BTM 1-3

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT
A Practical Guide
Second Edition
by Captain A.J. Swift FNI
:-:ding a new section on Electronic Navigation
by Captain T.J. BaileY FNI
. .: \G Carricl. TV NIUBARAZ
passing through Silgapore Strait eastbornd
PhotorJalens
Foreword bY
Mr. C.J. Parker OBE FNI
Secretar-v. The Nautical Institute 1973-2003
FOREWORD
By Mr. C.J. Parker OBE FNI Secretary, The Nautical Institute 1973-2003
I*,.ple.r.edLob"ar<edbr'health"-."srite\"iure*ordroihp.e,ondcdidonolBndepTio,,j
l4onoicn,nt6",tu.etl ebotikex.rrplifi..rheprorer.ionrlappron,lron"\ig:rrior. l'l r'.boo\rre
task c;mes first and that task is to ensure lhe sate -lnd timili arT]r al of shrps. To achieve this, all
members of the bridge team including the prlot. r'hen <arried. need t" share tbe same sense ol
PurPose.
The practice uf na\igaiing safe\ in coastal lvaters and
po
approaches has a number of
\onponFrb$ri.r'n,lud".omFer"n,i'.pLnrirg.reamsork..on.'olardle\iolir). lherd.ki.Lo
er,ure.har rl..hip,uhcn.rdvigari.lt, "., roLnil,rilloekepr . r.dle$drpr allouinglor ,unent..
ridJr rrlrp|l,^,!uridp. k""l cl"alar,".*'ndrrd'harep\invi5rbrliD. \dd'rior a' I p,o\ r.'on nFFd.
to be made lor contingences.
The realisation that people can make nistakes is an essenlial part ol developing good
proredule.. lhi'po,rri.husc\;rdirfrcur oarri'rrlare'nl"e,'.L.iorrbe,eu."rh",egulaorpror de'
irr u nen. u r'. r sp,, i \ rFqui FFle rr.,o bp lorutr, d. br t shich cdnnol in r\en.e \e. prP\en,
people making mislales.
In ihe IMO. the STCW95 Convention Jays dorvn rvell considered standards fol safe
,J\ ig"Ljon. 5imildrl) IMO I :,. produ. "d u.etul gxideli.les in Parr B . ,dpr, | \ lll rh.,. ar" quo.ed
:nd di,cu",ed rn rhi. book. ThFrF r\o ndior ".'rr nent. prorid, r l'arre*orL 1o, dp\c oping
pr"r "d' r".
ir roma..on,l rra,r'rg randardr ar o 3ood opera.
"nal
Srmilarll, merchant-shrppine legisJation makes the master responsible for the,safetv of the
.
b"'
piio r."., har5" rhe* r"o

;;. 't;"ifi"4 fi,' 'helorage
;ir.'i;; i.s,.j",i"; i['."'ip,]'";t
p
lar serc: to male ir ar
rr' ire inionparibl" ar l:,,. r.lu". Cerirrnll
' "e'rl
r"qu
'u.l
ofl'n,enor o'.urraplor ina,"rrpLrJr"rya..:.bur ,l-.doe.ro.proriJcarr.nr'ir'glul .o u'ro r
this age-old problem.

The arswer ofcou$e is to share a common sense of purpose based upon professional vahes,
rvhich are desuibed so u.ellin this book. That is rn hr I alsri urge pilots to adopt ihFse standards and
haining methods so that good pmctices are reinforced and conimunication irnproved
Bidp. lpdn Manae, ?n/p-o\ de.rha,e\rrprolF..ionJlorner'ior\'!'.hpL..rhegriden.e

and -egllorionsirrocont"r'. F" .rarrp'th, 'rbtert oler o c\d F' rrlorn' he rudcr thr.rl-e e
a-cnanr acLjriLje.,ul-rLl car pad ro rri.rnke.. The.e car 'r .ludcequiprrFnrhhi,h'"1a.nor .er rP
r urre, Lli. mivakcn
ri',e.rd in,o ]rrdrion. e rorc,r, ul, ulaLjon. and mi5u rdPr.randirss.
'denri,).
The e'sen.",r Cao a.n Sr'i r'. book i. rh. L na\iJ...L:un"l 'a err l_a. to bc rrrna,led arrd r\"
rF.hn.ques olorsani/JLjoi. lFaaFrsl rp ard r"an"o k ricd ro b" appli"d il $e .hip i. ., all ne. ro
d"n-on.r.? e '"lirble p"rlor rar, ". dood TirnJJtFnenr "n.ure..l-ai rh, pot.nci.rfacrrvirr".. uhi,lmiqnr lpadroerror ,h.in..are' o.', qn, \ed be'or" .l e .ar adr, r.FlvaffF,r'\" 'hP.P uge$
Thi. cros*h", kir6, an on'1 be d, r.. 1(r""\er. Pbain\, d P-", o r.idercd o an
I he.c m.rnagem"n prir.ipl".rcedrooFdppl:cd-qu.,ll\'onodenreJr"lugr'Thenet

.", rion in th . upodlFo \.,
edi onb1 Capta'r Ba'le1 p\pl.dn.l"o\ele(rro.1:,td'1.,JnDro\ide
"nd
d..on.'':r"i lorn ro '"1 Lrp dnd opFri,r" Fl;.rroni,
onal per.or-nar.".i d
""h;;.;" .,'li;
''e
navigahonal
s\ iiems safel).
He al.o noin'. ,,r r rhdr ele( n oni( , harts are held on r err larle du.abasc' and u{rt the modern
proli, ien. . o npure .k lls ro en'r'e rrir ar-rll .irr.. .l-. mo.r Jpprop iare
.,' eu'o'
'.qlri''.
'ro-rraLion':di'pj'cd.Caprai rBarl"lna\e'ar.re.r.heming,..e.lat ner'ga,or.uiingrlre.e
s,r'stems should be fully trained in their use.
lrp.pc' j\F o. rhe na.ijrdriurir n prhod' u.ed. CapLr.n Surtr .taes.aegorrral 1 \at r'.
ne,e..arr b prep.r. a pa..a3e p rn.'o 'lrherei.roplanrher"carbennb idge or5ani.atior ard
ildiridual. r'i.llbe lpt .olaled a' rhere i' no ba.i. lor .ommuri' drin' ard,or .eq rcrrLJy tittle
awareness when something might go wrong.
Coodpiarnirglead.Logoodr".rrr"o,l.ul-i, l- enl-an,.. meaninglul 'orin.rni!a ondnd
ulLimdl"l) provid". a ."n.e or ar\ ere nen. ll . oreate.r i.k LhrL r .hip ran be erposed ro r. e
nnvig:' ona dc' dp1t. B,tdS, Tcan l4anrA.nrnt d' r-ror.rrJra. hos .o en.urp l-rt .hips nak" .\eit
.rle and n"l1 a[iral. ro rhe
nn ulal I\i. boo\ i. an "rcplle rt eranPle o pt ,hsiural
'a'r.,acr
Pmctice.
CONTENTS
rorervord
Preface
ChaDter
...-.................
Introduction................
Team l{anagement: ...
Bridge Team Management
Training and Coaching I\-ell
Error
Being
......._....................................
.........._..........................._.
N{ora1e
........................................3
Indicatlons of Error Chain Development
Con or
Lookout
Distraction
Communications Breakdo},n
Plan
Improper
.........................-.
Manning the \\heel
Groundings and fieir
Procedural Molation
..............................,......... 6
\\ratches Insufficient Pe6onne] - Calling
Lack o[Doubie
- Ambiguit\ -
Non Compliance with Passage
Casualties and their Causesr
Lookouls
........................................2
Chains:..............
Inadequacy and CorfusioD
the X,Iasier
Autopilot Changeover Reducing Speed
..-..................................6
Tiack Track Nlo loring Track Regain Doubie ChecL Fixing Fixing Echo Soundel Light ldentification Decision Co obomtion
Planned
\risual
Safe
Navigation The
Passage
Passage
No go
-..................................-........... 8
Appraisal....................................
Sources of
Oven'ierv............
Informatioi
Ocean Passages
Coaslal Passages
Planning
Areas
.............................................9
........................................... 16
Nlargins ol Sa"lety - Safe \\rater.
Chart Change
Distance
Tidal \\tindol
Siream
Off
Deviation from
Allor.ance
(lcean Tracks
tack
Coastal
tacks
Under keel Clearance
- \fheel Over Parallel Indexing - ARPA N4appnrg - \\bvpoints .\borts - Contingencies Position lixing - Prinarv and Secondarv llixilrg Conspicuous Objects
Lardfall Lights Fix liequeDc) & Regular.itv - Additional Infor.mation
Reporting
Cour.se
Alteration
Points Anchol Clearance Pilot Boardirg
Traffic Areas
Tug Engagement
Situational Awar.ness:
:ll
Tearnwork
17
Tiaining and Coachirg
48
5t
Navigating with a pilot on
board............
Planning l{asler/Pilollnformalion
Exchange
.......................................55
- Responsibility
Monitodng
Chapter
Navigating
Page
witl
integaated bddge and electronic chart systems................................. 57
(by Captain T.J. Bailev FNI)
Tiaining requirements and recommendations The ISM Code and training
requirements The
need for
qpe speciflc iraining Requirements ofElectronic
Chart Displal and Infomlation Systems Precautions for IBS operators
IBS configurations with
ECDIS
Electrodc charts
T)Pical
ECDIS accuracy Passage
plaming
ECDIS Relerences and Publications
.............
................ .. ...
Defin1tions.............-....
Fulther reading..........
.. .
.. 7ti
.................................76
................................. 78
Guidance on keeping a navigational watch with reference
to STCWg5 Code Part B Chapter

10
IMO Resolution A
893(21)
\'III
Paxt 3-1 with commentary .............................79
PassagePlanningwithcommentary........................85
Page
Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed

as defined
II
in STCW'95 Code Section A-VIII/2
Upkeep ofthe cha.d
outlit....
...........................................................94
............... 102
List of Figures
in Chapter
Page
Figure
CouNe Alierations and Wheel
and
OverPosilio
......................
... .
.. .. ... .. . . .
C]ontingencies............................
.25
29
^borts
8
9
31
Natural Transit Clearing l{arks and Head NIaIks .............................................................................

Clearing
Be
ings
............................. .......... ... 35

Noter Figures 1 to {j
ncproduced
fron Adnrnalty Cha.i
327'!
dd
8 lo 0 arc Crow! .op)rjght.
itith
the peunissn)n ol
tl Hldrogrdphcr
oI ihc
Na9
in Chaqtet 6
li8ure
10
Information floir betwen the Conning Officer, OOW, Additjonal OfficeL,

Lookoui and
in Chaqter
. . - .- ..
Helnsman
.. 50
Figure
....... .... ... ... ... .... ... .. 6:J
.............
tj4
.... ........... ... .
Navigational sensors in an IBS ....................
................... 65
F.xh..i lron BA2015 in RCDS format.................................
.
. ... . 66
Exbact ftom S 57 chart (Vecior folmat) ofth
1l
12
l3
14
A q'pical integated bridgc systern
16
17
iB
19
20
Extracrfiom BA2015 in RCDS fomrai shoi{'ing an extract from

Exract from 8A777 in RCDS tormat
Exract from
S 57 chart (vecror
.........
fonllai)
showing .r 'Cauiion
safetv
\byage plan saJeLv
\ote ligx'
Fs
11, 15, 19
dd
1r,U, a.L[ lL' io
rolage p}an ... .... ...
.. .. ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 73
\bt'asc plan
Noie:Fi8xres
.. 70
................................ .... . . 71
Ajea' for power cables ... . . 72
a
..............................................71
20 de reproducedaith the pe.mission oi Norlhrop GrunmD Sperr llarine
] U Jr
e Fpfudecd $,ifi dre pemjssioD

Hldog rPIr o r\'',
of
Nortlrcp (;rtrmann Spery Mdnrc
and ihe
Chapter
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT

Introduction
In times gone past a commercial voyage r.as considered to be an adventure. Today! fortunately,
most commercial voyages are not adventures, merell' the routine of safely and successfully
compleiing the voyag and delivering L\e cargo.
Sometimes though, this is not th case. Vo)'ages are not always completed, cargoes not always
delivered. Non completion of t}1e voyage arld non delivery ofthe cargo always comes as a shock to
the marinels concemed, the shipowners, the charterers, the shipper and the public in general. We
expect caxgoes to be delivered on tine and ships to go sa.fely about thef business. We forget that,
even in this day and age, although ships have reliable powerful engines and the latest technology
helpingthe mariner, the voyage is still a risk and t]re ship and its crew still subject to the vagaries of
I\ron completiorl ofvoyages though may notjust be the result of a hostile environment. The
majority ofincidents at sea are the resuli ofhuman error. In many ofthese cases infomaiion $'hich
could have prevented the incident occuring was available but was either unappreciated or Dot
used.
Most accidents occu because there G no system in operation to detect and ponsequently
prevnt one person making a mistake, a mistake of the t1pe all human beings a1.e liable to commit.
This book is designed to make the voyage safer by explaining how to carry oui ihe differ.ent
aspects of bridge team nana8ment.
It is now some len )rears since The Nautical Institute published the original editio! of Bnlgr
nam Management. The ideas in that ediiion h ad been lalgely developed through th e author wor.king
al the Simulator Section of the Maritime Operations Centre of the Southampton Institute ofHigher.
Education.
Although the firstedition has been accepted throughout the rvorld, as the definitive book on
lhe subject, the r'r-orld's shipping stil1 does not necessadly follow team management and passage
planning. But the world authorities are now catching up lvith the industry in realising that both
nanagernent and planning are absolutell necessary in promoting safer shipping pmctlce, indeed
IMO has now come out with recommendations on both subjects.
This edition sets out in chapters 9 and l0 to put the IMO recommendations into plain
IMO recommendation is on
seafaring English, following the format used in the first edition. The
the left hand side ofeach page and its meaning alongside it.
5.14 Members
olthe navigational watch should at all times be prepared to respond efficiendy

IMO STCWB VIII Part3.1 (Gridance onkeeping
and effectively to charges in circumstances.

a sa.fe navigational watch)
3.1 concludes wiih the above statement, rnahing it q te clear

that no matter how well a voyage may have been planned and conducied and no natter ho$. $.ell
the team may have worked togetler, everything can change.
IMO STCW
95
B-VIII Part
This is the time when team work and planring really come into thei own, as any officer,
including tle mostjunior one in the team, may have to make decisions that he loows are really
beyond his capability.
BRIDGE TEAM AtrA.NAGEMENT
Horrever ifthe ship is operating under a good s)'stem ofb.idge team managemeDt and the
dra$n up, eveD the mosl junior and inexpelicnced officer rvill
have a subsiantial fund ofknowledge to back up his acti.rns. He will kno$ that the decisions he has
to male uill be safe and will appl) the knowledge he aLcadv has to the svstem he has been
wolking.
passage plan has been carefullv
The original book -Brllge llam Management \^'as written before the IMO decided that it too
had to plodrce a resolution on the subject. ,/ldg, liamMdnagementhasbeen well received drroughout
the r.orld and is proving to be fie basis for. rnost ship's prLssage planning and bridge resomce
management.
This, the second edifion, seeks to explain the IN{O's staternents, conlinning 1!'hat so many of
knor. and work to. It also blings *1e subject up to date with a ne\r section on elechonic
us already
navigalion.
Team Management
One of tle reqtilements lor manning and lunnjng a ship is to have the highest caiibre
personnel aDd the latest equipment This must still be the wjsh of ever) shipmaster and officer but,
faced r'r-ifi today's harsh econonic realities, is olten not possible. Irequendy, bddge teams will
consist of grorps of mixed abilit) pelsonnel working lvith outdated equiprnent. Nevertheless to
achieve the successful conpletion ofthe vo) age it is the conceln of all ships'olfice$ to male lhe
best possible use of available resources. both human and mate al. Each nember of the tearn has a
part to pla,v in this.
The tide "Team N{anagement" is ihe intelaction r'equired wiliin ihe tean1 lor. such a system
to work. It does not refer to an act olrna.nagemeni by one person but to a continuous acceplance
and understandingby each ofthe team members that they all have io fullil *1e loles to rvhich ihey
har e been r.rrgr"d
To consistendy achieve good resuhs there ar.e a number offactors that need to be addr'essed.
Firstl,"- those conceming technical kno edge and skills and then the requirenents of the nore
traditional man management or "people" skills nl'olved in the deYelopDrent ol human resources.
ln looking at the technical skills, considention mr1st be given to thc lechniques invoh'ed in pleparing
for and conduciing the proposed voyage (passage plalntug).
The skills concerning the development ol human resources are covered in depth in othel
publications. The smooth and efficient running cJf any bridge ieam depends upon the basic principles
of good communication and man maDagement. Witl current ship manning policies these skills
mustbe developed onboard to ovelcome cultural b oundaries as rvell as those of a more tladitional
hierarchical lank sbucture-
Ttaini
.g and Coa.hing
The ability io do ajob rvell depends) to some exlent, on the qualitl ofihe tlaining a person
has received. A poorl) motivated trainel rvill oflen produce a poorll motivated trainee. We all
spend a great part of oul lives eitler impdrting kno*-ledge to othels or learning such kno ledge.
This starts }'hen we are veryyoung and continues! no matter what our chosenvocation, thloughout
our lives. Proporlionally, very 1;ttle of this is conducted in the forrrral atmosphere ol a lealning
estabiishment, most learning taling place at mother's knee or in the workplace. As such we are al1
teachers and we should not be reluctant to pass on knowledge when required.
The methods of passing on knouledge are mam' and various. They ma)' be split into two
main groups training and coaching. These differ slighdy in concept. Tiaining a person involves
instructing them in the execution ofva ous tasks orproceduresto a required standald. Coaching,
ho\{,'ever, involves the development of existing abilities through delegation and monitoring. It is a
fine line between delegaiion for coaching purposes and abrogation of one's own responsibililiesl
Care should be taken to avoid delegating at too early a stage ol development. If t}1e tminee is
THE NAIITICAI, INSTITI,]TE
unprepared for the task, the effecis can be devastating. Theycanbecome

demoralised ancl confidence
lyill be undermined.
rasks do not a]rl.ay.s lend themselves ro direcr trainins
?lld8:
luerroos
excepr
perndps
rD
the
case
ol
very inexperienced personnel or lor nerv concepts. Thi
".","_1.:1:r*-l:o^L1;:",1_,",J:,
n p'hudol "5 nF\rro \"1 , ano.h-,, ll .no","u-i.n",
"t,,",.,pp, .f,,,""",".,* ,, i."a,r_
onatreadystrerchedhumanresonr.c\ f.i,i.'"h",;;i;.;";;:i:.".:fis:J.pprop
ate.As
with anv coaching situation it is essential to maintain rhe
supeir x.;;i .h";_* and supply
suffrrrenr feedb.rck on the pLogless being made. I_-t
fi.al".t p."r",r,iifr" o.,""" f.orrl
undeLqtanding hou ro impro\ e.
"f
- _The development of a team from a selection of individuals mav take a greai deal of effort.
Not all members will srart'ith the same baseli"" of t,'oo,.l"d;;.
O;;" ,i" i"#i, ru".u."i"g, ,f.,"
flow ol informaiion *ill increase as a direcl res'h of the ne*:11
-
fou'd |""nJ""." .ri,.

"r"'''fr".r.
aware.orl,haiisexpei,"a,i,rl_"_Jii".pellbrmance
llJ::"1^1",:.*::TldbtkepruJry
orrr?rrloDlrequFrll\ non.o.od., Jlepdba.keir"n.Oreot h"frnrdr)
rur.rio,. or rhereamis
J .\..- n ot ,hF.Lirg.,L, o..,t,F(kinsdn,r,iur.rhu.i,i,,ai,-,,,u,indirerrl\
i:.p':.r'".ot
Jr
e,I rne pJ$a6e ot rhe.r,ip
Well Being
The cfficient team mernber will bo,both mentalll and
seen as being a passive role and in certain
ro\
ph,r srcaltr fit. l\;tlhkeepiDg js often

kev litua tions ttrjs ma) u" trr" .rr".
rl,",irrl*p".
ii"
can then be considered io bc in a situation requiring

onl_r the marntenu*" ottlr" p,
.,,.r.t."r."a
situation. This role can cha.nge dramatically rhen-risk derelops,
"r"nt
reqoiri"g
u.U.. ,o
prevent a situation ar.ising, not nerely respondrng to ta( ilJ]s ihat
ma1 b? gettLng out of control.
-;r".i.r."fi
This type ofreaction requires both physic.iL and mental rrell

being
of.
frrgf; rr"""aara.
Motale
A demoralised team. or even demoralised membexol a tean, rs not

gL,ing to produce the
high,standards reqrired ensuring the conlinuous sai.n of the
shrp. ,ii".J" &f"ia"
-,iI" "p"" . f*g"
numbel offactors. Burgood reamwork and erter tir e operation
rril L" ..irj* j
are clear as to their role in the team, ca'' see rhe.es..lts of thei.
"
".rn,""rrlr,*"
careftrll) corrected and are gi\en cr.edit when it is due.
orn'effo;r,;;;;;;;;_;";ili;;
Error chains
l,Iaritime incidents or disast-.rs are seldom the result of a single
eveni, they are ;rlmost
invariabl) the resul of a ssdes ofnon-serious incidents: ihe
curmin"ti,i"
"i
"'r.-.
.r*r".'"""''
is happenins in ard around the ship, herps the
,,.,^.r:,:i:,:::l.l):|-',:i^":)-t.:
rr'r\epppr IT"'ls,'.har
rla, a 1s,1",.hain i. d"\"toorsand ro,ake.crior,
:",-:
:T
u!.-o upon tn.. e,ogrrhol, ioi,*:qi*
brF:k \e er.ror.,ha
Indications of eftor chain

dereloprnent
Anbiguit!
Certain sigDs, apparent to members ol a br.idge team will

indir rL. rn,r'an
"r n-, \a r i. de,e oping.I | . oo.. ro ne,^.,ritr
'n"ar lndr dn in, ide l i, :b",rr roh oopr.bur rh.r h. p,.."ge
i, , J
bFing , n.ldr cred a. pLrncd and rar , ..r"in el"rre . o,
snra :onat
d\drF, e.\ r.rdy bF ld, kjng. fnF.l o:. b"rno pLr.r, unne. p.,.r\
ri.(
dnd d, rror nu.r be r-(e r ro o,.ak rl, e,.oi .h"i".
Anbiguity mav be easil,v definable ot mav be a subrle

rdr..r'on rha. rh -g. ar. n,r goi.1edp\pp, pd. i. *""")"-,f"
h{'o independent and separate positioD fixing systems

do not
asr--ee,
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEN{ENT
Anbiguit! (cont.)
I. Rbd. lix Jnd
P\ pu.irio.r. r.la) nor
oF rhp
.rm": .o nF(hi18 i.
ob,io:.ly rrrur3 sIh ore o hr tire. .r.d a Lrnb,gr ir1 -xisr..

Immediate action is required to correctthis ambiguity and detemine
shir h or e or Ll-. f'\e. i. , urecl.
A more subtle ambiguit) ma) occur if the echo sounder.

reading does rrot agree rvitl the charted depth shown. The less
conscientious OOW may jrlst accept this fact! another nlay not be
saiisfied and will try to detirmine nhy there is a dilference ietrveen
ihe anticipaled and actual sounding.
Ambiguit) may enst in that hro team membels do not a8ree

on a point of action. Ambi8uity exists; of itseil il may not be
dangerous, but it does mean ihar the.e is a difference and the came
of this difference needs to be understood. One ofihe tcarn members
may be losing, or has lost his situational awareness and an enor

chain ma) be developing.
The OOW ma), be ar-are that certain pre agreed decisions,
e.g. night orders, compary procedures etc. dre not being fo11or.ed.
Again ambiguity exists! hc rnust ask himself wh). has there been
deviation from the accepted procedules?
.\nbi$rih, ma)r be a result ofiner?erience or lack of training.

The junior officer may feel lhat he is not in a position to voice his
doubls. This should not be the case. Every rnembel of a rvell
constmcted and l\rell briefedteam will feel confidentthathis doubts
or lears can be expressed without his being reprimanded for what
mav tum out to ber in one instance an un1\rarranted.!! ory, in another
a very pertinent arld relevani lemark idel1tif.ing a real hazard.
Disttaction
Distraction, lhe lull attention of a per.son upon one event to

the exclusion of others or concentration upon r.hat is ofter an
irrelevancy can be an indication that situational alvareness is
beginning to break dorvn, even if only for a restricted pe od.
Dishaction canbe causedby an excessive 1\'orkload, stress or fatigue,
emergency coflditions or, al] too often, inattention to detail. It can
also be caused b)' arl unexpected, Gough not threaiening event,
such as a VHI cal1, which can take ihe full atiention of a person to
the erclusion ofo$er [rore urgent needs. In such an event, a senior
officer, e.g. a pilot having the con, mav have to be made anare of
the dist action.
Inadequatq and confiaion
Inadequac,v and confusion must not be mistaken for the

conlirsion of ajunior offlcer who just does not have the erperience
or knonledge to cope with a conplex situation. Such a situation
arises with even senior office.s in disaster circumstances and needs
to be noted and corrected belore it can become danc-erous.
CommunicaLion
breakdoan
several .$'avs. It
one
another due to being from diflcrent backgrounds or even differ.ent
parts olihe same counil)-. Merel)' pmctising communications in their
everyday life can easily rectif) snch differences.
Breakdon'n in communications can occlrr
ir
rrar be rhrr ,npn oer: ol ,r r"a'n .i'rpl) do nor urder'.rard
THE NAUTICAI,INST]TI ITF,
Further ditriculties mal occur in La.ing to understand a pilot

of a different cultural back$ ound. Rectification in this case lvill no!
lenditselfto practice, brt car only develop with expeience. Ho\l'ever'
such a situation should have been alloued for at lhe planning stage
of the passage-
Ofier difficrlties na)'occu in tlving to rnderstand
a pe^on
or on another ship. Patience and
peneverance are the onlv methods to rectifr, this situation.
using the radio
ImProPet con ot lDokout
a shore staiion,
It is not always clear $'ho actually has the conb:ol ofthe ship.
This can occur in seveml $,a) s. The arlival of the master, on the
b dge, does rlot necessalily transfel the con lo him. In lact un[] he
states other"lvise the con remains with the (lo\\l The easiest wal io
clarif, this situation is for the OOW to make alogbook entl' to fie
effect that the master has taker the con, ofienise it nay be assumed
that it remains w'ith fie OO\V, Tlis procedule is reconmelded nr
th,e
IcS
Btidge lracedures Guida
A similar situation can adse $,hen it is not clear. w'ho has the
con ivhen fier-e is a pilot on boald. Normally the masiel l,ill have
the con r.her nuking the pilot station and should quile clearly slaie
'r{hen the pilot takes fie con, thus cla fying thc situation to all
concernecl. This too can be clarified by fie OOW making a 1og
enl-y io this effect.
A lookoulrvho is unclear- abouthis duties
is usually
aIesult of
Poor team management.

Non-compliance
Passage
uith the
Plan
Nor-compliance witl the passage plan mal result lrom the

impIopcr connoled above, aDdis anoiher indication that situational
a$'areness is breaking dorvn. Unjustified departue from a cleallv
defined and undelstood passage plan musl be recognised as a
breakdown of situational a$'areness. As an example, ihe OOW ofa
ship ihat is proceeding in the rvrong lane of a Tiallic Separation
Scheme must ask himself n\ am I doing this? The ship will be off
the planned track and it is in dircct \'iolatior of the lnlemational
Rules. If the OOW is both deviating lrom track and ignoling lhe
Rules then it is liLely thal he is not fu1ll arvare of the posiiion ol lhe
ship.
Any indication of any ofthe above requires action on the part

ofthe person becoming aware ofit. He must either correct the fault,
paticularl) if it is his o$'n responsibilitv or dlaw the attention of
othel individuals, or even the whole team, to the error
Procedzral aialatian
Procedural violations rvill occur similarlt to that of nol

compl)ring $'ith the passage plan. Again the q eslionhas to be asked,
"rvhy are we doing it this rvay?" If the question cannot be easil)
anslvered then the OO\\r or r.atchstander must be doublv careful.
BRIDGE TEAN4 MANAGEMENT 5
Casualties and their causes

Al dle International Safetv Conlerence il\TAS-\fCO\
agreedfiatt$'o princip
1
2
a1
in bridge organisation aird the result of
Weaknesses
llll
held nr
Nolrml irr
1975 ir rvas
lactors seemed !o be the main causes olcollisions andgroundings namcly:

such rLeaknesses.
Failure to keep a good lookout.

Such casualties may have been avoided bv:
aPPr oPriat e cb runs t anc e s
Too often it is consideled adequate to proceed in a more

conplex situation \ai!h ihe same brldge manning levels as if the
ship rvere deep sea rviih less irnmediate poleniial hazards.
Ensuhng sufficicttt
petsonnel arc a\ailable in
special circumstances
Addiiional pel sonnel are oftenreq iredto prepare quipncnt

or to bc avaiiable under' cer'tain circumstances. However if calling
them is left too lale they n1av not become available until the shlp is
in the situatior that *1e_v could have helped prevent.
Prccke instru.tions
cd.lling the ma:ter
Too often themasteris called after a situation has irredeemabll

detedoraied. If the OO\f is unclear as to rvhen he should call the
master thcr his indecislon mav lead to his not calling the inaster. lf
the OOW is any doub! whaisoever then he should call him.
Setting double uatches
in
fot
Postiltg hok-outs
Manning the uheel
An established drill for

changing o et from
autotndtic to manaal
stcering
Precke h$tructions
rcgatdiag reduci.ng sP ee d
in the eaent of teduced
aisibilitt
The OO\\'ma,v consider that he alone car keep the look out
in addition to his onn duties. However nol posting a lookout nla)
cause hinl to neglect other important duties.
co
An unmanned wheel reqrires fie OOW to nonitor and

lim to olerlook oiher dulies.
ect the steenog. This too mav cause
NIodem steednggcar can usualll be changed easilv from one

system to anodrer. Honevcr malol incidents are on record t'here
lack of arvareness of the precise steering svslem currentl,v in
operation. or a lack ofknowledge ofh.Ju lo change from one svslem
lo the other. has led to disaster.
A bus,v OOW may not lealise that the visibiliil has

deteriorated, partrcr arlr ar dght. Even }'hen he has realised that
lhe situaiion has deteriorated he ma,''' not appreciate the increas in
rvorkload and mav corsider that he can still copc. Precise instructions
ir nighr or ranL,rgo dFr. \il pre\' r" rr' 'i .ra. o| ar'.'ro
Groundings and their causes

The following leatures have been noticeablc as causes ofglounding
Failure to Pretlan a tuack
Irequentl)- it is nol considered necessarv to plan a track and

shor it on thc chalt. This may be because ihe mariners concerned
feel that thel krow the area suficiertly l'e1l or becausc tlcrc is a
THE NATITICAL INSTITUTE
pilot on ihe brldge. Thre is ho\\'cver little point in planning and

then not sho$ing L\e track on thc charr-
Failure to adequatel|
monitat the nessel's
lrogress ahng the planned
tuack
Failure to take immediate

actiofi to regqin track
haaing del)iated from it
Although a planned track is shown on the chart OO\{s mal

not alwa) s constandv and regularly 1ir fie shlp. Ths ma,w lead to
the OO\V not being ar.are that fie ship is deliating from track,
pelhaps lowards danger'.
Dven w'hen aware that deviadon ftonl track is
occu iDs. the

realll mailer because ther.e is enlo gh
.rrerrr, .rl e.],hi.i.r rb,rnll' lhF.d.p.5 Ip.,,p11-.. pronned
!o go agrould! so conpliance wilh lhe planned track \rill ensue
attitucle nlav be that it doesn't
safel).
Il
Failure to ctoss chetkfLxes

b! comparing one means
uith anothet
onlw one meihod of fixing is tsed wher rhe shlp is nl

constraircd r.aters) mis-idcntification ofa navigation nlark or fault),
elecfonic informadoD, left uncheckcd and unobscNed, can ]eavc
the OC)W r.ith a false sense of secudt).
Failarc to use xirual Ji,xitlg

when aaailable
Elecbonic positior fixing ma) sometimes be nore accurate

ol convcnientbut elecilonic fixes do not necessarilv rclate the ship,s
posiiion to navigalional hazards. lgnoring risual fixing ma,w lead to
the OO\.v- beconing unaware of his situation.
Failure to use the echo

sounder ahen making a
landfall or nadgating in
Except when alongside or.threatened bl another ship, the

rcarest dangel is incvitabl) \'erticallv belo$. Although it cannot be
considered ro be a position fix, observation and appreciadon ofthe
under keel clealance r.ill often r.arn the obsclver of approaching
danger or that Lhe slip is not in the position that il should be.
constrained
0atcfi
Failute to correctll idenffi

nabigational lights
An obserlel ma1 convince himself fiat he scs the light he is

looking for. nol thc light he is actuallv looking at. This mis
idcrtification can lead to subsequenr error or confusion.
By their verv nalurc human beings are liable to make enor.s.

Failurc to ensure that
important naligational It is esscntial that such hunan enor-s cannot occur {'ithout bcing
dpcisions arc independeralJ no iLtd aDd coneclcd. An integral pdrt ofthe navigarional plan and
.he*.d bJ another offircr bridge ol3misation must be to constantlv doublc check and minimise
ihr rirk nf such euors going unnoticed.
Nlanv oI the instan ces cited abo\.c occur because the OO\V does not appr.eciatc lhe complexiq
of his lole in a detedoraling situation This orav bc because such responsibiliries hute not be"r,
made clcar lo hln.
BNDGE TEA\,I X,IANAGDN,IENT
SAFE NAVIGATION
THE OVERVIEW
Bridge orgarisation
An efficient bidge organisation
\{-i11
include procedures thal:
Eliminate the dsk that an erfor on the part ofone Pe$on may result in a dGastrous situation'
Enrphasise the necessi! to maintain a Sood visual lookout and to can)- out collision avoidance
Encourage the use ol all means of establishing ihe ship's position so that in ihe case of one
method becoming uneliable others are immediately available
Male use ofpassage planning and navigational systems which allot' continuous monitodng
and deie.tion of deviation from tlack when in coastal 1\'atels.
5
Ensure that all instrumenl
,A.ccept a
pilot
as a
ors are known and correctl,v applied
valuable additior to a bridge team
Individual role
These procedures can only be achieved b) each member o[ the brldge team appreciating
that he has a;ihl part to play in the safe na\,igation ol the ship Each member rvill also realise that
safet) depends upon all personnel Plaling their Part to the utmost of their abiliq-.
Each team member must aPpreciate that the saJety of the ship shorld never depend upon
the decision of one person only. A11 decisions and orders must be carefully checked and their
execution monitoled.Junior team members and $'atchstanders must never hesitate to question a
decision if ihey consider that such decision is not in the best interests of lhe shiP Careful briefing
and explanatlon of the responsibilities required of each member $i11 help to accomPlish this.
THE PLAN
Voyages of whatever length can be broken dow1l into two major stages
PREPARATION
EXECUTION
Included in PREPARATION are:
APPRA]SAL
b
PI,ANNING
EXECUTION of the voyage includes:

ORGANISATION
d
MONITORING
THE NAUTICAL ]NSTITUTE
Chapter 2
PASSAGE APPRAISAL
Inhoduction
Befole any voi age can be embarked upor or, indeed, any project undertaken, those controlling
lhe venture need to have an undcrstardtug of the risks invoh cd. Thc appraisal stage of passage
planning exanines these risks. If alternatives ar.e availablc, the risks are evaluated and a compromise
solution is reached rvhereby fie level of risk is balarced against comncrcial expcdicncv. The
applaisal could be considered to be the most important parl ofpassage planning as it is at this stage
that all pertinent information rs gathered and the firm fourdation Ibr the plarl is built. The ulgc to
conrnence plarning as soon as possible should be resisted. Time allocated to appraisal r'il1pav
dividends laier.
Sources of information
The master's decision on the ovelall conduct ofthe passage will be based upon an appmisal
of the available information. Such appmisal \',ill be madc bt conside ng tlrc infonnation lrom
sources including brt not limited to:
1
2
3
.1
Chart Catalogue.
"
6
7
8
I
L0
1l
12
l3
1.1
lJ
I
l7
18
19
-20
-21
22
-23
\dii.ng Dir", rior. rnd
Navigational Charts.
(lceal
Pass.lges
[or'fie \\rorld.
Routein8 Cha s or Pilot Charts.

Pi ,
t B" '(..
Light Lists.
Tide Tables.
Tidal Stream Atlases.
Notices to Marinels.
RouteirglDformation.
Radio Signal Informatior (inc. VTS ard Pilol seNiccl.
Chmaliclnformalion.
T,oad T,ine (lhart.
Distance Tirbles.
ElectronicNavigationalSvstemslnformatior.
R,dio r rd
lo!? \d\i.dri, rd \\!rn:rS..
Draught ofVessel.
Navigational Terms.
Orvner's and othcr unpublished soulces.
PersonalExperience.
N{arirer'sHandbook.
Guide to Polt
Entrl
Nautical Almanac.
RRTDGF, TF,AN,I
I\{ANAGEI\{ENT
Not all such sources rvill be necessary for all passages and voyages, but the list gives a quick
check on i{hat informaton is necessary for most. Expedence will shorv the Plarner just l'hat is
required for the passage he is plarning.
These items are discussed in detail below. Only B tish and American catalogue nunbers
are quoted. Other, similar, publications mav be available from other national sources.
Chart Catahgue
Chark
Published annually by the Hydrographer of the Navy (British)
as NP 131 and by the Defence Mapping Agency (U.S.) as

CATP2VOlI]. *
Manv merchant ships calry Br-itish chalts published by the
Hydrographer of the Nary. However thelc are areas of the $.orld
where ihe marinel ma,"- well be advised to consider using locally
published or other charts as well. British Admimlty policr is to chalt
all British home and mosl Commonwealth and some Middle Eastem
lvate^ on a scale su{ficient lor sa-le navigation. Elsewher-e the policy
is io publish such charts as till enable the m..inPrtn.roqslhe o.eans
andploceed along the coasts to reach the approaches to polts. Along
many coasts not coveredin detail by British charts the madner may
firld ii better to use the charts of the Hydrographic Oqce ol the
relevant country
Both U.S. and Canadian regulations require drat vessels in
their $,atels must carry and use the appropriate national charts. This
means that the vessel's chart outfit needs to be checked to ensure
the charts meet the requirements ofthe regulatlons.
Approxlmatel) 50 counties are llsted as having established

hydrographic offices publishing charls of thet national waters.
Addresses ofthe agents appointed b,''' such offices may be obtained
from "Thc Catalogue of Agents fol the Sale ol Charts", Prblished
by the:
Intemational H,vdrographic Bureau
,1 Q-,r.rai
Antoine ler, BP.l45, MC98011, Monaco Cedex

Pdncipality of Monaco
Te]. +377 93 10 81 00
Intemational standard chart symbols and abbreviations allo w

foreign charts Lo be used wi*r litde difficulty bul cale must be taken
to establish the cha.r't datum used.
Oceatu Passsdges
WorId
ofthe
Published by the H,r'drographer ol the
Nary (British)
l.j,'. lr .onrain. inlo.mdrion or pl,nnrrg
as NP
o' edr pas\agps.
oceanograPhy ard cufi ents.
Bdtish ard Americm Hydrographic Offfce publicalion numbeE de subjecr
]O THE NAI]TIC,{- INSTITUTE
Lo
chaq ard need to be
Routeing Charlr and

Pilol Chant
Routeing Charts ar.e published by the H,r'drographer of the

Navv {B tish) as Cha s Nos. 512.18. Similar chads are published
by the Dcfence Mapping Agency (USA) as Atlases NVPUB105 9.
PILOT16 and PILOT55.
Both series Sive monthl) information on ocean rouleingj

culrents, $'inds and ice limits and various meteorological
Sailing Directions and

Pik t Bookt
Bdtish Pilot Books are published in 7.1 voiumes b1.the

Hvdlographcl of the NraI/ and gi\e u'orldwide coverage. Sailing
Direciions a1e published by the Dcfence N{apping Agencv (USA)
in the sedes SDPUB 121-200.
Some ofthese latter books are r-eferred to as Planning Guides,
giving infonnation essentiallythe same as the British Ocean Passages
for. ihe \!br1d, oihers as "Euoute", giving similar information to the
British Pilot Books.
LXt of Lights and Fog

Signak
Publishedbvdre Hl drographer lo the Na!,v (Britishlin eleven

volumes (NP7.l 8,1) giving $orldlvide covemge. The B iish Naw
also publishes Light Lists as CD RC)NIs.
The US Coast Guard publishes seven volumes ofLight Lists,
(COI,IDTM 165021 i) giving details of all US coasral lights, hcluding
the Gleat Lai<es. D}ltA publications LLPUB110 6 cover the rest of
the rvorld.
Tide Tahles
Published bv the Hydlographer ofthe Nar,y (British), annua1ly,

in three volumes, coverlng the rvor'1d.
Tidal timcs and heights may be readily obtained by using a

compuiel programme published by the British Admiraltv (SHM159A)
The US National Ocean Service (NOSPBTT) also publishes
norldl,ide Tide
Tidal Stueam Atlases
Tables.
Published by ihe Hydrographer of the Navv (British), these

atlases cover certain areas ofNorthwest Europe and Hong Kong.
Tidal Cunenr Tables covedlg the ,{tlaniic coast of North

America and the Pacific Coas! ol North America and Asia are
prblished bv the US National (lceaD Service, Tjdal CLrrrent Charts
are published bv the US National Occan Service for lour nlajor US
Ports.
Notices to Marinct.t
Notices lo M.Ldncrs are published in lVeeklv Editions b) both

the British and US Hldrographic Authorities, enablingships to keep
their chalis and other publications up to date.
Also available as CD RON{s for updating electronic charts.
BRIDGE TEAN{ MANAGENfENT
]]
10 Shiq's Routeing
Published bv lN{O, this publication gives inlbrrnation on all

routeing, lraffic sepalaiion schemes. deep water routes and areas to
be avoided that ha\e been adopted bv IN{O. Routeing information
is also shown on cha s and is included ln the sailing dir'ctions.
11 Radta Signal
Infotmation
The lBritisb) Admiralh Lisls ofRadio Signals consists oftwelve

r.ohmes oftext and diagrams coverirg the follor.ing:
NP281(1) Vol. I Pa.rt I Coast Radio Staiions, Eulope , ,{frica

and Asia (exchding the lar Eastj.
NP281(2) Vol. 1 Part 2 Coast Radio Stations, Oceania, Ge

Ame cas and lhe l-ar-East.
NP282 \bl.2 Radio Aids to Navigation. Satellite Navigation

Svstems, Legal Time, Radio Tture Signals, and Electronic
Position Fixhg S) stems.
NP283i1)Vo1.3 Part I Nladlime Safe!) Inlormation Scrviccs:

Europc, Africa and Asia iexcluding rhe IaI East).
NP283(21 Vo1.3 Part 2
NP28'1Vo1..1 N{cteorological Observation Stations.
'
Nlaritine Safet) Information

Oceania. thc Americas and the Far East.
NP285 \b1.5 Global

icx4DSSl.
Se
ices:
Ma time Distress and Safetv Svsrern
Similar information is availabic in US DN{A publicario:

RA.PUB 117
12 Climatic Infornation
Climatic information is available from a Yarietv of sourc.,

ir .l.rdrgrlePrlo Bonk..P.lo Cl-.rrr..rd O.'ar Par,o,',la' tl, ,t :
alreadv mentioned. The UK N{et. Oflicc booh Metear\lagi fat Matir,,-:
gives further general infomaiion. Climatic information reeds ro :=
ahravs updated by the lalest Wcathel Infornation.
13 Load Line Chart
Load Line Rules are mandaton'and the lcJad line zones

showt ir Ouan Passagn fat the Worhl ot BA ChatD6083
14 Dhtanu
tsoth Ocean and Coaslal Distance Tables arc available flo :

varieh ofsources inchding British Admimltv (NP350)andUS D\!.
publications NI'PUB15l and NOSSPBPORTSDIST
To.hIP.t
Electronic Narigation
Slstctis Handbooks
:-.
Such inlolmaliol nust be available and rd11 prove nece: l

should the plimc sourcc of electronic information fail. Inforna-:::
rcquilcd will depend upon the svsiems in use on the pa icular'.-::
and should have been srpplied with lhe equipment.
12 THE N-\LTIC-\L INSTITLTE
16 Radio and Local

Wd.mings
The tatest information available oD changes to nar'lgation aids
etc. will be obtained from radio (including NI\rTEX) and local

$.arnings and musl alt'ays be made available to those resPonsible
for appiaisal and planning Local infornalion is ofter availabie flom
fie Harbour Authorib-.
lor infornation
on the
the transmitting statjons
17 Draaght of ShiP
1B Naaigationdl Terns
79 Oumer's
and. other
soufces
see
\{orld \^tde Navigational Services and

Admi/alry List af Radia Signak Val 3
The anticipated dmught and trim of the shiP at different stages

ofthe passage will reed to be tno\{'n in order to calculate the under
keel ciearance when in shallot' water' The exbeme heighi of the
ship above the waterline. kno\a'n as the ah draught will also be
required if thele are 1o* overhead clearanccs
rvaich kcepers and others invcrlved $ith safe Davigation,
including shore personnel, need to have a clear understanding of
navigational terms. ISO 19018 covers these requirements lvhen this
volume r.as being prepared.
A11
Supplementaly informaiion lron] lhe vessel's orvners and

chartereri should be consulted. when available, as should repor-ts
from other vessels, information from agents and Port Auihorit)'
handboohs and regulations.
20 Personal Exlet'iznce
The personal experierces ofcrew membels thathave been to
the anticipated ports ard areas can prove ofvaluc.
2'l
Mariner's
Handhook
The
22 G
2t
ide lo Pofi Entry
Nautical Alnanac
Publishedby the Hr drographer to the Nary (British), this book

contains information ofgeneml intcrest to thc mariner'
Published by Lloyd's of London Press and Portguides, these
books often give information not available lrom other sources'
Necessary for. determining times of sunset and stnrise and
assisls in position fixing when electronic s,vstems fail.
Having collected together all the releYant information the master. in consuhation t'ith his
officers, will be able to make an overall aPpmisal of the passaS'
Ouan
The passage mav be a transocear ro ie in w'hiclL case the firsi

to be the distance beh{'een ports, the
consideraiion will
"e"d
availability ofbunkers and siores etc.
A great circle is the shortest distance but olher considenlions
will need to be taken into account
Meteolological conditions wlll need to be considered and it

mav lvell prove advartageous to use one of the weather rouleing
BRIDGE TEAM NIANAGEMENT
13
sefices. AldrouSh the recommended r.oute nav be longer in disiance

it may well prove shofter in time and fie ship sutler less darnage.
Oceau ctrrents may bc used to advartagej favourable ones giving
rhF.hipd oe,rFrover..ll.p""d.o t.errirBrn"o..d\. nrJd.o dkr r:
\!-eather systems also need to be coDsidered, e.g. a ship nr the
!'ar East in summer needs plent\, of sea roon if it is liable lo be

involvedin a tropical revoh'ing storm and apassage ]n high laiitudes
may require ice conditions lo be considered. Irespective oI the
advantages oi using a preferred track, the Load Line Rules must
al -ays be obeyed. Irl certain cilcumstaiccs, often political or forsafety pulposesj a ship may need to keep clear of specified areas.
The ship orrrer ard the chaier.er.s lnaw have certain condiiiors
that the planner $'ill have to take into account. Specified under keel
clearances may have to be observed as mav distances oflgrounding
:r"a, or larrd uno 'h" os r"r. mrr la'. :r"a. o rhn s, rd
rhe)
prefer nol io use, such as cetain straits in some of the archipelagos.

Some charterers rnav specili that the ship must remain within certain
latitudes or that a given speed needs lo be majntaired. The master,
olcourse, n'i1lhave the final audrority over sucb maite$ and should
specih-any such conditions before the planning starts. ,
Coastal
The lirsi corsideration at lhe appraisal stage will be to

determine *1e distance drat tracks should be laid off coasdines and
dangers. When the ship is passilg tlrough areas \a'herc IMO tuaffic
separation and routeing schencs are in opemlion such routeingwill
have io be follor.ed. In some coastal areas mininum distances off
lbr all. or speclfi ed vessels! lrraybe determined byfie relevant state.
Shipping companies or charterers na) also specifv minimum
distance off dangers or land.
In archipelagos,lt will bc l]ecessarvto deter.miDe .which straits
d]ld passages are to be used and.$.hedrer ornotpilcrtage is required.
Under certain circumstanccs it may be preferablc to diveft around
an archipelago.
Having made his applaisal of the intended vowagc/passage,

r-"1-r ir i. a.l orr,oa.r,rl pu..a:.o-andio..,.,n.-u,.h, \o.aB".
the master r.ill determine his strategl and delegate ore ofhis olficers
to plan dre voyage. On most ships this will be the second mate, on
some a designated navigating officer, whilst on others the master
may prefer to do his orvn planning. L.respective of rvho does the
actual planning, it has to be to the rcqdrements ofthe master rvho
carries the fina1 responsibilitv lor the plan.
The plan aeeds to irclude all eventualities and contingencies.

ollen made from pilot statior to pilot statioD but
IXIIO Resolution A.285(\IIII), Amex A (v) states:
Passage plans are
"Despite the duties and obligations of a pilo! his presence on

board does not relieve tlle officer in charge of the waich from
his duties and obiigations for the safeqr of the ship."
14 THE NAUTICAL INSTTTI]TE
This makes it quite clear thal it is necessary io plar from berth to

berth even though it is anticipated that there will be a pilot conductrng
the vessel at certail stages of the voyage.
Naaigational hazafll notes
The bridge team needs to be able to verifu that corrections

are up to date ard all relevant navigatonal warnings have been
noted. Charts cotrtaining corrections do not necessarily indicate
whether they are the most rrp to date available. A notebook entry
enables this detail to be verified (see Amex II).
RRTDGE
TEAM MANAGEMENT
15
Chapter
PASSAGE PLANNING
Introduction
Plan ng rnay be considered in t$ o stages l
1
2
Ocean and open rvatcrs.

Coastal and estuadal rvater.s.
Though, at times, these hl.o stages ill merge and overlap.

Charts
Collecttogether all the charts for the intended \'o)'age, putting

them into the corect ordel. Charis not absolutelv necessan- for the
vo-vage bulwhich are adjacent to the area to be tiaversed siould be
included, as should verl large scale charts, .g. port plans on tle
coasial part of the vovage. Although it mav rot be necessarv to
acluallvuse such charts, they ma) include information that $,ill prove
of use during the vovage. Ensure that ail charts and publicatiors
havc been corrected lo tt1e latest Notice to N{ariners available and
that an1' authentic Nav $ arnings etc. received fron an) souce are
also included (see ,Arnex IIj. Similar colrections may also have to
be made during the voyage after the plan has been completcd and
the plan ha\,ing !o bc subsequently modified.
No-Go Areas
Coa, a and "rLu.' ir, hans'l ould be e',.'nineo, ard.rll.u -r.

rvhere L\e ship CANNOT go nust be caretu11v sholn b1 lighl{.hting
or cross hatching. carc being taken to rlot obliterate infcrrmation

such as aravigation mark or a conspicuous objeci. Areas so marked
are to be considered as no-go areas. In $.aters w.here the tidal range
may not be verl large, no go areas rvill irclude a1l charted depths of
less lhan fie ship's draughi plus a safeg margin. Such areas will
vary accolding to the ship's draught so uill not necessarily bc the
same Ibr both inn ard and outward passages. In gereral the line
determining "no-go" n'i1l be not less ihan draught + 100,h, though
rhi. sill n.pd n oe n-odiriFd a,, ord rg ro ,he pr.ra,l ig
circumstances. Draught + 10% mal nell prove adequate in areas
$'here the sea is snoothbutwill require aconsiderably higher figlre
if the ship is liable lo pitch, roll or squat.
In confrned l.aters, where the tidal height may have a large
influence, such no go areas will vary according to the dme of
passage. Initially all areas and dangers shouing charted depths
of less than the draught plus the safety margin should be
considred no go, though suchno go areas may b subsequently
amended when the actual time ofpassage is known. Such areas
will need to be carelully marked showing the times and state of
tide at rvhich thev are safe.
Figure 1 shows no go areas lor a ship on a draught crf I 1
metres. approxinating to the 10 metr.e contour, no allorvance being
made for. tidal heinht.
16 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Figure
Croan coJ\r.Fht.
1 NO GO AREAS
Asuninl tif on nuxituutt dtu lhL 9 l nNIEt

R4nladrl Jion Adnialq Chat 3271bith ltu pnni$ian af the qdragafhff
oJ thN
Nary.
BRIDGE TEAM N'IANAGEMENT
17
Margins of Safetl
Before iracks are marked on the chart the cleadng distance

from the no-go areas reeds to be considered. \\hen a fix is plotted
on a chafl ii invariably represents the position of a ce ain part of
the ship's bridge at the time of the fix. Widr large ships, although the
plotted fix al a celtain time may be ortside a no go a1ea, ii is possible
tlat another part of the ship rnay already be in lt \yith disastrous
Iesults. A safety nargin is reqdred around the no go areas at a
distance that, in the worst probable circumstances, the pafi ol the
ship being navigated (the brldge) $'i11 not pass. On occasion, the
nargins of safety can be readily nonitored by eye, e.g. using buovs
maxking the sa.fe limits of a channel or easily identified clearing
bealings.
Among the lacto$ which need to be taken into account when

deciding on the size of this "Margin of Safety" are:
I
2
3
4
The djmensions of the ship.

The accuracy ofthe navigatioral systems to be used.
Tidal streams.
The m;inoeuvring characteristics ofthe ship.
The Margins of Safety should be chosen so that they can be

.eadily monitored. To achieve fiis thcy need to be related to one of
the navigation systems in use (e.g. clearing- bearings related to a
headmark or Parallel Indexes).
\lrrbin\ ol ),f"n r,.ll.ho* r"q trrrl-e.hip(dndF\m.enom

track, yet still remain in safe water (see below) . As a general rule the
Mar8in of Safeq' will ensure that the ship remains in wate$ of a
depth greater than dnught + 20{,/0. It is stessed that this is onlv a
general rule. Circumsianccs may dictate that the 200/o clearance $'ill
need to be considerably increased, e.g:
i
2
3
\\rhen the sulvey is old or ulreliable.
In situations $'here the ship is pitching
o1.
rolling-
\Vhen there is a possibiliiy ihal lhe ship rllay be e:<periencing

squat.
Safe Water
When the ship mav have increased the dlaught by passing

into liPsh e',ier
Areas whele the ship ma)' safel). deviate are considered to be Safe
Water and ihe limits of this safe u'atel are bourded by the Margins
$(Sdrq.
Figure
(for
2 MARGINS
d.fnltirn
of
OF SAIETY
ckan s Baannri vt h,tatt)
Ctatn n!|tigh!. Reproduudfon Adniral1 Chatt 3274.rith
thc
ni'rlln
ofthe H!&agaphar afth. NdL\.
BRIDGE TEAM NIANAGEMENT 19
Ocean and Opan Water
Ttacks
Coastal and
Estuaial
Tracks
Ocean and Open trVaier tracks should firstbe drawr ol small

scale charts, accordiDg to dre decisions made at the appraisal stag
regarding the roule to be taken. Great circle and composite great
circle tracks rvill have to be cdlculated or obtained ftom the GPS or
ftom great circle char.ts. Rhumb lines mav be drawn stnight onto
the Mercator chart. but a1l tracks will have to confom to the limits
detelmiied at the appraisal stage.
Coastal and Esluaxial 'Ilacks will also be constrained by the

decisions made at the appmisal slage and should be lirst drawn on
the small scale charts cove ng large portiols of the coastlile,

preferably fron-r the departule port apploaches to the ardval port.
This will depend upon proximit)' of tle ports and the charts ofthe
alea.In many cases mole than one drart will have to beused. These
first tracks will form fie basis of dre plan and from t}rem mav be
obtained distances and steamingtimes andwhen the depafure time
is kno n, t}1e ETAS at thc various $.avpoints en route can be
established.
The !rue direction ol the track should be shown close to the
track on the chart. This rrill notnecessarily be the couse stee.ed to
make this track; it onl,v indicates the direction to make gdod. The
coulse to stecrwill depend upon variors factors at ihe time ofmaking
the passage, e.g. tidal set and drift, lee$.ay, etc.
\\hen compleied, ihese tracks shouid be transferred to and

drawn on the large-scale charts ofthe area to be traversed. Tiansfel
of a tracL frollr one chaft to another must be done nith great care.
'Io
eDsure tlat no nistakes are made, it is good practice to

double check fiis operation by Ning a range and bearing of the
transfel positiol from a rcadily identifiable object e.g. a light common
to both charts. This can be turther confirmed on both chalis bI
checking the latitude aud longitude of the transfer position.
Chart Cho nge
It should be quite cleally shorvn on a chart thc positionlr-here
it is requiled to hansler io thc rext chart, giving the next
chart's
number.
Iiack Consideration
As a general rule ihere is nothing to be gained by closel)

approaching a danger othe( than to leduce passage distance and
consequendy) sleamjng time. When il does become necessarv to
approach a dangel there are general minimum rules thatneed to be
followed. The ship has always to remain in safe water (see page 19)
and keep sufliciently lar off a danger to nininise the possibilih of
grounding ir1 the eveni ol a machnrery breakdor.n or navigational
Ilis not possible lo lay dorrn hald
Dxtance Off Danget
dista.nce
offa da.ngel that
a ship should
and fastrules regarding dre

maintain. It nlll depend on:
The draught ofthe shiP relative to L\e depth ott'ater'

The 1!eathel conditiors prevailingl a strong onshore rvind or
rhe likelv onset of fog or rajn till need an increase in distance
oft
3
The direction and rate ofthe tidal stream or
The volrme of iraffic.
cu
ent
of the survev from which the

The aee and reliabilitv
'.
.ror'
h: ' b""r dcr 'r ed
' "n " "1-n
' . -"",i"
The availabili!,v ol safe water
The follon'ing sxidelines rvillhelp in determining.just ho$'Iar

to pass off dangels
\\here the coasi is steep to and olfshore soundings increase
..ri.lt\ u cm ;'nu n pa. inrd'. ar', e.ho.Lld b' r z mrr'' \^ \' r"
,i.,-"
.ou roir5' '"' ea'";r adurllr. he tra' I

.fr"
-^, ensure' ^thar
"na "'t.hori under keel ciealances are maintairled
adequate
.
shoulil
As a guideliDei
\'essel's draught less than 3 meires
.
.
.
Vessel's dr-aught
3{l metres
Vessel's draught
10 metl es
pass outside 5 metre
pass ouiside 10 meire
20 metre
Pass outside
contou
contour'
\"$"r. " r-h a draug\t oi rro e l'a r 'U netlc' rrr 't er 'r'rp
is sutficient undcr keel cleaunce cr<ercising due
that there
caution rvithin the 200 metre line
l,,c'oe(ri\e o. rhe.rre r.ldFrk"Pl ,l.rrr.l'.. d'hiP Ir ''
.r-,,".'o. *i"r.6q 'n, F'r rr',\rgdriord d3'b'Ii'" 'r'rrbudrd'nu''

.llow sdficjent distance to allow an adequate alteration ofcourse lo
starboard for trallic avoidance
Regulations
Deniation
ftom Iiack
Orvners'. chalterels' and national Iegdaljons legarding

o,l,hor. d .rbn, ". rnu'r al'o he ob'e 'd'
! ne.h,psill loll"" rh'pl"nrcd -a'\bL undFrcarrJin

b r",'*an 'od"\iJrF fium'L"h a'l eg
rcur,Jdr,c. lr
lcleJ'
'nal
having to aller for anothel ship Even so, stcb deriation from track
shoul; be hrrited so that the ship does not enter areas where it may
be at sk or closel]' apProaching the margins of safetl
[Inilerkeel clearanu
a ship rna," be required io ravigate

in areas rl iih a redlrced under keel clearance (UKCI It is importani
ln
that the reduced UKC has beer, planned for and clearly shovn
or
cases where the UKC is less thin 100,{' of the deepest draughl
In cerlain circumstances
o ne.Surh oe,en rqad.s ' aqreed.r 'h"rpPr'r'dl 'ra3" rh'r i' is

e,,en.ral Lh,' rh. Ob\r i' "t'o e "l'r'h ledu 'd I KC Ho rl'"
to
neeals to be a\a are that speed ma) har'e to be reduced in order
BNDGE TEAN,I M,A.NAG EX'{ENT
21
</,,
I'r '
"-
t-
Figure
CHARTED TRACKS
C'arn carytisht. R.!tudued lianr A,Jnirul, (;hart J271t'ilh ttu pemision afth. HJbrgal)hd af th. Ndt)
22 THE NAUT]CAL INSTITUTE
reduce squal $ilh iis consequent reduction iD drarght. Such

inlormaiion nccds to be shor,n on the chari.
Tidal Winlou
Slrcam Allouanry
In tldal areas adequate UKC mav onlv be attainable during

the period that fie tide has achieved a given heiglrt. Ourslde rhat
peliod the area n]us! be considered no 8c). Such a safe period. called
ihe Tidal \\rindo$, nust be clearly shown so that the OO\V is in no
doubt as to rvheGcr .r- not it is safe for the ship to proceed.
In open
sea situations track
co
ection is often made after lhe
ship has been set off track bv the ddal stream and/ or curleni. Such
correction mav be adequate in oflshore sitLrations, \\herc t]rc ship is
not close to danger. but as lhe planned ilack approaches the coast it
is bettel to make tidal and cuncDt concctionpdor to its taking effect.
Cun-enrinformation. set alrdr.ale is olten available on L\e chart
fiough more delailed infolmation is given irl Oc.an Passages far the
lfor@ Roureing Charts and Pi]ol Books (see Appraisal sectiors 3,.f
& 5). Curents var') accolding to theh locatlon and the season and
mav be influenced b) changes iD lneieor.rloglcal conditions.
fid.rl rntorm" -on -' r\.ri,-b,e honl Lhr
l'. tio. Lblc, rnd
Tidal Atlases. further local informadon beiDg available in PilotBoohs

(see Appraisal seciions 5, 7 & 8.] Tidal slreams vart according lo
the lime oI high rvaler and the phasc ofthe moon (neaps and springs)
and can be inlluenced by local metcolological conditions.
\Vhen lhe aclual time ol tridsit ol a giveD arca is knon'n thc

Tidal Heights and Sfeams can bc calculatcd and due allowance
made IoI thesc sti.carns in order-to calculate the course to steer to
achie\.e a planncd tlack. As rvell as adjrxting fiese allowances, as
the ddal sircam vadcs accolding to locatiol ard tnne, the OO\f
must sti11 carcfull) m.Jnitor thc ship's position and adjust the course
steered to maintain the planred track.
Coutse
Alterations and
Whcel Oxer
In ihe open sea and offshor.e coasial waiels Nhen navigating

on small scale lalge area charls, course altelations }'ill usually
coincide $ith the planned tnck intersections. This will nol be the
case in confined waters when na\ igaling with largc scale charls arld
where the malgins olsalel) nla) be so close as to require the slip to
commcncc altcringcoulsc atthe wheel overposition, some distance
befolc thc track intcrscctior in order to achieve lhe new planned
ffach.
Lrsualll thc pilot using his jrdgemenl, based upon hls

erpcricncc, will detclninc such rvheel over Hol.ever ship's ofiicers,
not having such erperience shodd detern ne such t'heel over
positions from the ship's manoe lring .lata and rnark them on the
chart. Suitable visual and radar cues shodd then be chosen to
determine $hen the ship is atthe rrheel over position. The bestcues
Ior large alterarlons of course conslsl of Parallel Indexes or visual
bearings pamllel io the new track, rvhereas for srnall alterations a
near beam bearing is often bettel.
BzuDGE TEAI,{ MANAGE\IENT 23
Even nhen theprlothas the con the
heeLu\ er posjtior should
bc shoun on the (hari so rhxr rhe UO\V rrill be arare of i*

imminen.e and importance. Ir is also part ol the ship,s officers,
rnonitoring ol tle pilot.
Iig-ure ,t shor,r-s the rr.heel o\.r position using t$,o separate mefiods of moniroring. At the
course alteraiion from 032" to 012', the 1r.hee1 over position is achieved I,hen Thor.n Island is
ahead at 1.31 miles (kno$n as the dead rangeJ. At the course alteration lrom 012. to 000" the \\'heel
over posilion is achieved when the Southern Edge ofRat Island bears 096".
Parclkl Inde ng
Palaltel Indexing (PI] is a useful medrod of monito ng cr-oss

track tendencv in both poor and good visibilit\. It is good practice
to inconspicuoush rlalk the plaaned PI onthe chanat the planning
stage. Like anl radar rechnique, it is advisable b praciicc using PIs
extensivel)'in good visibility beforc placing total r.eiiance on them
w'hen thick n'eather makes \isual navigation nethods impossible.
This simple and effective mcrhod ofcontinuouslv nonitoring
"e.r.o.L,rodre..i.,d rredo r. b1 oo.enrr g n"m,rc'n"r o rh"
echo of a ladar conspicuous Davigation mark \a'ifi respect to track
lines previously prepared on a reflection plotter or by using ARPA
index 1ines. It is most effeclive when dre rada.r. is in $e,North up,
relaiive motion mode ship centred.
A flrcd radar target, such as a lighthouse or a hcadiand, r.il]

apparenth track past the owr ship, depicted as being at the centle
of lhe screer, on a llne palallel and opposire to the ship's ground
tr.ack. Anv cross lrack tendenc)., such as rrav be caused bv a tidal
slream, \!ill become appalcnl by the target movirg offthe parallel
1ine.
The parallel index 1nav also be used to monitor odler events,

d s case the langc and bearing of the
I d, r dr .lF \hFFl o\er poi.lr dno ine ne\ L.d, k i. .],ar(ed o. Lhe
PI. Tlis also allows for a distance countdoryn to be made and the
nell tlack can be subsequenlly nonitored
e.g. a r,-heel over position. In
ARPA Mappine
N,Ianv modern ARPAs have the facilitv io generate svnthetic

naps thal can be stored in a retrieval svstem. Ir some instances.
s ch maps maw be stabilised firorgh an electronic navigatioDal
syste , but srch facillties should be used in addition to and not to
lhe exclusion of other svstens.

Walpoints
,{ rravpoiDt is a posilion shown on lhe cha where a planned

change of status rd11 occur. Ii rd11 often be a change ol course but
may also be an evenl such as:
1
2
3
.l
2-I THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
End or beginning of sea passage.

Change of speed.
Pilol enbarkation point.

Anchor stations. etc.
Figure
COURSE ALIERATIONS AND WHEEL OVER POSITIONS
CnM tapltight. R.fnnu. tanAdnnab' Chu
3274 eith
the
f.nntr\i
!h.Il)dtogafu{
oJ
th. NtLt
BRIDGE TEAM NI,{NAGEN,fENT 25
t
I
I
I
NB Some Margins of Salety

om tted lor sake ol c arily
Figure
PARAI-LEL INDEXINC
Ordn dlltirhr. Rtft|dud.l lran AdnialL| Cha J271 lrith
26
THE NAIITICAI, TNSTITIJTIi
lht
!tni.$r,l
af tht
h.lrostapha
of the
Natl
\Vaypoints rnav also be used as rlseful reference points to
detelnire the ship's passage iime and $hether or not a schedule is

being maintained. Such infom:nion caDbe includedinthc notebook
rele\,.rnt to the plan or checked \a-hen it has been includcd in rhe
appropriate electronic navigalional sTsten. I{here an clectronic
nal aid lrhich stores r{.avpoini information is in use, care sho[ld be
tallen to ensur $at \{'alpoint dcsignators remain unilorn lhr.oughout
the plan.
Aborts and Contingencies
No natier how {.ell planned and conducted a passage may

nal corne r\e time when, due to a ch;urgc ill circunstances,
the planned passage l'ill have to be abandored.
bc, rhcrc
Aborts
\\'hen approacling constrajned \\'aters the ship maw come to

a posiiion bevond {hich it !!ill not be possible to do other than
proceed. Termcd the'pointofno retum', it$ill be iheposition where
fie ship erters !\'aier so nalrow that there is no room to tum or
r.her.e it is not possible to retrace the track duc to a falling tide and
insufficiert UKC.
\\lulever dre reason, theplannust k {e irto accountdle polni

of no return and the fact tha! ihereallel ihc ship is cornmitted. A
position nustbe drarvn on the chari showing fie last polnt at hjch
the passage can be aborted and fie ship rot be connnitted to entr.).
The position of fie abort poini will rarv lith the circurnstances
prevailing, e.g. water availabilitv. speed. turning circle, stiealn
direction eic. but i! mus! be clearlv shoun as must a subsequeDt
planned track to sale waler.
The reasons for not proceeding and dcciding to abort rd1]
varv according to the circumstances bul nlav inchde:
Contingencies
I
2
3
.l
.5
6
Deviation from approach line.
Any situation there it is deemed
N{achinerl failure or malfunctjon.

Instrunent faihre or malfunction.
Non alailabilii), .rl tugs or berfi.
Dangerous siiuations ashore or in dre harbour.
Sudden changes in \leather condirions such as orsct of poor
risibiliiy ol dangelous increase in $ind specd or direction.
uDsdJe to proceed.
Having passed the abort position and poini ol no rcturn the

bridge team still needs !o be a$.are thal events mav nor procecd as
planned and thal ihe ship na,v have to take emergeDcv acliorContiirgencv plans need to have been made at the planning slagc
and cleallv shown on lhe chart so fiat the OOW does not ha\ e i.r
spend tine looking for and planning safe actlon, bu! has insiand)'
available a.iion lo.(nre.t ilr. sihr!rion
BRIDGE TEAN'I }'IAN,.\GEN{EIiT 27
i
l.
Contingency plauntug rr.ill include:

1
Altemative routes.
Sa-le;u-rchorages.
lvaiting
Emergency berths.
a1eas.
It will be apprcciated that emergencl aclion may lake the

ship into areas w'hcre it is conshained by draught, in $.hich case
speed l,ill have to be reduced; ol tidally conshained areas which
can onl) be entered $.ithin the tidal rvindorv. Such constmints must
be clearlv shorvn.
Having drawn no go areas, the margins ofsafety and the track
to be follor.ed, the planning should norv be concentrated on ensudng
lhat the ship follorvs the planned track and that nothing cur ocrur
rvhich is unexpected or carnot be col.rected.
Figure 6 sholvs the abofi position for the ship as she approaches the channel between Rat
Buo,r' and East Chapel lJuov. The navigator may call out fie distancc to tlis position and the pilot
and masier detemine whether on not the ship is in all respects correcd) positioned io make the
turn and transii. Sho d this noi be the case then the ship must proceed direct to the Cbntingency
,A.nchorage shown and determine the situation.
Position Fi.rNing
A vadetv of position fixing me*1ods is now available but it

must not be assuned fiat am' one of these rnethods will suil all
Prtmary and Secondary
In order that the position fi:dng process is smooth, unevendul

and clearll understood by all concemed, the passage plan will include
Position
Fitihg
information as to 'hich fixing nethods are io be used: i.e. u'hich

one is to be consideredthe plimary method and rvhich one(s) are to
be used as backup or secondaq-.
Ior erample, rvhilst the ship is out olsight ofland it may well
be that the GPS is the primary slstern, r'ith Lomn C as the secondary
or backup system. As the ship approaches lhe coast, the GPS will
still be providingthe primarv fixing method, lhe Lomn C becoming
less impofiant and the radar fix confirming tle GPS frr.
Eventually the Loran C, although slill running, will become
redundant and more reliance placed on the radar frr, with the GPS
taking the secon darJ- role. In enclosedwaters the GPS posiiion ma,v
become inappropriate and position fixing depend upon radar and
visual methods.Ilis important to be flexible. Reactions will depend
upon the equipment available and the circumstances ofthe individral
case. All concemed mustbe aware that a svstem is in operation and
fiat it should be lollowed as far as is practicable.
Raddr Colt sqicuous O4j e cts

and Vxual Nal)aids
28
ln order to
reduce the workload while navigating in coastal
plimary
and secondary methods of flxing. To turther reduce the OOW\
workload the navigator rill have studied his chart at the planning
waters, the navigator will have determined and planned the
THF, NAl ]TICAI,INSTITUTE
Figure
ABORTS AND CONTINGENCIES
Cnun tofuright. R ttoduzd fan Adnialq Chart 3274 uiA nu f.mtsion
af tne
Hlbosafho
af the
Natl
BzuDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 29
stage and decided which ladar conspicuous marLs and visual aids
ale to be used ai each stage ofthe passage. Such rlniformiq will not
be confusing to the \latch lclief,

reason to come to the bridgc.
Landfall Lights
lor
to the master should he have
l\'.hen making a landfall i! should noi be Decessary'1bl the

OOW to have to mjnutely examine the chalt to lind *,hich lights
will be seen firsi. These u'ill have been clearly shown on the chart
\r,ith lheir maximum visibiliiy range so that the OOW can
concenhate on actually lookinglbr the light concemed, not looking
olr lhe char'l tlying to discover which lights should visible. Bv
dctclmining thc bearing and rdDgc of a "dipping light" lhe OO\[
car obtah an approximate position, olien lolg befole ladar can
have detected such light.
Thc sane applics rvhcn passhg along a coasdine or through

constrained $,atcrs. As lights shorm on a charl look similar the,w
need to be studied to detennine their individual significance. This
needs to be done at the planning stage, not fie operational stage
tfien the OO\V concerned mal be too brls,v to spend time behhd
the chart table. See section on range oflights belo\\'.
Radar Targets
Snrrilarly l'ith radar targets. A litile trme spenl atthe plan rg

will soon detelmine l.hich tdlgeh are to bc looked fol and
used; a steep to islcl is going to be morc r-cliab1e fian a rock arvash.
rh- . rr Ra, u ,. r rd ur-l-, , rrdar , or .pi,.ru r.
H';lrliEl-r
"r'
objects fiat rvill be uscd fol. position iixing. Highlight visual navaids
as appropiate, differentiating betr,r.een floating and fired navaids
and high ponered and lou por.r.ered lights, bearing in mind that. of
choice, floating navaids should not be used as they mav not be in
stagc
their charted position.
\\'hcncvcr buoys or othcr floating navmalks ar.e being used

position firhg aids thc o$.n position must bc filst checked and
confirmed that fiey ale as shown or ihc charl. Ir siluations whele
bro,v fixnrg is c lical, such positions carl bc prcdelcnnined at *1e
planning.' stage b,"'. noting their range and bealing fron a krotn
fired object or by confirmnrg from the local VTS that ali navigational
aids are as charted.
Buolage
as
Filr Frequenq
30 THE
Irrespective of the nethod of fb.ing to be used, it is necessary

to establish the required frequencv of the fixing. qrdte obviously,
this is goingto depend on the circumstances prevailing, a ship close
lo danger $'ill need to be fixed more frequendl ftan one in the
open sea. As a guideline, it is suggested that fixing should be al a
time period such lhat it is not possible for a ship to gel into danger
benreen fixes. Ifit is not possible to fix the position on dre char at
such frequenc,v (fixes at intervals of less than three minutes can be
vel} demanding) then alternative prnnarl navigation methods.
Parallel Indexlng, lor erample. should be considered.
N,A.UTICAL INSTITUTE
Fix Regularitl
Having establishcd the
fir fiequenc) it
is good practice to
ensure lhat fires are in fact lrrade al that frequenc)! nor as and \!hen
the OOW rhhks fit. The onl,v exception to rhis will be if the OOIV
has oiherpliorities !o cortend rvith, e.g. cour.se alrerations for rrallic
or approacling a cdtical rvheel over posiiion. In this latter case Gc

ship's position should be established immcdiateh before the rur.n
: rd th-r .g.'
po..iolF. .r, orrp F, or .
Additiona I Infotmation
Alihough not esscntial to ihe safery of fie ship, a 1or of

addjtional iDformation can be sh.r$.D on the plan lrhich, b\
renindtug fie OOl{ ol his obligations or reminding him !o make
celtain preparalions, lvill make thc erecution of the vovage simpler.
Such information rvill include thc items lisied belorri
Reporting Points
Reporting to the rclevaDt authoritv as and where requircd can

only makc dre vessel's routeing salcr and rnav also be compulsory
\\rhen inerperienced officer.s ar.e making such reports it is
,dvJrr.ts".,. to,.r:, dn' r,. o rL,ha,Ip In, rlr"
"porrrn5 p,rr, o
in a scparate book. the informarion the olficer $ill need. This mav
rn, lrdp ,p:oo upria.e \ Hf,l" r rel , nd l, \ o.,," F.l, ir, o ro op
transmitted.
Anchor Clcatance
Iositions n'hele anchors needto be cleared and anchorstations

called should be shorrn in order not to be oler.looked-
Pilot Boardifig Area
Tilnelw preparatiol ofthe pilotladder and },arning to involved

personnel to stand b) as required.
Tug Engagement
Ilalfic ANas
Remindcr to OOW to call the crerv necessarv !o secue tugs.

Areas where heaT traffic or w.here occasionallv heav1, irafTic,
c.g. ferries oI lishing boah mav be nlet.
Sale ravigallon of thc ship does not orll]' requlre fixing the posiiion Ofthe ship on the charl
at re8ular intervals. The OOW needs to bo constantl) updating himsclf regar.ding the position of
the ship relative to ihe req ired track anLl the tendeDcv to increase or decrease deviition liom
track. Although regr ar tudng rill give thisnfonrrroun there dre oihlr.less obr rous rr.avs ofobtaining
such information. olten requirlng liti1e hput other than jusr observing naturai featurts. Nlanr.oi
tle."."r o"pl"rnoo r'2o\:r.F.rorra k"oonr_l-,, :

Transih (Ranges)
r:
Transits, (knolt'n as Ranges in Americaj i.e_. the line orr the

chart upoD which an obsener '$'ould see t$ o identifiable objects in
line, can be used to give rhe OO\f a quick iDdication ofhis position.
Although itis onlw a single position line its ad|antage js ihat it requires
no use ofinslruments but cdrl be seen bv ewe. For exlrenc accuracv
the distance between the ,,bserver and'th! nearer object should be
ro r-orp \Jn rhrea ri n.. \c o .,: e b, rs"cr rl e obj;. .. uo.pn -d
though transits ofgreater than this disiance can be usedto advantage.
BzuDGE TEAN{ N4ANACEN4ENT :]]
tansits are sometimes printed on chafis of inshore waters

but good use can be made oI natural and clear\ identifiable transits
found at the planning stage and drawn on the chaxt.
tansits
can also be used as a cue for a pre arranged actioD to

be taken, e.g. wheel over, or as a reminder that an event is about to
Error
tinsits ma]' used to detemine gyro and magDetic compass

errors by comparing charted a1rd observed beadngs.
Leading Lines
Leadinglines are oflen shown on charts.Irthis case the hansit

printed on the chart is a track line to be followed to ensure that the
shlp passes clear of danger. Bv observing that the leads are in line
the OOW is assured that his ship is on the planned rrack.
ConPass
Ship left of Leads
Ship on Leads
Figure
32 THE
N,A.UTICAL INSTITUTE
7 LEADING LINES
Ship righi oi Leads
Clearing
Ma $
_ Clearingmarks can be used to ensure that a ship is r.emaining

b.ilhin a.safe arca a is not .rppnachh1 dange,r /ri frgurc ,9 rh:
" the l,\resren
clearing bearing is shol.n so rhat as long as
ind ofRai
-p"n
l"rand
. ir,.
rrd
h1,
r.
ot)h"ep
,h"n
'o
B..ror
.\e shin 'er
"' srrn
n:(ir g a ..rr, app.o.r.rr
r"t-r, , c" r" rnar . .e ot he ch.rnn'el.
Mark
Olten a ship is required to follorv a track in narro\{, !\-arers

lr'ithout the benefit ol a leadir8 line. In this case a suitable head
mark should be selected. This should be a readilr idenrifiable
, or .pl, uo.r. obi-.. .no-n n r Lh,, l.:,r. * h,.h Ji, . o, rhF proJe.,iun
of the required track at thai part of the passage. As Jong-as the
,ono:'. bcr.ng ot he hepd ndrkFr!,u-ecr-o or
"rr"r,.,na
prefelabll taken !\,ith a ccntre line repeater, remains constant,
(i.e.
,1" .-.'". .. l-^
,r,r.
rtF
rh
t
o
i,
rpnrdinin,
rrrck
on
tr
"quirFd
.lo rl. oe roredrLa
.h, .nip r eed r o, n,., r.,, , bF hc:dirgd.rF.,h
"
atthe obje!t, onlvthatitis on the line ofthe required tr.ack.in man!
cases the ship's head $ili need to be oflset to allon,for tide orleeu,ai.'
\u.f l-dd mdr" , a I orlr ne -n ,,rn -.t o\ a , u.r p!.. oFarrn6: d
rpl<fli\ebpdrirB.arb",orp,orrplerplr n . ero rg:. a r e..el crr
d. Lr.,ll. .rr,lF. d qer on . rp.Jrne -eldri\. Ledfirb
Cleartng Beaifigs
Tn rlrpF\Fn. r-l-a no,t"alnS n.r,. ar- a,:ilrbln a .,ng,

idpnr'l:bl, , | ?r'pd ubtF.r nd\ bF riFl rar \ r..d. In ligr ,,-,.
"
l"l8:.'h- bearng "' rhe 'lldr . rem.,in. r'irlir rhe rrnb" nuo.,l
042"T then the ship lvill be in safe rvater. Thcse clear.ing bearings
should be shol,n on the char.t and ma1 be sho$.n as NLT 028Tan'd
N\,IT 012"T (not less than/not more thanl.
Head
Obserr'lng clearing bearings and clear.ing marks cannot be

considered to be "1ixing" the ship but can assist the OO!\rto ensure
that his ship is not standing into danger. Similarlv using dipping
dlstances, $'hilst not being considered to be an accurate fii.-cai
make the OO\f arvare that he is approaching danger.
Range of Lights
Thc m rimumrange at w.hich
na\-igational light can be seen
depends upon three separate facton:
Geogaphical Range
The combined heiS-ht oIe)e ofthe observer andthe elevation

of the light.
2
3
The intcnsity of the light.

The clarib of the atmosphere.
The greater tle height of the light the greater the distance ar
rvhich it will be visible: equa1l) the grcater the heig.ht of eve ofthe
ob.F .".,hFru.hp he*.11.e". r"li;h thF.er\u ,co..,un binpd
will give a m.rrimtm lange of visibilitv called the Geographical

Rarge and may be obtained from tables in the List of iights. In
plactice, this lange will be severely reduced ilthe light observed is
only lorv porvered and therefore not capable of being seen at its
Geographical Range.
BRIDGE TEAN{ MANAGEMENT 33
Figure
CrodrL
8 NATURAI TRANSIT, CLEARING MARKS AND HEAD MARKS
.ol)rtiglt. tul)to.ludd l|am AdnirdLt Chdtt 3274 @ith tle
THE NAUTICAL INSTITI ITE
fonrlion
af thN
Htdraqathet
of th.
^"a
Clearing Bearifgs on
032 track !s ng
Thorn lsland as Headrnark
Figure
Oo@n
t-i
:1, , t-.
CLEARING BEARINGS
tulrtirhL Rlndued lia,t ,4dnnaltJ Cl'ei 3271 tith ttu Ptni$io
af !h,
]ttdto!tu?tu
af the
Nat\
BzuDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 35
Luminous Range
Tlis
is the ma,ximum distarce at whidr ihe light can be seen

andis dependenlupon fie intensity oI thc light and the armospheric
visibility prevailing. It takes no account of the height oI the ii3.ht
nor-that of the observels et-e. Obviously, fie more intense ihc lig-hi,
the further it will be secr, whatever the state of the ahosphere, and
the appropriate lable $'i1l give

can be expected to be seen.
good indication ofhow lar.the light
Nominal Range
The range shown on ihe chart, beside the light star', is $uallv
the Norninal Range, i.e. the luminous range rvhen meteorological
visibilitf is 10 miles. This is not irlvariable though. ScJme countries,
such asJapan, chart the Geographical Range: somc such as Brazil, the
Geographical or Non'inal according to whichever is fie greater. It is
the naYigatol s responsibilitv to make himself a}' ar.c ofwhich range is
shorvn and io ensure lhat the OOWs are also aware ofthis fact.
Landfall Lights
At the plarning stage of the voyage, the ravigato will have

the oppofiuniry b detennine the ma-ximum distance at which a
landfall light should become visible. A comparison of the nominal
and geographic ranges can be made and the lesser of the t$'qselected
as being the nnge at which the light should be seen, assuming
meteorological visibility of at least 10 miles. It should be noted that
only lights rvhose luDrirous range exceeds their geographical rarge
could be consideled as giving an approximate fix. In any case *re
ar cs of ma-ximum visibilit)' should be dra$,n on the landfall charl so
that the OOIV is ar.are ofthe likelihood of seeing lights and;hich
ones he should see fir.st.
Ertreme Range
When approaching the coast lights rvili come into viev

accolding to their height, fieil intensit\ and the anbient visibiliqr
Sometimes the first indicalioN of the proximity of the coast r.ill be
porverful navlgalion lights that mal be seen before thc radar can detect
lhem as largets. Whilsi not prerending that sighiing fie lights can be
an accurate fix! an obseNation ofthe compass bealing at the time of
sighting and plortiDg this n'idr the extreme range of the light at this
lirne will give the OOW an awareness ofthe proximity of danger.
In l}re event drat a light is not sighted

OOW wi11be alr'are ihat the ship is:
I
2
ll
as expected then the
Noi *,her.e he anticipated ii io be.

The light is unlit or obsculed in cloud.
There is poor visibilih behveei Ge ship and the light.
The aclual cause nust be determined by his o$.njudgemeni.

1s that lhere is somefiing $.hich is not quite as it should be.
The fact
Erho Sounder
Some shipsieave an echo sounder mnningat all times. Onships

notthe case, ii is good practice to s$itch ihe echo sornder
'$.here thls is
on prior to alandfall beingmade.
Asinthecaseof
lighl at nlrrimum
rarge, whllst not ploviding a Iir, the acflral decrease in soundings Uill
make the OOW more aware that he is approaching danger.
36 THE NAUTICAL INSTITI]TE
Chart OLrerctou)ding
The information required to monitor.the passage.$,i11, in manv
r,,.. b"'hor^r
u r,np \urking cl-rd.. ln.orr, ,i..La,orr,rl,.

may not be possible; lhere mav be too nuch infor.mation needing
to be sho$n, thus overcro$,ding the rrorLnrg area, rJr. even blottine
our cerLn F (hol d rails. In.r.rrec4\F. I r'. o\er, ri
"d ,S, -r b;
reduced by rvriitug dre required informarion rvell clear of the Lrach,
e.g. or the land, aud draning attention to it bl ejther a connecting
line or a relerence leiter
irrs,.r
Planning Book
In anw case, ce airl information may be bctteNritten in a

planning book, e.g. times of high and low water, times of sunr-ise
ard sunsef, VHF rvorking fiequencies, etc. \\.Lrere a ship uses a
port reg1llarlv the nar,igator may prefer to put the fiole ol his plan
in.o a plar ring boo\ ir ?odiLor rL I r" chr , .o rhe, r . an be clpr-ed
lo at a later date. He may choose to hold such infonnation on a
computer, where it can be accessed and modified $hen making a
reiun visit.
Conning Notebook
Dcpendingupon the lengih and complexitv ofthe passage, or

certaii parts of it, it is good practice for an abbreviated edition of
the plan to be made into a notebook. The pe$on having the con
,Jn rlrFr upddtp h n.Flt a. rnd $hFr r"qri .d * ,hour i..,r q ro
lcrr, l-e Lo r rilg fu\i. on ro ou, dr rhF,lcrr.
Master's Approoal
,.rro edon
p ?r m, .r b".ubrri(Led ro,he n,Fter tor

Opportu tl must also be iaken to make all members
ofihe bridge tean aware thal the vovage/passage plan is complete
ard to invite them lo both examine it and makc such comm."i"* ;*
Or'
re
his approval.
Plan Changes
All members of l-hc bridge tea[r will be arvare that even the
mos! thorou8h plan may be subject io change dur.ing the passage. It
is lhe responsibiliqr of fie person making such changes to elsure
that such changes a.r'e made $,ith thc agreement of dre master and
lhai all other members ofthe team are so advised.
Aut o m atic I d entift catio n

Slstem (AIS)
The requilemeDt to carrl AIS means that addiiional

infonnalion ma) be available rvhich ofierwise couldnotbe obtained.
Ofparticular value is the identification ofships hidden b,v land or in
e n.Al.o.earr dFF,rionn ra.ge head rgchange...rnbcub.en"d
Because ofmanual inputs into ihc svstem, car.c mustbe takcn fien
using the informaiion for decisions.
BzuDGE TEA]\I MANAGEM-ENT 37

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THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT

passing through Silgapore Strait eastbornd

The practice uf na\igaiing safe\ in coastal lvaters and

approaches has a number of

piio r."., har5" rhe* r"o

this age-old problem.

Bidp. lpdn Manae, ?n/p-o\ de.rha,e\rrprolF..ionJlorner'ior\'!'.hpL..rhegriden.e

I he.c m.rnagem"n prir.ipl".rcedrooFdppl:cd-qu.,ll\'onodenreJr"lugr'Thenet

Training and Coaching I\-ell

Indicatlons of Error Chain Development

Manning the \\heel

Groundings and fieir

\\ratches Insufficient Pe6onne] - Calling

Non Compliance with Passage

Casualties and their Causesr

Inadequacy and CorfusioD

Autopilot Changeover Reducing Speed

Nlargins ol Sa"lety - Safe \\rater.

Under keel Clearance

Points Anchol Clearance Pilot Boardirg

Tiaining and Coachirg

Navigating with a pilot on

integaated bddge and electronic chart systems................................. 57

(by Captain T.J. Bailev FNI)

Tiaining requirements and recommendations The ISM Code and training

qpe speciflc iraining Requirements ofElectronic

Chart Displal and Infomlation Systems Precautions for IBS operators

IBS configurations with

ECDIS accuracy Passage

Guidance on keeping a navigational watch with reference

to STCWg5 Code Part B Chapter

Paxt 3-1 with commentary .............................79

Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed

in STCW'95 Code Section A-VIII/2

Upkeep ofthe cha.d

CouNe Alierations and Wheel

Natural Transit Clearing l{arks and Head NIaIks .............................................................................

............................. .......... ... 35

fron Adnrnalty Cha.i

8 lo 0 arc Crow! .op)rjght.

Information floir betwen the Conning Officer, OOW, Additjonal OfficeL,

A q'pical integated bridgc systern

Extracrfiom BA2015 in RCDS fomrai shoi{'ing an extract from

1r,U, a.L[ lL' io

rolage p}an ... .... ...

.. .. ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 73

e Fpfudecd $,ifi dre pemjssioD

Nortlrcp (;rtrmann Spery Mdnrc

BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT

olthe navigational watch should at all times be prepared to respond efficiendy

and effectively to charges in circumstances.

3.1 concludes wiih the above statement, rnahing it q te clear

BRIDGE TEAM AtrA.NAGEMENT

for and conduciing the proposed voyage (passage plalntug).

THE NAIITICAI, INSTITI,]TE

unprepared for the task, the effecis can be devastating. Theycanbecome

fou'd |""nJ""." .ri,.

e,I rne pJ$a6e ot rhe.r,ip

The cfficient team mernber will bo,both mentalll and

seen as being a passive role and in certain

ph,r srcaltr fit. l\;tlhkeepiDg js often

can then be considered io bc in a situation requiring