begins to correspond to the retinal image. And with all depth cues gone, constancy is
completely eliminated and our perception and judgments of size are what one would expect them
to be from the geometry of the retinal image.
For a familiar object, however, the elimination of depth cues does not completely destroy
constancy because we know approximately the true size of the object. This knowledge gives us
67
some degree of size constancy even in the absence of depth cues. In fact, in this case, we are able
to use the size of the retinal image as a cue to the distance of the familiar object. Such a cue, it
was pointed out above, is one of the monocular depth cues-linear perspective
ILLUSION
Usually the cues that the brain receives from the various senses mutually confirm and
support each other. They fit together like the various pieces in a jigsaw puzzle. This sensory
information also fit in with the knowledge and assumptions that have been acquired from past
experience. All contribute in producing a clear meaningful, and complete perception.
What happens, however, when our sensory cues do not fit together with each other, or with our
knowledge and assumptions about the world-as they sometimes do not? Several things. We may
experience an illusion, or we may feel confused and our perceptions may be unclear and
unstable.
TYPES OF ILLUSION
THE GEOMETRICAL ILLUSIONS
Errors in apparent length, area, direction, or curvature occur in the perception of patterns
of lines. Such illusions are normal. A few of them, like the vertical-horiontal illusion, may be due
to the structure of the eye or to the positon of the lines in the feild of view. But the majority
depend on the pattern of lines. In a general way they are errors in the perception of parts of a
figure and are perceived from of the whole figure.
Those illusions are often divided into: (1) contrast illusions. (2) confluxion or
assimilation illusions. If a short person standing between two tall persons looks shorter than be
objectively is, that is contrast illusion, but if he should look taller than
he actually is, that would be an instance of confluxion or assimilation.
PERCEIVER-DISTORTION ILLUSIONS
Some illusions are related to characteristics of the perceiver, namely the functioning of the brain
and the senses, rather than to physical phenomena that distort a stimulus. Many common visual
illusions are perceptual: they result from the brains processing of ambiguous or unusual visual
information. Other illusions result from the aftereffects of sensory stimulation or from
68
conflicting sensory information. Still others are associated with psychiatric causes.
WEIGHT ILLUSIONS
The felt perception of differences in weights received experimental attention in 1899,
when experiments indicated that a second weight feels either heavier or lighter than an
immediately preceding identical weight. This illusion results partially from the expectancy of the
person doing the lifting. Having lifted the first weight, the subject is set for a certain effort on
the next try. If the second weight is lifted quickly and easily, it will feel lighter than the first; if it
comes up more slowly, it will feel heavier. Expectancy, or set, is also often invoked in efforts to
explain the size-weight illusion, in which a large cardboard box feels lighter than a smaller box
even though both weigh the same.
OLFACTORY PHENOMENA
Smell (olfactory) discrimination is influenced by any odour to which the olfactory
structures already have adapted. Receptors in the nose, however, adapt quickly and cease to
respond to a particular stimulus. This effect is called olfactory fatigue. Thus, an odour that is
strong at first will gradually become imperceptible, as happens when one becomes unaware of
the smell of ones own body. There also may be present the phenomenon of masking; this is a
decrease in sensitivity to one odour after exposure to another (for example, a strong-smelling
disinfectant).
MULLER LYER ILLUSION

Mller-Lyer illusion. According to psychologist Richard Gregory, this illusion occurs
because of a misapplication of size constancy scaling. In most cases, size constancy allows us to
perceive objects in a stable way by taking distance into account. In the three dimensional world,
this principle allows us to perceive a tall person as tall whether they are standing next to us or off
in the distance. When we apply this same principle to two-dimensional objects, Gregory
suggests, errors can result. Other researchers contend that Gregory's explanation does not
sufficiently explain this illusion. For example, other versions of the Mller-Lyer illusion utilize
two circles at the end of the shaft. While there are no depth cues, the illusion still occurs. It has
also been demonstrated that the illusion can even occur when viewing three-dimensional objects.
69
An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests that the Mller-Lyer illusion

occurs because of conflicting cues. Our ability to perceive the length of the lines depends upon
the actual length of the line itself and the overall length of the figure. Since the total length of
one figure is longer than the length of the lines themselves, it causes the line with the outward
facing fins to be seen as longer.
Researchers from the University of London suggest that the illusion demonstrates how
the brain reflexively judges information about length and size before anything else. "Many visual
illusions might be so effective because they tap into how the human brain reflexively processes
information. If an illusion can capture attention in this way, then this suggests that the brain
processes these visual clues rapidly and unconsciously. This also suggests that perhaps optical
illusions represent what our brains like to see," explained researcher Dr. Michael Proulx.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Heymans (1996, 1897) and judd used a method in which error and test is repeated a
number of times to permit computation of the constant error. By the method of constant stimuli
one of the two muller lyer figure is kept constant length and used as a constene.
A notable experiment in 1947 by finger and spelt in which they showed that usual
inverted T form of the vertical- horizontal illusion is contaminated and illusion is markedly
smaller a set up in the form an L instead of T.
Ipsen (1926) on measuring the illusion in the sander figure found it to exceed even that in
the muller lyer, which is the typical strong illusion. The greatest error affects the diageols of the
two parallelogram is divided.
Zimmer (1913) had his subjects examine the cube figure while the experimenter watched
O's eyes through a lab telescope whenever O experiment an involuntary inversion of the cube, he
pressed a telegraph key.
Sisson (1935) on photographing the eye movement during experiment of the reversable
staircase figure, obtained a somewhat less regular result; 33 percent of the eye movement were
followed by recorded inversions and 46 percent of the inversions were followed by eye
movement.
70
Benusse (1912) later combined and attitude experiment with a stroboscopic presentation
of the muller lyer figure. A series of figure was shown in rapid secession so that the figure
appeared to be in motion. The illusion here is a shaft of the points of intersection towards the
inner side of angle.
DESIGN
1. HYPOTHESES
The Muller Lyer Illusion will be verified to be correct.
2. VARIABLES
a. Independent variable
Arrow headed line of14 cm (Standard Line)
b. Dependent variable
Extent of muller lyer illusion
c. Constant Variable
Subjective factors (environmental condition)
d. Controlled Variable
Direction of movement (distance between subject, MLI board and eye level of
apparatus.
METERIALS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Muller -lyer apparatus.

Pen, pencil, eraser, color pens or sketch pens.
Data sheet.
Informed consent form.
Screen.
PRELIMINARIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Name
Age
Gender
Occupation
Name of College
Place of Experiment
Time of Experiment
PROCEDURE
SETTING OF APPARATUS
;- Manaf S A
;- 19
;- Male
;- ************
;- Plus two
;- Lab 1
;- 40 minutes
71
The muller lyer board is kept at the eye level of the subject. The subject was allowed to
seat in such a manner so that he is seated in the non preferred side of the experimenter. Also the
subject and the experimenter are seated at right angles.
RAPPORT FORMATION
Initially the subject was asked about his interest in sports and other hobbies. Then the
subject was given some time to get habituated to the environment of the laboratory. Then he was
explained briefly about the experiment. He was also asked if he was comfortable with the level
of the muller lyer board or does it need any adjustment.
INSTRUCTIONS
"This is the muller lyer board. as you can see, there is a closed type lines called the arrow
headed line. As you can see there is a feather headed line. This is the movable plate which will
help you to make this second line equal to the first line. You are asked to make this arrow headed
line equal to the feather headed line, (demonstrates). Please be careful that you cannot reverse
the direction of the plate once started."
PRECAUTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
Muller lyer board should be placed at the eye level of the subject.
Distance between the participant and the board should be constant throughout.
Laboratory condition like noise, temperature, etc.. should be kept constant.
Data sheet should be kept out of sight of subject. Screen should be used to hide the data
sheet from the subject.
CONDUCTION
The subject was first of all given a clear idea about the experiment. He was given clear
instructions on how to move the variable plate.
INTROSPECTIVE REPORT
First of all I am worry about what is going on here, but during the experiment and
conduction starts it's become very thrilling something, after that I am very happy and I really
72
enjoy that. I think it's become a noised place, all working and doing some things it's make a
tension at first time, please provide more better situations and lab. he make me a good lisaner
and encourage me to concentrate one thing at a time. totally his behaviour was very nice. I think
sometimes this conduction will make us a good friend.
BEHAVIOUR NOTE OF SUBJECT
Manaf is good subject for me. He did his work very well, but in some trials he became
lazy to do. But he cooperated with me. His behavior was very likely. When I started he
performed the experiment with great interest.
RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS

TABLES
Table 1
SL
NO
12.3
12.6
13.4
3
4
O O
O O
13.4
12.3
11.3
13.4
14.2
13
12
12.2
13
13.5
13
12.6
12.5
13.4
13.2
11.9
O O
13.6
12.1
13
14.5
13.4
12.9
12.8
13.4
12.5
12.4
13.1
13.2
13.2
13.4
12.5
13
13.3
14
12.9
13.3
12.6
12.8
13.2
14.2
AVARAGE POINT OF SUBJECTIV EQUALITY (PSC)

=SUM ALL THE SCORES/64
O O
12.3
13.6
13
14
12.8
11.8
13.4
13.7
13.2
13
12.4
12
12.6
13.3
13.7
13
13
13.1
12.8
14.1
13.5
73
= 832.8/64
=13.01
Table 2
SL
Mean
No
(PSE)
207.7/16
CE
-1.02
12.98
2
207.1/16
-1.06
12.94
3
208.5/16
-0.97
13.03
4
209.5/16
-0.91
13.09
Total 832.8/64
13.01
-1.19
Mean
Mean
(R)
(L)
103.5/8
104.2/8
12.93
13.03
104.7/8
102.4/8
13.09
12.8
103.7/8
104.8/8
12.96
13.1
104.5/8
105/8
13.06
13.13
416.4/32
416.4/32
13.01
13.01
SE
Mean (I)
Mean
ME
(O)
-0.1
0.29
-0.14
-0.07
0.0
100.2/8
107.5/8
12.53
13.44
100.3/8
106.8/8
12.54
13.35
103.2/8
105.3/8
12.9
13.16
102.9/8
106.6/8
12.86
13.36
406.6/32
426.2/32
12.71
13.31
-0.91
-0.81
-0.26
-0.5
-0.6
74
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

The objective of the experiment was to find the extent of Muller Lyer illusion using the
Muller Lyer apparatus by the subject. To find this extent on experiment was conducted. The
conduction was done in the psychological lab. Subject was required to move the movable fin in
different manners (inward/outward), when the arrow headed line was in the different direction
(right/left) to make feather headed line equal to arrow headed line.
The discussion is based on the introspective report, experimenter's observation, results,
and analysis of data.
The average of the response variable comes out to be 13.01. Mean of the first trial is
12.98, Second trial is 12.94, Third trial is 13.09, and fourth trial is 13.09.All the four means are
less than 14 which indicates that the phenomenon of Muller Lyer Illusion is verified.
The mean of L is 13.01 and of R 13.01. Therefore, Space error is 0.0 This shows that the
placement of standard line whether on left or right makes no difference. The mean of I is 12.71
and of O 13.31. Thus, the movement error is -0.6. The perception of movement is greater on the
outside movement.
PSE is the point of subjective equality. It indicates means of all trials together which is
12.81 which is clearly lines than 14 and these the Muller lyer illusion hypothses is proved.
CE is the constant error
CE = PSE-Standard
= 13.01 - 14
= -0.99
75
It tells us the extent of illusion. As it is negative, It proves our hypotheses

This extent or phenomenon of Muller Lyer illusion can be explained with the help of
theories of illusion.
REASONSE / EXPLANATION FOR MULLER LYER ILLUSION

THE EYE-MOVEMENT THEORY
In its simplest forms, assumes that the impression of length is obtained by moving the eye
along a line from one end to the other. If vertical movements of the eye are more strenuous than
horizontal, a given vertical distance calls for more effort than the same horizontal distance and
therefore seems longer. Again, if the outward lines in one part of the muller-lyer figure cause the
eye movement to exceed the length of the included line, whereas in the other part of the figure
the inward pointing lines cause the eye to move a smaller distance, the first line will seem longer
than the second. A less detect form of the eye-movement theory admits that actual eye
movement do not occur in all cases, but assumes that a tendency to such movement is sufficient
to give the impression of length.
It is also possible to use the eye movement theory in reverse, if the illusion works the
other way. If the lines in a figure draw the eye beyond the end of the figure , O sees that he has
gone too far, and may interpret the figure to be shorter than it is. Thus an eye-movement theory
can explain any results that are obtained! A comparable objection may be raised to the empathy
theory
THE EMPATHY THEORY
The empathy theory of Theodor Lipps (1897) is the theory by which he sought to
explain the esthetic effects of architecture. He held that even in looking at relatively simple
figure the observes emotional and reactive nature is stimulated. A vertical line, resisting gravity,
suggests effort and thus appears longer than an equal horizontal. One part of the muller lyer
figure suggests expansion and the other limitation and thus the first line appears the longer.
THE PERSPECTIVE THEORY
Starting from the undoubted fact that a line drawing readily suggests objects in threedimensions, infers that the apparent can be explained by supposing the vertical to represent such
a foreshortened horizontal line. In the muller lyer figure the obliques readily suggest perspective
76
and if this suggestion is followed one of the horizontal lines appears farther away and therefore
objectively longer than the other.
THE CONFUSION THEORY
To judge the lines and angels of a figure requires analysis which is difficult because the
observer is engrossed in the appearance of the figure as a whole. One of the muller- lyer
segments taken as a whole is really longer than the other. If O cannot rid himself of this
impression and narrow his attention down to a particular line, he carries over the totel
impression to the lines which the imagines himself to be judging.
THE PREGNANCE OR GOOD-FIGURE THEORY
The metaphorical use of pregnancehere is somewhat novel in english, though not far
from that used in the expression a pregnant sentence, meaning a sentence containing a wealth of
meaning. Among the german psychologists a pregnant figure is one which expresses some
characteristic fully. Godness of figure means in part the something. When the observer sees a
figure as having some characteristic, his tendency is to see this charecteristic as fully expressed
as the conditions allow, according to the theory. A near-circle is seen as a true circle or as a better
circle or as a better circle than it is. If one of the muller-lyer figure is seen as consisting of two
things standing apart, the appartness will be exaggerated by the observer. If the other figure is
seen as a single compact object, the compactness will be exaggerated.
CONCLUSION
The result of the experiment provides evidence in favour of Muller Lyer illusion. The
hypothesis has been found to be correct and stands true.
REFERENCES
Woodworth & Schlosberg. Experimental Psychology. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing co.
Morgan and king. Introduction to Psychology.
Postman & Egan. Experimental Psychology.

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1

REFLECTION VERSUS LEARNING

Instincts: Behaviours that occur as a result of the organism's genotype

LEARNED VERSUS S LEARNING PROCESS

LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMENCE

LEARNING HOW VERSUS ACTUAL DOING

LEARNING VERSUS OTHER ABILITIES

BASIC LEARNING PROCESSES

Operant conditioning is type of learning in which a voluntry response becomes stronger

ADOPTING WITH ENVIRONMENT

(Psychology an Introduction., Ciccarelli K.S. Psychology.,

(Experimental psychology. Barry H.K., Psychology a Biographical Approach.,

4. EXPLICIT MEMORY (Episodic memory)

(Woodworth., Gardner S.L.

A Redintegration memory is the prompted recall of a past event that is triggered by a

1. Same number of items in both the lists (15).

same number of letters )

the last and the first items.

c) Word are spelled out loudly and clearly

Saleem was a good subject. He was well-adjusted to me and he participated in the

RESULTS AND DATA ANALISIS:

Total number of errors

Total number of errors

Total number of errors

Table 6 Serial Recall Versus Free Recal

Serial Position Curve is

Table 7 Male vs Female

Serial Position Curve

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

According to the hypothesis-1, we are supposed to verify or observe serial

The serial position effect has two components:

Causes of recency effect:

To prevent rehearsal, we might be asked to briefly count a series of numbers immediately

Inhibitory tendencies in learning:

Error of preservation; and

Malinda S.L. Psychology A Biographical Approach.

MULLER LYER ILLUSION

MULLER LYER ILLUSION

An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests that the Mller-Lyer illusion

Muller -lyer apparatus.

RESULT AND DATA ANALYSIS

AVARAGE POINT OF SUBJECTIV EQUALITY (PSC)

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

It tells us the extent of illusion. As it is negative, It proves our hypotheses

REASONSE / EXPLANATION FOR MULLER LYER ILLUSION

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