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Metallurgy
What is Metallurgy?
Metallurgy Definition
History of Metallurgy
Metallurgy Terms
Extractive Metallurgy
Iron metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy
Process
Bronze Metallurgy
Physical Metallurgy
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Metallurgy
All elements are found in nature either in the Free State like gold, or in the combined
state in the form of different compounds.
Metallic compounds can be in the form of oxides, carbonates or sulphides. These
metallic compounds are also called minerals. For the extraction of metals, we require
some procedure which is economically cheap and practically easy and must give
maximum yield of metal.
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What is Metallurgy?
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Most of the metals occur in the crust of the earth in the combined state, in the formed
of compounds known as minerals. These minerals have lots of impurities. The
abundance of different metals in the earth crust varies from metal to metal, like oxygen
(45.5%) is the most abundant element in the earths crust followed by silicon (27.7%)
and aluminum with 8.3%. Since the different metals are present in varying levels
and have different physical and chemical properties, the extraction of different
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metals from their metallic compounds requires different methods. The process
of extraction of metals from their respective metallic compounds is termed as
metallurgy.
Metallurgy Definition
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The branch of chemistry which deals with the properties of matter and their application
in various areas of science and engineering is called as materials science. The domain
of materials science in which we are interested in, is related to the studies of the
physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their mixtures, and is known
as metallurgy.
History of Metallurgy
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The process of metallurgy is one of the oldest branches of science; it can be traced
back to 6000 BC. In the 17th century, only 12 elements were known and this number
increased to 24 by the 19th century. Gold and copper are the first metals to be
discovered and from that time to 770 years back, only 12 elements were discovered.
Out of these elements some were discovered in the 13th and 14th centuries like
arsenic, antimony, zinc and bismuth while platinum was discovered in the 16th
century. Rest of the seven metals are called Metals of Antiquity as they were the
metals upon which civilization was based.
These seven Metals of Antiquity were
1. Gold (ca) 6000 BC
2. Copper,(ca) 4200 BC
3. Silver,(ca) 4000 BC
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Metallurgy Terms
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There are so many terms which are specifically used in the different metrical steps of
different metals.
1. Mineral: The naturally occurring chemical substance in the form of which the
metal occurs in the earth with various impurities.
2. Ore: The mineral form from which a metal can be extracted conveniently and
economically.
3. Pulverization: The grinding and crushing of the ore into small pieces by using
ball mill or stamp mill.
4. Benefaction: The process of removal of unwanted impurities from the ore.
5. Ore-dressing: The removal of unwanted silicon, and other impurities from the
ore, to increase the concentration of metallic compound in the given amount of
ore.
6. Levigation: The process of removal of heavy ore particles from lighter particles
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Extractive Metallurgy
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Extractive Metallurgy
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The study of the processes used in the separation and concentration of a metallic
compound to get pure metal is called extractive metallurgy. It is a sequence of
processes from mining the ore from the earth's curst and removing the impurities,
followed by conversion of the ore into crude metal which is further purified to get
maximum yield of metal. The different steps are as follows.
1. Crushing and grinding of ore
In this step, the big lumps of ore are crushed by using a ball mill or stamp mill into
small pieces so they can react quickly. This step is also termed as pulverization.
2. Ore-dressing or benefaction of ore
This step involves the removal of gangue or matrix by using a suitable method which
depends on the type of ore. For example; if the ore is heavier than gangue, simple
washing by water can be used, which is termed as hydraulic washing or levigation or
gravity separation method.
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For sulphide ores froth flotation method is used in which the impure ore is mixed
with water and pine oil to make a suspension. The suspension is violently agitated by
the rotating paddle which draws in air, causing frothing. Due to this the ore particles
which are wetted by oil come to the surface with the froth, which can easily be
separated to get pure ore.
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If any one part of the impure ore is magnetic in nature (either ore or
gangue) electromagnetic method can be used in which the impure ore
is dropped over a conveyer belt moving around two rollers, one of
which is an electromagnet. The magnetic parts will be attracted by the
electromagnet and collect as a separate heap from the non-magnetic
part.
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There are three different methods for the conversion of metallic oxides into metal.
Pyro metallurgy: It is a high temperature process in which ore particles
undergo reactions to form intermediate compounds for further processing or to
get converted into their elemental or metallic state. It involves the heating of the
material obtained from roasting or calcination, in the presence of a suitable
reducing agent. During the heating process some chemical substance is added
which further reacts with gangue at high temperature and is known as flux.
Hydro metallurgy: The process of dissolving an ore in a suitable reagent
followed by the extraction of the metal either by electrolysis or displacement of
the metal by a more electropositive metal is called hydro metallurgy. This
process uses aqueous solutions to extract metals from their ores. The most
common hydro metallurgical process is the extraction of gold and silver.
Electro metallurgy: Electro metallurgy is the metallurgical processes in which
the extraction of metal takes place in an electrolytic cell. The molten metallic
salt is taken as the electrolyte in the cell, with suitable electrodes. The molten
metallic salt dissociates in pure metal and is collected at the cathode. For
example, Dow process is used for the extraction of magnesium from its salt,
magnesium chloride, which is the main component of sea water.
MgCl2 Mg2+ + 2ClHence magnesium metal is collected at the cathode and chlorine gas is released as a
side product.
5. Refining of metal
The process of purifying the crude metal is called as refining. There are various
methods for the refining process which depends upon the physical as well as chemical
properties of metal. For example; distillation, liquation, electrolytic refining, zone
refining, vapor-phase refining and chromatography.
Iron metallurgy
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Zone of combustion:
Temperature is around 1500-2170K
C+ O2
CO2
CO2 + C
2CO
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CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2
CaSiO3
Zone of reduction:
Temperature-823K
Fe 2O3 + CO
2FeO +CO2
Fe 3O4 + CO
3FeO + CO2
FeO + CO
Fe + CO2
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The iron obtained from the blast furnace is called pig iron and contains 4% of carbon
with lots of other impurities. This pig iron is further converted in to cast iron which has
less content of carbon and is brittle in nature. The purest form of iron is called wrought
iron, having only 0.2-0.5% of carbon with traces of phosphorus and silicon. Wrought
iron is ductile, soft and malleable in nature.
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The process of formation of precision metal component from metal powder is called
Powder metallurgy (PM). For making the required shape of the metal component, the
metal powder is first pressed into the product shape at room temperature and then
heated, so that the metal particles are fused together without melting.
The metallic components produced by powder metallurgy have adequate physical and
mechanical properties. Powder metallurgy is a cost effective process to produce a
component of a given shape and the required dimensional tolerances compared to the
cost of casting or making it as a wrought iron product. The main industrial applications
of PM parts include self lubricating bearings, porous metal filters and many
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engineered shapes, like gears, cams, brackets, sprockets, etc. In powder metallurgy
there are three main steps; mixing (or blending), compacting, and sintering.
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Bronze Metallurgy
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Bronze is a metal alloy. It is made by blending copper and tin in different amounts. The
amount of copper, tin, and other elements depends on the use of bronze. Some other
elements like manganese, lead, and phosphorous are added in the making of bronze,
which adds the specific properties in this alloy. For example, the addition of
phosphorus increases the alloy hardness while the use of lead makes it easier for
casting. The lead bronze contains 10 to 29% of lead.
The aluminum bronze is good in strength and are resistant to corrosion. Bronze is used
in bells, gears, valves, pipes, and plumbing fittings material etc. It is very useful in
industries as it contains some specific properties. It is highly useful in machine parts
due to minimal friction.
Due to non sparking property makes it useful in combustible
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Physical Metallurgy
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It is the science related to the physical and mechanical character of the metal and
alloy. These properties are affected by chemical, mechanical and thermal treatment of
metal and alloy. Some of the important concepts of physical metallurgy are given
below.
Recrystallization and recovery
Grain growth
Nucleation and growth
Carburizing
Hardenability of steel
Eutactoid transformation in steel
Tempering of mertencite
Electrical resistivity of alloy
Electrical conductivity
Dielectric behavior
1. Recrystallization and recovery - When the metals are cold worked; some
amount of energy is stored in its deformed structure which acts as a
thermodynamic driving force. This stored energy induced the metal to get un
deformed state. Thus the formation of the defect Free State is known as
Recrystallization. It is done at particular temperature which is known as
recrystallization temperature. For pure metal its equal to 0.3 to 0.4 T and for
alloys its 0.5Twhere t is melting point.
2. Grain growth - In the grain growth, the effect of time and temperature is
studied. The grain growth depends on the following factors like the annealing
temperature, the duration of annealing process, the degree of cold work and the
use of additives in metal and alloy. The annealing process is the process of
grain growth. If the temperature is higher than the Recrystallization temperature
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then the grain are continuously grow and thus the large crystal are formed by
absorbing the small ones.
3. Nucleation and growth - The main objective is to measure the nucleation and
growth rate of metal and alloy. There are two phase of transformation one is
homogeneous and the other is heterogeneous. In the most of the alloys,
heterogeneous transformation is observed. The rate of heterogeneous is
determined by the rate of the nucleation and growth. The rate of nuclei is
expressed in terms of number of nuclei formed per unit time and per unit volume
and the growth rate is expressed in terms of cm per second.
4. Carburizing - This is the process of measuring the diffusion coefficient of
carbon in steel.
5. Hardenability of steel - The susceptibility to hardness of steel is measured by
quenching. The susceptibility of steel shows the depth of hardening of steel
under given cooling condition. The hardenability is related to the isothermal
transformation. Steel will harden up to high degree with low critical cooling rate
than steel with high critical cooling rate.
6. Eutactoid transformation in steel -This involves the measurement of interlamellar spacing and volume fraction of pearlite. When the high temperature of
austenite transforms into the aggregate of two layers ferrite and cementite is
known as pearlite. This transformation is affected by time, temperature and
pearlier morphology factors.
7. Tempering of mertencite - It involves the study of decomposition of mercentite
in the process of tempering. Tempering is the simple heat treatment which is
used to increase the physical properties of quenched steel.
8. Electrical resistivity of alloy - It includes the calculation of band gap energy in
the semiconductors like germanium etc.
9. Electrical conductivity of ionic solid - The electrical conductivity of ionic
solids is due to the migration of ions in the influence of electric field. The
migration is because of presence of some lattice defects in crystal.
10. Dielectric behavior of barium titanate - The dielectric behavior of barium
titanate is measured by calculate the dielectric constant and Curei-weiss
temperature. The polymorphic transformation occurs in barium titanate. It is from
Rhombohedral to Orthorhombic to Tetragonal to Cubic. All these are
interconvertible to each other at particular temperature.
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Transition Elements
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