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Performance Comparison:
Solid State Power Controllers vs.
Electromechanical Switching
By Mike Glass
Prinicipal Marketing Engineer
Data Device Corporation
2010 Data Device Corporation. All trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
July 2010
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Performance Comparison:
SSPCs vs. Electromechanical Switching
Introduction
The design of primary and secondary power distribution systems for modern ground and air platforms
entails a number of challenges. These include needs for increased amounts of electrical power for C4I and
other equipment; improved reliability and system availability; reduced weight, volume and thermal
footprint; along with capabilities to shed loads, and for enabling system prognostics and diagnostics.
SSPCs (Solid State Power Controllers) provide a number of functional and performance advantages over
electromechanical circuit breakers and relays. SSPCs provide accurate measurements, digital processing,
low loss switching with controlled rise and fall time for reduced EMI emissions, very rapid short circuit
protection, along with I2t overload protection. I2t protection protects wiring, loads and the SSPCs
themselves against overheating, while reliably avoiding nuisance trips when switching into capacitive or
incandescent lamp loads.
Relays and breakers present reliability problems, as they are subject to arcing, oxidation, erosion, and
welding; along with problems associated with moving parts. The latter include contact bounce, and
difficulties operating in environments with high vibration, dust, or sand. Relative to electromechanical
switching, SSPCs provide an advantage in reliability (MTBF) of an order or magnitude or more, providing
increased vehicle and system availability.
Relative to electromechanical breakers and relays, SSPCs increase electrical energy efficiency by providing
lower power dissipation, along with higher power weight and volume densities.
By means of bus or network connectivity, SSPCs provide real time feedback to vehicle diagnostic
computers. Data reported from SSPCs can be used for system-level diagnostics and prognostics, enabling
predictive, condition-based maintenance, thereby providing increased availability and continued mission
readiness. Reported data, which includes the status of the on-board SSPCs, allows management computers
to make advance determinations of pending failures of generators, batteries, wiring, connectors, and loads.
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Modern SSPC boards are processor-based, providing advantages in the areas of flexibility, measurement
and computational accuracy, and connectivity to an external power management computer by means of a
data bus or network interface, such as CAN Bus, Ethernet, or MIL-STD-1553. Other features include
capabilities for programming different values for the SSPC channels rated currents to accommodate
varying loads, and the capability to parallel multiple SSPC channels, enabling higher current capacities.
To support prognostics, diagnostics, health monitoring, and fault detection and isolation, a power
management computer can poll the values of various SSPC parameters over the boards bus or network
interface. For each SSPC channel, these parameters include basic on/off and built-in test status, along with
output voltage and current; and board rail and/or load temperatures. This data will allow a power
management computer to make advance determinations of pending failures of generators, batteries, wiring,
connectors, loads, along with the status of the on-board SSPCs.
Figure 2 is an example of a multi-channel 28 volt SSPC board, DDCs RP-26200. This board includes 16
SSPC load channels, with each channel capable of delivering up to 25 amps of current with capability to be
paralleled with other channels to support larger loads, and a total capacity of 200 to 300 amps. For load
current switching, each SSPC channel includes one or more MOSFETs. For minimizing EMI emissions, in
particular for dealing with fault conditions, the SSPCs provide control of their output voltage rise and fall
times. For channel activation, controlled rise times reduce the inrush current for switching into loads such
as motors, solenoids, electronic power supplies, and incandescent lamps. For the case of incandescent
lamps, this provides the added benefit of increasing the lifetime of the light bulbs.
SSPCs provide a number of functional and performance advantages over electromechanical circuit breakers
and relays. These advantages are described in the following paragraphs.
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As a matter of comparison and referencing Figure 5, the power-to-volume ratio for the electromechanical
switching system shown in Figure 3 is 6.9 watts/cu. in., while that for the SSPC module shown in Figure 4
is 50.5 watts/Cu-in. At a system level, this provides SSPCs an advantage in power-to-volume density of 7.3
to 1. This reduction in volume frees up additional space for crew and/or equipment.
The power to weight ratio for the electromechanical switching system (Figure 3) is 194.8 watts/lb., while
that for the SSPC module (Figure 4) is 896 watts/lb. This provides SSPCs an advantage in power-to-weight
density of about 4.6 to 1. This reduction in weight translates to fuel savings.
These differences in system volume and weight density are attributable to multiple factors. These include:
As explained below, solid state components exhibit inherently lower volume and weight relative
to electromechanical relays and breakers.
In addition to directly reducing overall size and weight, the reduced component sizes also reduce
the size and weight of the associated PC boards and chasses.
Solid state components attach directly to printed circuit boards. In some cases, relays and
breakers mount on metal frames rather than PC boards, and interconnect by means of discrete
wires, rather than PC board traces.
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Voltage
Current
Loads
Dimensions
Electromechanical
Switching
28 V
80A
8
4.25" x 7" x 10.9"
DDC
SSPC Module
28 V
480 A
32
11" x 7.8" x 3.1"
Volume
Weight
324 in3
11.5 lbs
266 in3
15 lbs
Power-to-Volume Density
Power-to-Weight Density
6.9 W/in3
194.8 W/lb
50.5 W/in3
896 W/lb
1000
896
900
Power-to-Volume and
Power-to-Weight Densities
800
700
600
500
400
300
194.8
200
100
0
6.9
50.5
Power-to-Volume Power-to-Weight
Density (W/cu. in.) Density (W/lb.)
For comparing the volume, weight, and power dissipation of solid state and electromechanical switching
from a bottom-up perspective, Table 1 and Table 2 provide the weight, volume, and power dissipation of
commercially available electromechanical relays and breakers, each from multiple suppliers. These tables
include the outline dimensions, weight, and power dissipation for five 28V, 25-amp relays; and five 28V,
25-amp circuit breakers. In addition, they include the computed PC board real estate and volume for these
components, along with the computed average values for these parameters.
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Weight
(lbs.)
Coil
Dissipation
(watts)
Contact
Dissipation
(watts)
Total
Dissipation
(watts)
0.52
0.10
2.45
N/A
(note 1)
6.20
0.82
0.83
0.12
2.45
4.38
6.83
1.01
0.90
0.91
0.1
2.45
4.38
6.83
1.40
1.90
2.14
4.07
0.19
1.44
N/A
(note 1)
5.19
2.7
1.39
1.42
3.75
5.33
0.20
0.49
2.50
2.99
1.74
0.86
1.27
1.56
(Note 2)
2.11
(Note 2)
0.14
1.86
3.75
5.60
Width
(in.)
Depth
(in.)
Height
(in.)
#1
1.01
0.52
1.00
0.52
#2
1.71
0.48
1.01
#3
1.72
0.53
#4
1.53
#5
AVERAGE
Width
(in.)
Depth
(in.)
Height
(in.)
#1
1.14
0.57
2.53
0.65
1.65
0.09
#2
0.78
0.59
2.09
0.46
0.97
0.05
#3
0.70
0.59
2.28
0.41
0.95
0.07
#4
1.22
0.45
2.81
0.549
1.54269
0.06
0.48
#5
1.64
0.76
1.24
2.48
0.15
2.5
AVERAGE
1.10
0.59
2.34
0.66
(Note 2)
1.52
(Note 2)
0.08
2.60
Weight
(lbs.)
Power Dissipation
(watts)
N/A (note 1)
Notes:
1. The contact dissipation data for relay #1 and relay #4, and circuit breaker #1 is not available and therefore not included in the
calculations for average dissipation.
2. For both relays and circuit breakers, the average PC board real estate (sq. in.) and volume (cu. in.) are computed as the
average of two different methods:
a. Using the first method, the average PC board real estate is computed as the average PC board real estate of the five
relays or circuit breakers. Similarly, the average volume is computed as the average volume of the five relays or
circuit breakers.
b. Using the second method, the average PC board real estate is computed as the average width for the five relays or
circuit breakers times the average depth. Similarly, the average volume is computed as the average width for the five
relays or circuit breakers times the average depth times the average height.
For relays and circuit breakers, the average real estate per channel = 1.56 + 0.66 = 2.22 sq. in. Assuming
that relays and breakers occupy 60% of the total PC board area, the total real estate per channel = 2.22/0.6
= 3.7 sq. in. Using the average circuit breaker height of 2.34 in. and assuming a PC board thickness of
0.093", a top-side clearance of 0.02, and a back-side clearance of 0.25" (similar to a comparable SSPC
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board assembly), the total assembly height for a relay/breaker board assembly = 2.34 + 0.02 + 0.093 + 0.25
= 2.7 in. The total volume for one channel = (3.7)*(2.7) = 9.99 cu. in., and output power per unit volume =
(28)*(25)/(9.99) = 70.1 W/cu. in.
For a 16-channel SSPC board assembly, the board dimensions are 9.2 X 6.3 in., with a maximum
component height of 0.54 in., PC board thickness of 0.093", and a back-side clearance of 0.25", for a total
height = 0.54 + 0.093 + 0.25 = 0.883. Total volume for 16 channels = 9.2 X 6.3 X 0.883 = 51.18 cu. in.
This translates to 51.18/16 = 3.20 cu. in. per channel. For a 25-amp channel, the output power per unit
volume = (28)*(25)/3.20 = 219 W/cu. in.
The weight of a typical bare 9.2 X 6.3, 0.093 thick PC board is 0.55 lbs. For such a board, the weight per
unit area = .55/((9.2)*(6.3)) = .0095 lbs/sq. in. For one relay + breaker channel, total real estate per channel
= 3.7 sq. in., therefore the PC board weight per channel = (.0095)*(3.7) = 0.035 lbs. Total relay + breaker
weight per channel = 0.14 + 0.08 + 0.035 = 0.255 lbs. The output power per weight = (28)*(25)/0.255 =
2745 W/lb.
The weight of a typical 16-channel SSPC board assembly is 1.8 pounds. For a 28 volt, 25-amp SSPC
channel, the output power per unit weight = ((28)*(25))/(1.8 /16) = 6222 W/lb.
Reduced Wiring
For either an aircraft or a ground vehicle, if load switching is performed using crew-accessible circuit
breakers, then these must be located in the vicinity of the pilot or operator. This forces all power wires to be
routed both to and from the location of the crew. Since SSPCs can be controlled over a network, their use
eliminates the need to run power wires to and from the crew location, thereby saving weight and reducing
fuel consumption.
Power Dissipation
SSPCs provide a lower thermal profile than circuit breakers. This is based on the low on-resistance of
switching MOSFETs, whose affect can be further reduced by paralleling multiple MOSFETs and/or
multiple SSPC channels for switching current to the same load. Further, solid state switching eliminates the
power dissipated in the relay coils, solenoids, bimetallic strips, and contact resistances found in circuit
breakers and relays. As a result, SSPCs provide a significant advantage in internal power dissipation
relative to circuit breakers and relays.
As an example, consider a 28 volt, 25-amp SSPC channel relative to a circuit breaker/relay combination. In
each case, assume that the channel is fully loaded.
Referring to Table 1 and Table 2, the average power dissipation for a 28V, 25-amp relay + circuit breaker
channel = 5.6 + 2.6 = 8.2 watts. For a typical 28V, 25-amp SSPC channel with a voltage drop of 115 mV,
the resulting dissipation is 2.875 watts. Further, it is important to note that the SSPC path dissipation
includes the RP-26200 PC board traces and connector contacts, while that for the circuit breakers and
relays does not.
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Voltage
Current
Electromechanical
Switching
28V
25 A
SSPC Module
28V
25 A
Volume
Weight
9.99 in3
0.255 lbs.
3.20 in3
0.113 lbs.
Power-to-Volume Density
Power-to-Weight Density
70.1 W/in3
2745 W/lb
219 W/in3
6222 W/lb
250
219
200
6222
6000
5000
150
100
7000
4000
3000
70.1
2745
2000
50
1000
0
Electromechanical
Relays/Breakers
Electromechanical
Relays/Breakers
Voltage
Channel Current
Relay Coil Dissipation
Relay Contacts Dissipation
Circuit Breaker Dissipation
SSPC Voltage Drop
Total Channel Power Dissipation
10
8.2
Electromechanical Relay
+ Circuit Breaker
28V
25A
1.86 W
3.75 W
2.60 W
--
SSPC Channel
28V
25A
---0.115V
8.2 W
2.875 W
8
6
2.875
4
2
0
Relays/Breaker
Combination
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Reliability
In terms of reliability, SSPCs provide significant advantages over electromechanical circuit breaker/relaybased power distribution. The MTBF of a multi-channel SSPC board is an order of magnitude higher than
that of a comparable implementation based on electromechanical circuit breakers and relays. Since SSPCs
have no moving parts, they exhibit a far lower number of failure modes than circuit breakers and relays.
Figure 8 shows the internal construction of relays.
Contact resistances for relays and circuit breakers are subject to arcing, resulting in oxidation,
erosion, and pitting, leading to increased contact resistance.
The arcing resulting from opening breakers and relays switching into inductive loads can degrade
contacts, resulting in contact erosion, and possibly welding. Similarly, contact bounce can affect the
operation of loads, and also result in arcing and failures, including contact welding.
Operation at low load currents can fail to burn off oxidation, resulting in high contact resistance.
The operation of relay and breaker contacts can degrade in salt spray, dusty, or sandy environments.
Armatures for thermal circuit breakers and relay coils dissipate power, resulting in additional heat
and complicating system thermal design.
Relay coils are subject to long-term damage from humidity, dust, and dirt, resulting in coil wire
insulation embrittlement and eventually failures.
For relays, high on/off cycling rates can lead to wear on moving parts, binding relay armatures,
contact erosion, intermittent contact operation, and coil failures.
For DDCs RP-26200 28 volt, 16-channel SSPC board, the MIL-STD-217 MTBF for a ground mobile
environment is estimated as 415,000 hours at 25 C. The MIL-STD-217 failure rate for a comparable
electromechanical contactor at 25 C is 1.0010-6 events/hour, and for a circuit breaker is 3.3E-6
events/hour. The failure rate of the contactor/breaker combination = 1.00 10-6 + 3.310-6 = 4.310-6, or a
; Electric Power Research Institute; Maintenance and Application Guide for Control Relays and Timers Technical
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combined MTBF of 233,000 hours. 2 For 16 contactor/breaker combinations, the MTBF is 233,000/16
15,000 hours. Referencing Figure 9, this provides SSPCs with an MTBF advantage of a factor of about
27.7 to 1 relative to electromechanical relays and breakers.
1 contactor/breaker combination
16 contactor/breaker combinations
16 Contactors and
Circuit Breakers
233,000
15,000 hrs
N/A
415,000 hrs
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
15,000
16 contactor/breaker
combinations
Figure 9. Reliability (MTBF), MIL-STD-217 MTBF for a Ground Mobile Environment at 25C
Kulkarni, Ashok; A Hidden Reliability Threat in UPS Static Bypass Switches; American Power Conversion; 2006;
page 5.
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Cost of Ownership
The use of SSPCs can reduce ownership costs based on multiple factors, including:
The higher reliability of SSPCs relative to electromechanical switching reduces ground vehicle or
aircraft downtime and maintenance costs.
Based on their lower weight and lower power dissipation, SSPCs provide fuel savings relative to
circuit breakers and relays.
SSPCs, by providing real time feedback to on-board diagnostic computers, can facilitate preventive
maintenance by predicting failures in equipment and wiring before they occur. This allows
maintenance to be performed during scheduled downtimes, rather than following outright failures.
With regards to maintainability, multi-channel SSPCs consolidate the functions of many circuit
breakers and relays on to highly modular circuit boards. Further, since SSPCs include built-in selftest functionality, their operational health may be interrogated continuously over a bus or network.
SSPC boards are typically installed into LRU boxes with 38999 connectors. This design and
construction minimizes troubleshooting time and therefore mean-time-to-repair. The increased
reliability, coupled with lower repair times serves to increase vehicle availability time and reduce
maintenance costs.
By providing a high degree of flexibility, SSPCs enable modular, scalable system design. This
allows SSPCs to facilitate incremental vehicle upgrades, such as the installation of additional C4I
equipment. In large part, this is due to the fact that individual SSPC channels can be reprogrammed to accommodate varying loads. Further, it is possible to parallel the outputs from
multiple channels in order to support loads requiring higher currents than the capacity of individual
channels. In addition, the use of multi-channel SSPC assemblies can reduce inventory costs, by
allowing the same box, including with the same internal firmware programming, to be installed in
multiple locations in the same vehicle or aircraft. This is feasible by the fact that its possible to
program a multi-channel SSPC with multiple personalities, the selection of which will be
determined by the hardwired bus (e.g., CAN Bus) or network address for a given location in a
vehicle.
Load Flexibility
As platforms evolve to more electrical and electronic operation, there will be increased need to support
multiple equipment configurations with varying power requirements. The current ratings for
electromechanical relays can vary depending on the type of load. For example, a relay rated for 25 amps for
resistive loads may be rated for only 12 amps for inductive loads, 10 amps for motors, and 4 amps for
lamps.
By comparison (Figure 10), SSPCs can support the same maximum current rating for all types of loads. In
addition, the current ratings for SSPCs are typically programmable over a range of at least ten to one.
Further, its possible to support higher load currents by paralleling the outputs from multiple SSPCs. Based
on these factors, SSPCs support greater use flexibility than breakers and relays by allowing rapid reconfiguration.
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SSPCs provide autonomous circuit protection for faults such as short circuits and overloads. All
SSPC trip events may be immediately reported over the boards network interface by means of
alarm messages, thus allowing the platforms power management computer to efficiently manage
power system redundancies. Alternatively, the power management computer may periodically
interrogate the SSPCs status over the boards bus or network interface.
SSPCs can provide high accuracy (5%) measurements of input and load voltages, and load
currents. For detected faults such as under- or over-voltage, under-current, and over-temperature,
individual channels may be programmed to either trip immediately, or to issue alarms over the
network interface. In the latter case, power management computers can log the faults, and possibly
make determinations to deactivate SSPCs, depending on other factors. For example, for certain
fault conditions for some platform or mission critical loads, circuit deactivation may not be
practical.
SSPCs monitor input voltages, allowing system computers to track generator and/or battery power
quality, along with load currents and total power consumption.
Based on the status and parametric data provided from SSPCs, power management computers can
perform continuous analyses of power system operation. This enables determinations of such faults
as loss of, or low or high input voltage; short circuits or open circuits in wires or loads; along with
failed SSPCs, with either open or shorted switching MOSFETs.
Data reported from SSPCs can be used for system-level diagnostics and prognostics, enabling predictive,
condition-based maintenance, thereby helping to provide improved availability and continued mission
readiness. For example, if the system management computer records an increase in the current drawn by a
pump, this could point to the need for advance maintenance to repair or replace a failing pump.
Resistive
25
25A Relay
SSPC Channel,
Programmable up to 25A
30
25
25
25 25
25
25
25
25
Lamp
4
25
25
20
15
12
10
10
25A Relay
4
0
Resistive
Inductive
Motor
Lamp
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For some applications, multiple SSPCs can be cascaded. That is, there will be one or more highcurrent SSPCs connecting between one of the platforms primary power buses and one or more
power distribution centers, each of which contain multi-channel SSPCs. This provides fault
containment and system survivability by preventing circuit faults on one load (or its wiring) from
propagating to other circuits.
From a system reliability standpoint, the use of SSPCs allows automated redundancy, enabling the
restoration of power to platform and mission-critical loads following failures of generators or other
power system elements. This includes load shedding, as a means to automatically, quickly, and
reliably turn off non-essential loads in emergency situations.
SSPCs can provide real time, internal and system-level diagnostics, including:
-
SSPC output voltage activated, but zero load current, indicating open circuit faults in wiring
or loads.
SSPC output activated when intended to be off or following a TRIP event, indicating a
shorted MOSFET.
Low output voltage with SSPC intended to be in ON state, indicating a controller failure or
MOSFET failed open.
Conclusion
Table 3 provides a comparison between the functionality and performance of SSPCs relative to
electromechanical circuit breakers and relays. This comparison is based on DDCs RP-26200 28 volt, 16channel SSPC board housed in an enclosure, and a comparable system based on electromechanical circuit
breakers and relays. As can be seen, SSPCs provide a number of functional and performance advantages.
These include higher reliability, lower power dissipation, higher power/weight and power/volume densities,
improved operation in high vibration environments, faster clearing of short circuit faults, greater use
flexibility, reduced EMI, and increased capability for reporting status.
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SSPCs
15,000
415,000
8.2
2.9
6.9
50.5
70
219
System-Level Power/Weight
Density Load watts per pound
194.8
960
Bottom-up Power/Weight
Density Load watts per pound
2745
Parameter
SSPC
Advantage
Increased platform power
availability, reduced maintenance
costs.
Reduced power losses, smaller
thermal profile.
6222
Solid state switching ensures
continuity of power to loads.
Tens of mS.
1 to 2 mS
Flexibility
EMI
Status reporting.
None or minimal.
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REFERENCES:
1. Electric Power Research Institute; Maintenance and Application Guide for Control Relays and Timers Technical
Report; December 1993.
2. Kulkarni, Ashok; A Hidden Reliability Threat in UPS Static Bypass Switches; American Power Conversion; 2006.
Mike Glass
Principal Marketing Engineer
Data Device Corporation
For more information, contact Mike Glass at 631-567-5600 ext. 7409 or glass@ddc-web.com. Visit DDC
on the web: www.ddc-web.com.
Data Device Corporation is recognized as an international leading supplier of high-reliability data interface
products for military and commercial aerospace applications since 1964 and MIL-STD-1553 products for
more than 25 years. DDCs design and manufacturing facility is located in Bohemia, N.Y.
IST
E
RE G
RED F
The information in this document is believed to be accurate; however, no responsibility is assumed by Data Device Corporation for its use, and no license or rights are
granted by implication or otherwise in connection therewith. Specifications are subject to change without notice.