1.

Articulation Basis of English

The summary of all main principles of articulation of a certain language is called the
articulation basis. The main points of difference between the articulation basis of English
and Russian are as follows:
1. The tongue is tenser and bulkier in English and has a retracted position for most of the
phonemes. 2. The lips are also tenser and less movable than in Russian. They are mostly
spread (with the lower teeth revealed) or neutral (flat articulation). 3. Forelingual English
consonants (they are 12) have an apical articulation: they are articulated with the tonguetip against the alveoli /t, d; s, z; , ; , ;, l/ or against the teeth /; /. 4. All
English consonants are hard (except for /, / and have no palatalized oppositions while
the Russian ones have ( ; ). Palatalization in English is a phonetic
mistake. 5. The English word-final voiced consonants must not be devocalized (which is a
norm for Russian language), yet they are weak (bag, sad). The English word- final voiceless
consonants are strong (night, weak, tape). 6. The English plosive voiceless /p, t, k/ are
pronounced with aspiration which is foreign to Russian. 7. The English sonorants /m, n, l/
are tenser and longer than the corresponding
Russian ones and they are syllabic when post-tonic and preceded by a consonant

2. The English vowel system

The vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of the
lungs meets no obstruction on its way. The English vowel system consists of 20 vowel
phonemes, which can be classifies according to the following principles:
1.According to the stability of articulation we distinguish 12 monophthongs and 8
diphthongs.
2.According to the position of the bulk of the tongue we distinguish:
-

Front vowels with: the fully front /i:, e, / and the front-retracted /i/
Central vowels /, :, /
Back vowels with: the back advanced / u, a:/ and the fully back / :, u, u:/.

3. According to the tongue height we distinguish:

-high: narrow /i:, u:/ and broad /I, u/
-mid: narrow /e, :/ and broad / , :,
-low: narrow // and broad /, a:, u/
4. According to the duration(length) we distinguish long and short vowel phonemes.
5. According to the degree of muscular tension we classify them into tense(all long vowels)
and lax (all short vowels).
6. According to the lip position they are distinguished as labialized (rounded) and nonlabialised (unrounded).

The monophthong is a vowel in the production of which the organs of speech do not
change their position throughout the whole duration of a vowel.
The diphthong is a monophonemic combination of two vowel elements with gliding
articulation.
[ei]
[]
[]
[au]
[u]
[e]
[i]
[ai]

3. The English consonant system

The consonant is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of
the lungs has to overcome a certain obstruction on its way.
The English consonant system consists of 24 consonant phonemes which can be classified
as follows:
1. According to the type of obstruction (occlusive, constrictives, occlusive constrictives, or
affricates).
2. According to the articulatory organ (labial, lingual, pharyngal).
3. According to the prevalence of noise over the musical tone (noise consonants and
sonorants).
4. According to the work of the vocal cords (voiced and voiceless)
5. According to the position of the soft palate (oral and nasal).

4. The syllable formation and division

Speech sounds are integral constituent parts of a larger and higher phonetic unit known as
the syllable. It is the shortest articulatory unit consisting of 1 or more phonemes unified
by a tonal element and capable of bearing tone and stress. The tonal element is the syllabic
impulse produced by a vowel or by a sonorous consonant: [m, n, l, r, ].
Syllables may consist of a single vowel sound I [ai], are [a:]. Syllables consisting of 2 or
more speech sounds are usually formed by vowels, as in all [:l] sea [si:] or by sonorous
continuants, as in rhythm [ri m], title [taitl].
From the point of view of syllable division syllables are classified as open, closed, covered
and uncovered. The simples type of a syllable is uncovered and open [e] air. Syllables
which end in a consonant are uncovered and closed [aut] out, [in]. Syllables which begin
and end in a consonant are covered and open [nau] now, [ti:] tea. Syllables which begin
and end in a consonant are covered and closed [mn] man, [ip] ship.
Structurally syllables in English may be of the following types:
CV (consonant vowel) [fa:] CCV [plei] CCCV [skri:m] VC [:l] (r, h, j, w do not occur
finally) VCC [dount] VCCC [wulvz] VCCCC [twelfs]
One must not confuse phonetic syllables with orthographic syllables. Syllables of one type
may not coincide with those of the other. For instance, the word maker consists of 2
syllables both phonetic and orthographic, but orthographically the word is divided in the
following way: maker, which phonetically the 1 st syllable ends in the diphthong [ei] [meuk]. The word name consists of 2 open syllables from the viewpoint of spelling and
orthography, but it contains only one closed syllable [neim] from the phonetic point of view.
From the point of view of this duration may be short and long. The linguistic unit of
syllable length is the mora, which is equal to the duration of a short vowel sound or a
syllable.
From the viewpoint of their accentual weight syllable may be classified as stressed and
unstressed.

5.Word stress.

6. Vowel reduction

7. Assimilation

8.Intonation and its function.

The information, which is conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by words and
grammar structures, but also by intonation. Intonation is a complex unity of variations in
pitch ( ) (speech melody), sentence stress, tempo (speed) and
timbre (a special coloring of voice). Intonation serves to form sentences and intonation
groups, to define their communicative type, to express the speaker's thoughts, to convey
the attitudinal () meaning.
Intonation has two functions: constitutive () and distinctive
().
Constitutive function. Long sentences are subdivided into intonation-groups .An
intonation-group is a word or a group of words characterized by a certain intonation pattern
() and is generally complete from the point of view of meaning. (Can you give me a pen
or a pencil?) The number of intonation groups in the same sentence may be different.
Intonation patterns, containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts: the
pre-head, the head, the nucleus and the tail. The pre-head includes unstressed and halfstressed syllables preceding the head. The head includes the stressed and unstressed
syllables beginning with stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable. Last stressed
syllable is called the nucleus. The unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the
nucleus are called the tail.
Nuclear tones are rises and falls that take place in the nucleus or start with it.
The nucleus is the most important part of the intonation pattern as it defines the
communicative type of the sentence, determines the semantic value of the intonation
group, indicates the communicative center of the intonation group or of the whole
sentence.
Distinctive function. Intonation serves to distinguish communicative types of sentences.
Different types explain aims of the utterance from the point of view.
There are four communicative types of sentences:
1. Statements. I like music.
2. Questions. Can you prove it?
3. Imperatives or commands. Try it again.
4. Exclamations. Right you are!

9. Intonation and its function.

The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by prober words and
grammar structures, but also by intonation. The term intonation implies variations of
pitch, force of utterance and tempo. Variations of pitch are produced by significant
moves of the voice up and down. The force is measured by the degree of loudness of
syllables that determines the prominence of words. The tempo is determined by the rate of
speech and the length of pauses.
Our approach to the study of intonation is based on its two functions:
I. The constitutive function
II. The distinctive function
I. The constitutive function. Intonation forms sentences. Each sentence consists of one or
more intonation groups. An intonation group is a word or a group of words characterized by
a certain intonation pattern and is generally complete from the point of view of meaning.
II. The distinctive function. Intonation also serves to distinguish communicative types of
sentences, the actual meaning of a sentence, the speakers emotions or attitudes to the
contents of the sentence, to the listener or to the topic of conversation. One and the same
word sequence may express different meaning when pronounced with a different intonation
pattern.
Intonation is also a powerful means of differentiating functional styles.

10. The structure of intonation groups. Types of pre-heads and their

communicative meanings.
Structure:

pre-head unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the head

head consists of the syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable up to the
last stressed syllable

nucleus the last stressed syllable

tail the unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus

Low pre-head
-

unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced lower than the first stressed
syllable of the head. It may occur before any head.

High pre-head
-

if unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced higher or on the same

level as the first stressed syllable of the head. It usually occurs before descending
and high or medium level heads. A high pre-head gives to the utterance an extremely
emotional character and may be regarded as a feature of emphatic speech.

11. Sentence stress and its peculiarities.

Sentence stress is greater prominence given to one or more words in a sentence. In
emotionally neutral speech sentence stress is more or less equally distributed among all
the notional words of the sentences. The normally accented words are:
1. Nouns
2. Pronouns (demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, emphatic, absolute)
3. Notional verbs.
4. Adjectives.
5. Numerals.
6. Interjections.
The unstressed elements as a rule are:
1. Pronouns: personal, possessive, reflexive, relative
2) Auxiliary verbs
3) Prepositions
4) Conjucntions
5) Articles
6) Participles
Sentence stress to a greater degree is determined by three factors:
1. By the relative semantic importance of words in the sentence which results in logical
stress.
2) by the rhythmical structure of the sentence
3) by the style of speech

12. Logical stress

It serves to mark the semantic center of the utterance (a word or a word-group that
carries new information important for the speaker).
Logical stress is observed when the syntagmatic stress is shifted from its normal place
(the last notional word of the intonation-group) to any of the preceding words thus
creating a new semantic center. Logical Stress is always combined with one of the
moving tones.
Stress on words that follow logical stress either disappear (rapid colloquial) or becomes
partial (slow colloquial).

13. Rules of Syntagmatic Division

When we speak we make pauses necessary for understanding. They divide the speech-flow into syntagms. The
syntagmatic division depends on the tempo and style of speech. The slow colloquial style is characterised by a
greater number of intonation groups, than the rapid colloqual.
Simple extended sentence
1. The subject group and the predicate group consisting of more than one word form separate syntagms
(extended subject group).
Johns sisterentered the room.
Note. One-word subject can form a separate syntagm if it is emphasised (one of the complex tones must be
used on it).
Maryis Johns sister.
2. Homogeneous predicates or other members of the sentence:
John came but didnt stay long.
3. An adverbial or parenthetical phrase at the beginning of the sentence.
A few minutes later we heard a ring at the door.
To tell the truth, hes never late.
4. An apposition makes up a separate syntagm.
Betty Smith, my wifes niece, lives with us.
5. Alternative and disjunctive questions
Do you live hereor out of town?
You live here, dont you?
Note. In slow colloquial style participial, gerundial, infinitive, prepositional phrases can form syntagms.

14. Characteristic features of English rhythm.

Rhythm is generally measured in regular flow of speech in which stressed and unstressed
syllables occur at definite intervals.
There are two kind of speech rhythm: syllable-timed rhythm and stress-timed rhythm.
Rhythm in English and some other stress-timed languages is based primarily on the
alteration of strongly and weakly stressed syllables. Within each intonation group the
stressed syllables occur at fairly equal intervals of time.
This means that if there are any unstressed syllables between stressed ones, they have to
be fitted in without delaying the regular bit.
In English the rhythmic structure is different all the notional words are stressed, the formwords are fitted in between the stressed ones.
The pronunciation of intonation groups is based upon rhythmic groups which are formed by
one or more words closely connected by sense and grammar, bur containing only one
strongly stressed syllable. The unstressed syllables are attached either to the preceding or
to the following stressed one depending on their semantic or grammatical relationship.
Some words in unstressed positions are reduced to their weak forms of pronunciation.

15. Speech tempo and its functions

Tempo is the relative speed with which sentences and sense groups are pronounced in
connected speech.
Every speaker has a norm which characterizes his usual individual style of atterance. Some
people speak more quickly, some more slowly; some people use more variations of tempo
than others. Tempo is a feature, which like loudness can be varied from time to time by the
individual speaker.
The rate of speaking varies constantly. When two strongly stressed syllables occur close
together, it is slower; when they are separated by unstressed syllables the speed is faster.
The speed of utterance becomes slower or faster according to the number of unstressed
syllables between the stressed ones.
Variations of rate of speech and pausation are closely connected with different phonetic
styles, shades of meaning and the structure of the intonation group.

16. Types of melodic scales and their classification in English

The System of Scales
The Scale is a phonetic unit that begins with the head group and extends to the terminal tone.
Scales can be classified as follows:
1) According to the arrangement of unstressed syllables within stress-tone groups can be:
Stepping
Sliding
Scandent
2) According to the direction of the pitch movement the scales can be classified as:
The Descending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent)
The Ascending Scale (Stepping, Sliding, Scandent)
The Level Scale (Low, Mid, High)
3) According to the regularity of their pitch movements scales can be:
Regular
Broken
The function of the scale lies in the fact that it helps to convey different emotions. We can call this function
attitudinal.

17-20
Name of a Scale

Brief

Functions and
Meanings

Examples

Characteristic
Scales
The Gradually
Descending
Stepping Scale

The Up-broken
Descending
Scale

3.The
Down-broken
Descending
Scale

The Descending
Stepping Scale is
formed by series of
stressed and
unstressed
syllables which
descend in steps.
All the unstressed
syllables are
pronounced on the
same pitch level as
the preceding
stressed ones.

The Descending
Stepping Scale is used
with all English tones,
its a basic scale.
In combination with
the Low Rise and the
Low Fall tone it may
sound serious,
reserved, strict and
official.
In combination with
the High or Mid Fall
tone this scale usually
sounds amiable,
likeable, vivid and
polite.
The Up-broken
This scale is used in
Descending Scale
emotional speech to
is formed by
avoid the monotony of
pronouncing one of the Descending
the stressed
Stepping Scale.
syllables on a
Its used to express
higher pitch than
admiration, wonder,
the preceding one, surprise, friendliness,
after that the
sometimes some
down-stepping
unpleasant emotions
pitch movement is such as irritation,
resumed. This pitch anger.
rise within the
scale is called a
Special Rise
The Down-broken
This scale is used
Descending Scale
seldom in English
is formed by
speech.
pronouncing one of It indicates a number
the stressed
of attitudes ranging
syllables on a
from friendly to cool
lower pitch than
and hostile manners.
the preceding one.
It is the so-called
Drop that is
pitches very low.
After the Drop the
pitch rises up to
the beginning of

Is 'that the 'man

who 'sent you
the ,tickets? (=
serious, strict and
official)
What a
re'markably 'pretty
little `house!
(= amiable,
polite, vivid

'Judy 'Brown is a
very 'nice `girl!
(= admiration,
friendliness)
I 'want to 'read
another book!
(= irritation,
anger)

He may 'certainly
get the hell `out
of here! (= anger,
hostility, detached
attitude)

(: ,
,


!)

The Descending
Sliding Scale

5.The
Descending
Scandent Scale

the High Fall.

The Descending
Sliding Scale is
formed by
descending series
of stressed
syllables
pronounced with
downward slides,
so that the
beginning of each
slide is a little
higher than the
end of the
preceding one.

The Descending
Scandent Scale is
formed by
descending series
of stressed
syllables
pronounced with
pitch rises, while
each unstressed
syllable is
pronounced a little
higher than the
preceding one.

It gives the additional

prominence to all the
stressed words in the
utterance. It helps to
set up tension: with
each slide tension
grows and the word
with terminal tone
becomes the most
prominent in the
sentence.
Its used to sound
polite, friendly,
enthusiastic,
apologetically,
hesitating, as well as
reproachful, hurt and
careless.
This scale is used for
emphasis.
Its often used to
show liveliness,
surprise, cheerfulness,
encouragement, joy,
admiration, as well as
impatience, irritation,
mockery.
It may also sound
quizzical, teasing,
coquettish and
patronizing.

You dont seem

to realize what
has `happened. (=
polite and at the
same time
reproachful)

What fine
`weather we are
having today!
(= eagerness,
friendliness,
happiness)
She will have to
manage by
her self.
(= indifference,
hostility and
irritation)

21. The Ascending Scale, its functions.

The Gradually Ascending Stepping Scale is formed by series of stressed and unstressed
syllables where each stressed syllable is pitched a little higher than the preceding one.
In this scale the last stressed word (with terminal tone) is especially prominent in the
sentence.
This scale is used to express surprise, interest, protest, impatience, irritation.
Its usually pronounced with the High Fall or the High Narrow Rise.
I cant find it `anywhere. (= impatience)
How long have you been here? (= surprise, interest)
2). Ascending Stepping Scale
Ascending head is opposite of descending ones: the first stressed syllable is low in pitch,
each following stressed syllable being higher than the preceding one; thus, stressed
syllables form an ascending sequence. If the voice moves up by steps and the unstressed
syllables continue the rise the head is called rising. It is used in emotionally coloured
speech to convey personal concern or involvement, disgruntled protest, unpleasant
surprise, impatience.
e.g. What in the world makes you think so?
Stressed and unstressed syllables are situated in the ascending sequence, each of the
stressed syllables at the higher level than the preceding one, while the unstressed syllables
occupy the position of the preceding stressed syllable. This type of scale conveys an
astonishment, interest, protest.
e.g. I could hardly believe my eyes.
I only know I loved you once.

22. The Level Scale and its communicative meaning.

The The Level Scale according to its pitch can be of three types
The Low Level
The High Level
The Mid Level
According to the arrangement of unstressed unit the Level Scale syllables within every
stress-tone unit the Low level scale can also be Sliding and Scandent. The unstressed
syllables take the same pitch. The Low Level Scale can be combined with any simple
terminal tone, but preference is given to the low fall, the Low Rise or the Low Level Tone. It
can be used in any communicative type of utterance. This Scale is characteristic of
colloquial speech.
The Low Level Scale combined with the Low Fall sounds uninterested, phlegmatic or
sometimes cool, reserved (supported by the intensified stress and slowed tempo)
e g. He promised to come in time.ll (phlegmatic)
Did he promise to come in time? reserve
Did he promise to come? (cool)
The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Rise sounds disapproving, skeptical and
sometimes perfunctory
e.g. I can't ve permission for ,that. Il (disapproving)
Can you igive permission for that?ll (perfunctory)
who can give permission for that? (disapproving)
Very nice per,mission (skeptical)
The Low Level Scale followed by the Low Level tone sounds pathetic (when it is supported
by the increase in stress and a slow tempo). It is used in recitation.

23. Basic nuclear tones in English

The Rising Tone
The Rising type of pitch change in English has two structural varieties:
1) the rise of the voice takes place on the stressed syllable;
2) the rise is carried by the unstressed syllables following the stressed one while the latter
is pronounced on a steady pitch. The first variant occurs when the nuclear syllable is the
last syllable of an intonation group, i.e. when there is no tail; the second is found in
intonation groups having a tail, e.g.: Yes ____ I know it. ___________ Beautiful. __________
____ ___________ __________
For practical purposes four relevant variants of a nuclear rise should be distinguished in
English.
Forms of the Rising Tone:
1 The Mid Wide Rise ( m). The voice rises from a mid to a high pitch
level, e.g.
Is it o k? __________
__________
Did you take my papers, Wendy? _________________________
_________________________
2 The High Narrow Rise ( m). The voice rises from a mid high to the
top of the voice range, for example: Jack? __________
__________
Pardon? _____________
_____________
3 The Low Wide Rise ( m). The voice rises from a low to a mid high pitch level, for
example: ,June,| Ju ly, | ,August... .
___________________
___________________
4 The Low Narrow Rise ( m). The voice rises from the bottom and ends in the mid low zone,
as in (preceded by low head)
I dont ,mind. ___________
___________
Nobodys ,happy. _____________

_____________
Functions of the Rising tone:
1 The Mid Wide Rise (MWR) is typically used in genuine Yes/No questions where the speaker
does not know the answer; in alternative (the 1st intonation group) and tag questions (the
2nd intonation group with the condition that the speaker is uncertain).
Examples: Isnt he nice? Do you take cream in your coffee? Was that in April or `May? They
wont `come, will they?
2 The High Narrow Rise (HNR) is used when the speaker is asking for repetition or
clarification, or indicating disbelief.
For example: 1) A: Im taking up Taxidermy this autumn. - B: Taking up what? (clarification).
2) A: She passed her driving test. B: She passed?
3 The Low Wide Rise (LWR) is
- commonly pronounced in unfinished parts of utterances indicating that a continuation is
going to follow (for example, in adverbial or subordinate clause followed by a main clause).
E.g.: When I passed my last e,xam | I was very `happy. If you
,see him, | give my `message. He joined the army | and spent all his
time in `Aldershot;
- can be used in independent utterances with an effect of the speakers interest in the
situation and in the listeners response:
e.g.: Ill be back by ,lunch-time; Where did you ,put it?
- used in enumerations (lists), showing incompleteness. If the list is closed, the falling tone
is used on the final item.
For example: I got calls from ,Jason, ,Mary, ,Neil, and Joe. 29
4 The Low Narrow Rise (LNR) is associated with non-assertiveness and lack of interest. It is
used in various remarks, afterthoughts, etc.
E.g.: Of ,course. Ill `do it | if you dont ,mind.

24. Intonation patterns with Low fall and their attitudinal meaning.
Lowering the pitch into the lower part of the normal speaking range and using the low fall
as the final tone in the sentence may indicate, depending on the situation, such feelings as
disappointment, sadness, hopelessness, sympathy, sincerity, responsibility, fear, threat.
When strong emotions are expressed, the low fall may be emphatic.
The low fall begins much lower than the falling tone, and the speaker usually pronounces
the words less loudly, in a soft voice, and sometimes even close to whisper.
The unemphatic low fall may be used at the end of the sentence in a group of words added
as an afterthought after the final fall, or in the author's words at the end of the sentence (if
they are important). For example: I think I saw your cell phone in the \kitchen, on the
\windowsill. "\Stop it!" a woman's voice behind them said \angrily.
If the speaker wants to mark the end of his whole utterance (after he has been speaking for
some time), the whole final sentence may be pronounced on a lower level with low-falling
intonation and with the low fall at the end.

25. Intonation patterns with High Fall and their attitudinal meaning.
The high falling is used to show interest, it gives our speech an emotional coloring,
which is determined by the situation and the context. All the communicative types of
sentences, pronounced with high fall sound final, categoric, airy and brisk ( ,
). They convey personal concern or involvement. In special questions they sometimes
sound very insistent and business-like.
1) Statement. I can`t afford it.
2) Imperative. Stop making stupid mistakes!
3) Exclamation. Nice to see you!
4) General question. Haven`t you got a book?
5) Special question. Why do you think so?
26. Intonation patterns with Fall-Rise and their attitudinal meaning.
This tone is considered to be one of the emphatic () tones and is used
to show the speaker's concession (), objection (), distrust
(), regret (), warning (), apology () and
surprise. The sentences with the Fall-Rise sound grudgingly (), admitting
(, ) and dissenting (). Questions with this tone sound
insistent, pleading ( ), plaintive (). Imperatives are urgently warning
( ).
1) Statement. Excuse me.
2) Imperative. Try it again!
3) Exclamation. Good news! (very rarely used)
4) General question. Was it really awful?
5) Special question. Why not?
27. Intonation patterns with Low Rise and their attitudinal meaning.
The following communicative types of sentences are pronounced with the Low Rise:
1) Statements. Statements pronounced with the Low Rise sound soothing
(), reassuring (), sometimes surprised and disbelieving,
with lack of confidence. I`ve made so many mistakes at the dictation.
2) Imperatives. Imperatives, used with the Low Rise are soothing (),
reassuring (), encouraging () and calmly warning (
). Meet me at the railway station tomorrow.
3) Exclamations. The Low Rise makes the exclamations friendly, airy () and
sometimes casual (). Two heads better than one!
4) General Questions. When we use the Low Rise in this type of questions they show
that the speaker is interested in something and sometimes disapproves ( )
something. Do you really think that you are right?
5) Special Questions. Special questions, pronounced with this tone sound wondering,
sometimes puzzled (), cold, businesslike, challenging ( ), friendly,
sympathetically () interested. Why do you choose this job?
28.
Rise - Fall
The rising-falling tone is used to show that a speaker is greatly interested in something.
Statements, pronounced with the Rise-Fall are more categoric and definite ().
We use this tone when we want to express our great surprise, shock and distrust
(). The sentences with the Rise-Fall sound impressed, awed ([od], ),

self-satisfied, sometimes challenging ( ).

1) Statement. It`s amusing.
2) Imperative. Don`t look at him!
3) Exclamation. You are kind.
4) General question. Is Helen ill?
5) Special question. Who is there?

29. There are some communicative types of utterances:

Statements

Questions

Command (imperatives)

Exclamations (falling tones)

Intonation in questions.
Alternative question
Alternative questions indicate choice between two equal parts. They are usually
represented by two intonation groups. The most usual way of alternative questions is to use
the Low Rise in the first intonation group and the Low Fall in the second one. Can you give
me a pen or a pencil?
The final Low Fall in this type of question shows that the choice should two items
expressed. That may be a choice of three or more alternatives. In this case the intonation
groups, preceding the final one are pronounced with the Low Rise as may be treated as
items of enumeration. The final intonation group has the Low Fall. Would you like milk, tea
or coffee?
Note: alternative questions should be mixed up with general questions, which are
pronounced with a rising tone at the end. Have your a son or a daughter? (Have you
children?)
General question
1) General questions are most common with the low rising tone, preceded by the Falling
Head or the High (Medium) Level Head. With this tone they sound interested: Has he ever
been in London?
2) When general questions are said with the Low Fall they are mentioned a serious
suggestion or a subject for urgent discussion: Haven't you noticed the mistake?
3) In short questions like Did you?, Has she? the Low Fall is used: I went to the
theatre last night. -Did you?
Disjunctive (Tag) Questions
Disjunctive questions consist of at least two intonation groups: a statement and a tag
question. The choice of tones in disjunctive questions depends on the speaker's thoughts
and of the first sense-group: LF-LR, LR-LF, LF-LF, LR-LR, FR-LR.
1) The most common for a disjunctive question is the Low Fall in the first intonation
group (a statement) and the Low Rise in the tag question: It`s a good work, isn't it? The
Low Rise of the tag question implies a positiveness and doubt. The speaker inclines to one
view rather than the other and the listener's agreement with that view. But the speaker
would not be very surprised if he chooses other variant.
2) The Low Fall in the second intonation group shows that the speaker requires
agreement from the listener: He is a doctor, isn't he? But in conversation these tags lost
their functions, because they are pronounced very quickly: Lovely day, isn`t it.
3) In some cases the first intonation group can be pronounced with the Low Rise or the
Fell-Rise. When the first intonation group ends with the Low Rise the Low Fall in the second
intonation group appeals for confirmation or support. The Low Fall is often used in talking to
a child.
The second Low Rise may exactly echo the first in the statement. The first intonation

group with the Low Rise sounds protesting, calling the listener to change his opinion, while
the rise in the tag question manifests uncertainty: They will come, won't they?
Special question
1) The low falling tone in special questions makes them serious, intense () and
urgent (). Special questions, pronounced with this tine, often sound flat
(), unsympathetic (, ) and detached (). What
are you looking for?
2) Special questions, pronounced with this tone sound wondering, sometimes puzzled
(), cold, businesslike, challenging ( ), friendly, sympathetically
() interested. Why do you choose this job?
3) The high falling is used to show interest, all the communicative types of sentences,
pronounced with high fall sound final, categoric, airy and brisk ( , ). In
special questions they sometimes sound very insistent and business-like. Why do you think
so?
4) Fall-Rise is considered to be one of the emphatic () tones and is used
to show the speaker's concession (), objection (), distrust
(), regret (), warning (), apology () and
surprise. The sentences with the Fall-Rise sound grudgingly (), admitting
(, ) and dissenting (). Questions with this tone sound
insistent, pleading ( ), plaintive (). Why not?
5) The Fall + the Rise. The fall happens on the word, which is especially stressed or
made more prominent () by the speaker. The rise comes as an apposition
() of the main idea (thought) of the speaker. Who is absent in the class today?
6) The rising-falling tone is used to show that a speaker is greatly interested in
something. We use this tone when we want to express our great surprise, shock and
distrust (). The sentences with the Rise-Fall sound impressed, awed ([od],
), self-satisfied, sometimes challenging ( ). Who is there?
7) The high rising tone is used in questions which require the interrogative
() intonation. It is used to show the speaker's surprise. The High Rise is
often used when we want to ask again or want somebody to repeat something. It's some
kind of our reaction on somebody's utterance or statement. The sentence pronounced with
this tone sound echoing () or repeating the speaker's message in statements or
questions, calling for repetition of the information already given, trying to elicit a repetition
( ). He lived in Moscow. - Where does he live?
Intonation in imperatives and will you.
1) Commands with the Low Fall are very powerful, intense, serious and strong. The
speaker things that his words need someone. Try the other key.
2) Commands with the High Fall suggest some action, don`t give an order. The speaker
does not worrying whether he will be listened or not. Put some more milk in it.
3) Short commands pronounced with the Low Fall and sound calm, controlled, often
cold. Stop it.
4) Requests with the Low Rise sound soothing, encouraging. Come and stay with us.
5) Requests with the Fall-Rise sound pleading. Don`t forget to re`mind `me.
Question tags, mostly will you? or won't you? are often combined with imperatives
forming the following tone sequences: LF-LR, LR-LF, LF-LF, LR-LR, FR-LR.
1) Often such imperative sentence consis of two intonation groups and has the Low Fall
in the imperative itself and the Low Rise in the question tag: Sit down, won't you? The
positive tag question with the low rising tone serves to soften the imperative. The negative
tag question with the low rising tone sounds pressing. In both cases the imperative itself is
in the positive form.
2) Another possible case to use low falling tones in both intonation groups: Stand still,
will you? Sounds like: Stand still, please. This expresses considerable exasperation
( ) to the speaker.
3) Combination of Low Rise + Low Fall or Fall-Rise + Low Fall: Stop making noise, will
you? Don't leave your things there, will you! If the first part is positive the tag may be both
positive and negative, but with negative imperatives only a positive tag is possible.

Imperatives pronounced less brisk than with Low Fall + Low Fall and more pleading,
especially because of the Fall-Rise.
4) In the combination of Low Rise + Low Rise in imperative sentences the tag question
seems to be like an afterthought ( ): Pass me the salt, will you?
Note: The combination of Low Fall + Low Fall or the Low Rise + Low Fall with the positive
imperative is used to underline meaning of it: Stand still, will you!
Intonation in statements
Statements will normally be pronounced with falling intonation on the stressed syllable of the last "important"
word in the "information unit" (sentence, phrase, clause ...) For example, in a sentence such as "John bought a new
car this morning", in which "car" is the last important word, the fall takes place on this word. Stressed syllables
occurring before the stressed syllable of the last "important" word may be pronounced at a high or low level,
according to factors such as the degree of interest the speaker wishes to express. Words occurring after it are
pronounced (still in the case of statements) at a uniformly low level.
Unstressed syllables preceding the first stressed syllables of the sentence (information unit would be more precise,
but in most of the examples here the information unit will be a sentence, for the sake of simplicity) are pronounced
on a low level. For example the word "the" in:
The next train is at five.

30.

Division of Utterances into Intonation-Groups

Analysis of English utterances into intonation-groups shows that they are co-extensive with a stretch of speech of
various grammatical nature: an independent sentence, a principal or a subordinate clause, two or even more
clauses, a group of words or even one word. Co-extensiveness with a sentence is typical of only a small portion of
speech material (about 17 %, according to experimental data). An intonation-group corresponding to a grammatical
sentence is marked by specific characteristics of tone, stress and duration, serving to express semantic
completeness and independence the relevant features of an utterance. An intonation-group of this kind is defined
as a simple tune.
Most grammatical sentences are prosodically expressed by a combination of intonation-groups. These
combinations have a specific function of a double nature: on the one hand, they present information in the form of
relatively separate semantic items, and on the other hand, they make up a communicative whole (entity) out of
these separate parts. Utterances which are composed of more than one intonation-group form a combined tune.
Some sentences lend themselves to be subdivided more readily than others. Long sentences, most naturally, break
up into smaller parts in spoken language. Their division is based both on physiological convenience (an intonationgroup is normally a breath-group) and on the complexity of information being conveyed, e.g.:
After a long boring wait | I eventually boarded my plane.
Of the two factors - physiological convenience and complexity of information - semantic reasons are overriding in
importance. Through intonation division the speaker can make several items stand out as more or less independent
parcels of information in a short utterance, too, increasing thereby the general prominence of the utterance,
Nobody | could deny it.
Another major characteristic involved is the syntactic structure of an utterance. The number of intonation-groups in
utterances of the same length may often vary precisely because of the peculiarities of their syntactic structure,
which may either presuppose prosodic division as an obligatory feature or, vice versa, 'forbid' it, or else (as a third

and most frequently occurring variant) allow of two options: with or without an intonation boundary between the
constituents of a sentence.
Prosodic division is typically optional in expanded simple sentences with adverbial modifiers of different kinds,
complex sentences with object, relative or attributive clauses and some others. The grouping of words within a
message into longer or shorter sections and the placement of an intonation boundary in such cases is largely a
matter of the speaker's semantic interpretation of an utterance, as well as his communicative intention. As a result
the same written sentence read aloud by different people may have a different number of intonation-groups. E.g.:
Many working mothers do not have time to cook. Many working mothers | do not have time to cook.
She has learned to keep quiet about her personal relationships. She has learned to keep quiet | about her personal
relationships.
Often the number of intonation-groups is the same, but the location of their boundaries varies. E.g.:
Los Angeles | is well known | for both the high level of its air pollution | and the efforts made to control it.
Los Angeles is well known | for both the high level of its air pollution | and the efforts | made to control it.
An intonation boundary is obligatory, or, at any rate, highly probable in complex sentences with subordinate
clauses of condition, cause, time (in pre-position to the principal clause), concession, result, comparison
(particularly, when there is an adverbial modifier of manner in the principal clause) and some others. E.g.:
Since you refuse to help, | I must do it alone.
In spite of the rain and bitter cold | they all came in time.
Strictly speaking, there is no rule forbidding a pause in any place within an utterance (cf. the so-called hesitation
pauses), but from the point of view of syntactical predictability certain positions in an utterance display a very
small probability of a break. Thus, e.g. the subject of a sentence expressed by a personal pronoun is but seldom
separated from the predicate; a preposed attribute is usually closely linked to the noun, etc.
The choice of a number of intonation-groups in an utterance also depends on the type and form of speech. In a
dictation, for instance, an utterance is divided up into smaller sections than in any other kind of reading, and
spontaneous speech is characterized by uneven length of intonation-groups, and their boundaries are less
predictable from the syntactic structure than in reading aloud.

31. Prosodic coordination and subordination

The sequence of tones in sentences consisting of two or more coordinated clauses depends
on the degree of their semantic unity. The nuclear tone of the final intonation group (clause) is determined
by the communicative type of the utterance (statement, question, imperative). The choice of the tone on a
non-final intonation group is determined by the degree of its semantic importance and completeness (its
role for the meaning of the whole utterance) and the character of its semantic relations with the preceding
and the following intonation groups which may be defined in terms of contrast, emphasis, continuation,
afterthought.
a) Low Rise: indicates that the utterance is not finished and a continuation is going to follow. It is used in an
initial part of a CdS when the adjacent clauses are symmetrical in their grammatical structure and parallel in
meaning.
b) Fall-Rise: used with the aim of emphasising the prominent word of the intonation group or contrasting it
to another idea in the same context. Such intonation groups sound complete and are closely connected in meaning
with the continuation.
c) Low/High Fall: due to the final, complete, categoric character of the Falling tone a non-final intonation
group with this nuclear tone sounds relatively complete and independent. Pronounced with the falling nuclear tone
initial clauses of CdS sound like independent utterances, since their grammatical structure is also complete.

Sentences containing the principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The latter
may follow the principal clause, precede it or break the main clause into two parts. If the subordinate clause
in post-position and the principal clause present a single semantic whole they do not form separate
intonation groups. The choice of the final terminal tone is determined by the communicative type of the
sentence. If the principal clause implies continuation, or each of the clauses is semantically independent,
they arrange separate intonation groups pronounced with the Falling, Rising and Falling-Rising tones. Long
subordinate clauses may fall into a number of intonation groups.

Subordinate clauses preceding the principal clause form separate intonation groups, as a rule. The terminal
tone of the first intonation group is determined by its semantic value (Low Rise, Fall-Rise, High/Low Fall).

32. Intonation framing of complex and compound sentences

As a rule both clauses of the compound sentence are pronounced with the falling tone. It explains
their sense of completeness.
Doctor `Sandfords `house is `not large | but it is comfortable.||

To show a better sense connection between two independent sentences the first clause is
pronounced with the rising tone:
Doctor `Sandfords `house is `not large | but it is comfortable||

Complex sentence. We pronounce the subordinate clause of a complex sentence with rising
intonation and the main (or independent) clause with rising-falling intonation. E.g., When I came in, she greeted
me warmly. When I come back, I'll bring you a present

Alternatively, our voice can go slightly upwards on the tonic syllable of the first tone group(s) of a
compound sentence or a complex sentence, in order to suggest that what is connected with what has just been said.
The final tone group is pronounced using rising-falling intonation. E.g., You say it's easy, but you won't try it. He
drank, he stole; he was soon despised.

When the clauses are separated by a long pause, indicated in writing by colon (:) or a semicolon (;),
we use rising-falling intonation in both clauses. E.g., I'll tell you the truth: it can't be done. They shouldn't go there
alone; it's dangerous.

33. Expressive means of English intonation. Emphatic stress.

The devices that are used in English to produce additional expressive effects comprise, first of all, special
means of emphasis, namely emphatic variants of kinetic and static tones. Secondly, emotionally coloured
intonation patterns, such as the ascending scandent and sliding heads or the rising-falling tone as well as various
modifications of pitch, stress and duration features.

Emphatic stress increases the effort of expression. It may strengthen the stressed word making it more
prominent. Emphatic stress manifests itself mainly on the High Fall or the Rise-Fall of the nuclear syllable.

Emphatic stress is a powerful expressive means. It is the highest degree of logical and emotional prominence of
words in a phrase.

34.Intensifying semantically important words in the utterance

Words grouped in an utterance are not equally important. Those that are semantically
significant are made prominent through contrasts in loudness, duration, and higher pitch.
Prominence given to a syllable in a word is called word stress. But prominence given to one
or more words in an utterance is called utterance stress. The linguistic function of utterance
stress is indicating the relative importance of words in an utterance.
Utterance stress is closely related to word stress. It is the stressed syllable of a word that
carries prominence when the word is important in an utterance. Yet not all the syllables that
are stressed when the word is pronounced in isolation become stressed in the speech flow
Stressing words in an utterance depends very much on the context. It is nevertheless
possible to predict for most utterances a normal stressing. Some words carry higher
information content in the utterance and are usually stressed while those carrying lower
input (information) are left unstressed. The important words are content (notional) words
as opposed to function words. Most content words are polysyllabic while function words
are not.
Nearly 40 words in English can be pronounced in two distinct ways: depending on the
degree of force with which they are uttered. They are all words which perform a
grammatical function determiners, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,

articles and particles. Strong (or Full) forms are used when the word is said in isolation or is
being emphasized. WEAK forms are normal in connected speech. Strong forms improperly
used in common speech sound unnatural and over formalised, making it difficult for the
listener to identify the points of focus.
Weak forms are sometimes represented in writing, e.g. bacon n eggs, cup o coffee. In
many cases, we need to take note of context. For example, THERE as an adverb of place
(Look over THERE) is always strong; but at the beginning of an existential sentence it is
always weak (THEREs no place like home). Also, different forms may appear before vowels
and before consonants:
Compare I must go /ms/ and I must eat /mst/ or for tea /f/ and for Ann /fr/.
Function words fall into two groups according to their pronunciation in an unstressed
position. The first group includes those words that are never used in their strong form in an
unstressed position in an utterance. The strong form of such words is used only when the
word is said in isolation or with emphasis. The second group includes auxiliary and modal
verbs and prepositions which are reduced when unstressed at the beginning or in the
middle of an utterance but retain their strong form when unstressed at the end of an
utterance.
Stress creates the rhythmic structure of an utterance, but rhythm, in its turn, can influence
utterance stress. For example, there is a general tendency to place the nuclear stress in a
content word in utterance final position, and this is an important feature of the rhythmic
organization of English speech. Consider the following:
1) Im `going. 2) I'm going to `London. 3) I'm going to London for a `holiday.
But when a content word is separated from the end of the utterance by some function
words, there is a high probability for the last of them (or the penultimate one) to acquire
some degree of prominence and thus maintain rhythm. For example:
His `friends might be .with him. Or His friends might be `with him.
The most important word may sometimes be placed in the middle or even at the beginning
of an utterance. In such case the notional words occurring in the post-nuclear part (the tail)
will have, as a rule, some kind of prominence and the last of them often becomes a second
nucleus bearing a Low Fall or a Low Rise,
e.g.: |This is the `other bedroom. Or Weve got a non-`smoking rule in the rooms we
\share. Or
We can take her to the `sports centre on ,Sunday.

35. STYLES OF SPEECH

Intonational style a system of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social
sphere and serves s definite aim of communication. There is no universally recognized
classification of styles. Vinogradov distinguishes 3 styles:
1) Colloqual (COMMUNICATION)
2) Informing (scientific styles are included)
3) Emotive ( publicistic, belletrestyle).
This classification was critisized. There are 2 next marginal layers: formal suggests careful
articulation of styles, relatively slow speed of the pronouncing ; informal everyday
communication, rapid, colloquial, conversational
Stylistic use of intonation:

1)
Informational - in press reporting, educational descriptive texts. May be represented
in monologues, dialogues, polylogues. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness normal or
increased; pauses are rather long; rhythm is stable, properly organized; falling tones on the
semantic centres, falling-rsisng or rising in the initial intonation groups
2)
Academic (scientific)- style of lectures (conferences, seminars). It is determined by
the purpose of communication as the speaker*s aim is to attract the listener*s attention, to
establish close contacts with the audience and to direct the public attention to the message
carried in the contents of the text. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness increased;
pauses are rather long; rhythm is properly organized; high proportion of compound terminal
tones (high fall + low rise, fall rise, rise-fall-rise), a great number of high categoric falls
3)
Publicistic (oratorial)- 1.this term serves for many kinds of oratorial activities
(especially this style uses in political speeches). Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness
enormously increased; pauses are definitely long between the passages; rhythm is properly
organized; tones mostly emphatic, especially emotionally underlined semantic centres, in
non-final intonational groups falling-rising tones are frequent 2. The aim of the speaker is
to persuade & influence the audience. Speech of this kind is always prepared. There are
great contrasts of pitch, loudness, tempo & timbre. As one of the aims of the speaker is to
entertain his listeners he must combine publicistic style with declamatory, informational,
and conversational. Speakers have the right to increase their loudness greatly, to break the
limits of their voice range, they may whisper, they can make prolongued pauses. . The
intonation adequate for political speeches is characterized by Law Pre-Head + Stepping
(Falling) Head. The heads are often broken due to extensive use of accidental rises to make
an utterance more emphatic. The nuclear tone of final intonation groups is generally the
Law Fall; the High Fall is much less common.
4)
Declamatory (artistic)- this is the style of declamation. This is a highly emotional and
expressive intonational style, that is why it needs special training. Attitudinal, volitional and
intellectual functions of intonation are of primary importance here and serve to appeal to
the mind, will and feelings of the listener. This style can be heard on the stage, on the
screen, in a TV studio, thus we see that it is always a written form of the language read
aloud or recited. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness varied according to the size of the
audience and to the emotional setting; pauses are long especially between the passages,
prolonged emphatic pauses are used to underline the emphasis; rhythm is properly
organized; common use of categoric low and high falls in final and initial intination groups
and on semantic centres . In the pre-nuclear part, the Law Pre-Head may be combined with
the Stepping Head, the Broken Stepping Head. The nuclear tone in final intonation groups is
generally the Law Fall or, less frequently, the High Fall.
5)
Conversational (familiar) - this kind of English is a means for everyday
communication, heard in natural conversational interaction between speakers. This style
occurs mainly in informal external and internal relationships in speech of relatives, friends,
well - acquainted people and so on. So this is spontaneous, colloquial, informal, everyday
speech. This style is very frequent because a lot of English speaking people use it in their
everyday speech. Pauses are frequent mmm, hm, brr, kh as well as laughs, giggles,
noises. The intonation groups are rather short, tone groups are often broken, the tempo
varies greatly. Though the natural speed is very high, pauses make our speech slower.

36.Informational style

Intonational styles:
Informational style- is the most neutral among styles, which we employ in educational descriptive
narratives, press reporting and broadcasting. In these texts loudness normal. The rate of speech does
not vary greatly, the tempo is marked as moderato, rhythm is organized properly, pauses are not

prolongued. Timbre-characteristics of such speech are not emotional because the speaker tries to be
objective. Sense-groups are not complicated in their structure. Terminal tones are rather categoric
Informational - in press reporting, educational descriptive texts. May be represented in
monologues, dialogues, polylogues. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness normal or
increased; pauses are rather long; rhythm is stable, properly organized; falling tones on the
semantic centres, falling-rsisng or rising in the initial intonation groups.
Informational (formal) style is characterised by the predominant use of intellectual
intonation patterns. The characteristic feature of informational style is the use of Law PreHead + Falling Head + Law Fall (Law Rise), normal or slow speed of utterance and regular
rhythm. It occurs in formal discourse where the task set by the sender of the message is to
communicate information without giving it any emotional or volitional evaluation. This
intonation style is used, for instance, by radio and television announcers when reading
weather forecasts, news, etc. or in various official situations. It is considered to be
stylistically neutral.

In informational (formal) style intonation never contrasts with lexical and grammatical
meanings conveyed by words and constructions. Pausation is semantically predictable, that
is, an intonation group here always consists of words joined together by sense. Besides, it is
important to note that intonation groups tend to be short, duration of pauses varies from
medium to long. Short pauses are rather rare.

37. Phonostylistic peculiarities of academic style

Scientific Style (Academic)

Characterizes lectures, scientific discussion, conferences

The speaker must sound self-assured, authoritative, instructive

Terminal tones are compound

A great number of high categoric falls

The contrast between accented & unaccented segments isnt great

Loudness may be increased

Pauses may be prolonged

Rhythm is organized properly

Academic style is often described by phonostylists as both intellectual and volitional. It is determined by the
purpose of the communication as the speaker's aim is to attract the listener's attention, to establish close contacts
with the audience and to direct the public attention to the message carried in the contents of the text. It is frequently
manifested in academic and educational lectures, scientific discussions, at the conferences, seminars and in classes.
As the users of the style are interested in the involvement of the audience into the talk, this intonational style tends
to be concerned and rather emotional. The "ideal model" of the scientific style talk would be an academic
informational lecture read aloud or relied heavily upon the set of notes with the attempts on the part of lecturers to
get their meaning across clearly. The balance between formality is obtained in favour of the former. Academic
Style Suggested Spheres of Communication Specific characteristics of the academic style which display features
not shared by others include:
1. A scientific (academic) text read aloud in public in front of a fairly-sized audience conveys both intellectual and
volitional information, so the attitudinal and emphatic functions of intonation are of primary importance here.
2. A lecturer always sounds self-assured, authoritative, instructive and edifying, because any scientific style talk
should be well prepared and is often even rehearsed by a trained lecturer.
3. A scientific style talk presenter sounds much louder than an informational style reader as any public oration is
produced face to face with a fairly-sized audience. Instances of diminished loudness are observed only in bringing
out phrases expressing forgetfulness, uncertainty, word-searching.
4. The prosodic features of the academic style reading are rather varied as intonation correlates the lecturer's
attempts to get his meaning across clearly and to obtain the balance between formality and informality. This variety
is created by:
a) The alternation of pauses, types of heads, pitch levels and terminal tones.
b) The ample use of variations and contrasts of the tempo to help the listener to differentiate between the more and
less important parts of the overall flow of speech. The speaker normally slows down when he introduces rules,
terms, scientific laws, etc. This makes them stand out.
5. The rhythmical organization of a scientific text is properly balanced by the alternation of all prosodic features
which gives the acoustic impression of "rhythmicality".
6. High falling and falling-rising terminal tones are widely used as a means of both logical and contrastive
emphasis

38. Phonostylistic peculiarities of publicistic style

Publicistic Style (Oratorical)

The aim of the speaker is to persuade & influence the audience

Speech is always prepared

Great contrasts of pitch, loudness, tempo, timbre

Every sound must be distinct

Strict rhyt

Volitional information prevails

The term "publicistic" serves for many kinds of oratorial activities, that is why this intonational style is often called
"oratorial. There is a great deal of overlap between academic, publicistic and declamatory style when the basic aim
of the speaker is to extend persuasive and emotional influence on the listeners and, of course, volitional and desiderative information is predominant in the texts. But in publicistic speeches it is achieved not only through
argumentation as in the academic style or imagery as in the declamatory style, but through all sorts of direct
oratorial performances. These performances are designed to entertain the public thus accomplishing the purpose of
imposing the speaker's ideas on listeners. So publicistic style is commonly called by phonostylists oratorial,
volitional and desiderative. Its manifestation can be heard in political, judicial, oratorial speeches, in sermons,
parliamentary debates, at congresses, meetings, press conferences and so on. The invariant of phonostylistic
characteristics of Publicistic oratorial speeches is given in table 31. Public oratorial speeches are so removed from
everyday informational narratives and so vividly marked on the grammatical, lexical and prosodic levels that are
immediately recognized by listeners and labelled as oratorial skills and exercises. As there is a very strong concern
on the part of the speaker about the effects achieved by his speech on the listener, the former uses all kinds of
oratorial performances which on the prosodic level are characterized by the incomparable variations and contrasts
within the systems of pitch loudness, tempo and timbre accompanied by kinesic components. These prosodic
contrasts, very expressive facial mimics and gestures identify certain oral texts as belonging to publicistic intonational style. It is undoubtedly clear that volitional .and emotional function of intonation is predominant in this
register against the background of other functions.
As any publicistic speech is fully prepared and even rehearsed, it usually goes smoothly and with ease, without
hesitation devices. It is marked by its dignified slowness, careful articulation and impressive resonance on the most
important communicative centres and properly rhythmically organized. A certain amount of style variations is a
must when we perform within publicistic discourse. Publicistic speakers are usually very enthusiastic about what
they say and how they say, so they may go to extremes by enormously increasing the loudness and alternate it with
whisper or by pronouncing very long breath groups and suddenly interrupt the phonation by using the rhetorical
silence. These and other prosodic contrasts produce great effects and captivate the attention and interest of the
listener. The greatest single stylistic characteristic of publicistic speeches is the large amount of parallelisms on any
level, prosodic features including. All the above-mentioned general characteristics serve to produce a complex
vocal effect called "oration", designed to make the listeners respond to the publicistic speech-maker.

39. Phonostylistic peculiarities of declamatory style

Declamatory Style (Artistic, Stage style)

Theatrical activities, screen productions, TV

Sounds pronounced distinctly

Loudness varies according to the type of emotion rendered and the listeners

The rate of speech is deliberately slow

Pauses are long, emphatic

The contrast between accented & unaccented segments isnt great

Terminal tones contain a lot of categoric low and high falls in final and initial intonational groups

Emotional information prevails

This intonational style is also called by some as "artistic, acquired or stage. Attitudinal, volitional and intellectual
functions of intonation are of primary importance here and serve to appeal to the mind, will and feelings of the
listener. Most commonly it is performed through all sorts of image-bearing devices which require rehearsing and
professional skills. This intonational style can be heard on the stage, on the screen, in a TV studio or in a classroom
during verse speaking and prose readings and recitations. It is always a written form of the language read aloud or
recited. Acting is a two-way conversation, players respond very directly and promptly to the "feedback" they get
from the audience; the "feedback" in their case being almost certainly communal, collective, non-verbal language.
Methods of achieving, stimulating and maintaining this "conversation" with their audience must inevitably be the
mainspring of the actors' "training". To feel, to know, even to express the contents of their drama is a wasted and
futile activity if it is not conveyed to other participants the audience. Distancing, posture, gesture, facial
expression and timing all these facets of actors art are as important as the delivery of words themselves. It is
common knowledge that prose, which describes an action or a series of actions to tell a story, is called narrative.
The prose is descriptive when scenes, objects, people, or even a person's feelings are described in such a way that
we can imagine them vividly. In good descriptive writing an author builds up a picture in words in much the same
way as an artist paints a landscape or a portrait. The prosodic organization of the declamatory reading depends on
the type of the literary text descriptive, narrative, dialogue; on the character of the described events, schemes and
objects (humorous, tragic, romantic, dreamy, imaginative and so on) and of course on the skills of the reader. But it
is always clearly marked and distinguished by its expressiveness, personal involvement on the part of the author,
by the emphasis, by the entire range of prosodic and paralinguistic effects and it is all felt through the skilful
reading .The phonological opposition of the informational and declamatory reading shows that both readings differ
totally in any aspect, but primarily in the voice timbre in the declamatory reading the emotional colouring of the
voice is very rich, varied according to the degree of emphasis. On the prosodic level the markers of the
declamatory style reading are:
1. Slow tempo, caused by the lento rate of utterances and prolonged pauses, especially at the passage boundaries.
2. Stable rhythmicality.
3. The use of the falling terminal tones in initial intonation groups, the increase of their range with the emphasis.

40. Phonostylistic pecularities of conversational style

The usage of conversational style is typical of natural spontaneous, everyday speech. It is the most commonly used
type of intonational style and consequently a variety which will be more familiar to the vast majority of Englishspeaking people than any other. Some scholars also call it informal, because this style occurs mainly in informal
external and internal relationships in the speech of relatives, friends, well-acquainted people and so on
-The speakers are comparatively free, sound neutral, use non-standard forms of speech
-Conversations are not planned
-The utterances are incomplete
-A lot of hesitational pauses, slips of the tongue
-A lot of introductory phrases
-The intonational groups are short
-Tone groups are often broken
-The tempo varies greatly. The natural speed might be very fast but the impression of slowness may arise
because of a great number of hesitation pauses both filled and non-filled (hesitant drawls). However, the speakers
may have no pauses between their parts, very often they speak imultaneously, interrupt each other.
-Reduction of vowel
- High proportion of parenthetic compound types of sentence introduced by you see, you
know, I mean, I say and others.
-The heads are usually level, or rarely, falling. Falling heads occur only in groups consisting
of several stressed syllables.

41. Interrelation of intonation with verbal and non-verbal contexts

Functions of intonation (according to David Crystal):
- emotional to express attitudinal meaning;
- grammatical to mark grammatical contrasts;
- information structure to convey what is new and known in the meaning on
the utterance;
- textual to construct utterances into larger linguistic units;
- psychological to organize language into easily perceived units;
- indexical to serve as markers of personal identity.
42. British English vs American English
Nowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-speaking world: British English and American
English.
According to British dialectologists the following variants of English are referred to the English-based group:
English English, welsh English, Australian English, new Zealand English ; to the American based group: united
states English, Canadian English.
Scottish English and irish English fall somewhere between the two being somewhat by themselves.
The variants of a national language should not be confused with its regional types. There are 10 territorial(regional
types) of the English language comprising such areas as the southern English, the northern English and the
Scottish.
In the usa the regional types of the American variant of the English language are the following: the eastern type, the
southern type and the general American type( western, Midwestern, central western)
American English pronunciation is characterized by a greater variety of standard forms than british English. In GB
any deviation from the norm (rp) is a social maker but no American accent has the prestige of British
Returning to the main differences between British English and American English, they can be summarized as
follows.
1.The presence of rhotic accent. Rhotic accent refers to the manner letter r is pronounced after a vowel within a
syllable, as in words such as hard, borne, or here.
2.Differences in vowel pronunciation. The most relevant ones are change of diphthong [], change of [], change
of [], and change of [ju:].There is no strict division of vowels into long and short in USA. One more peculiar
feature of pronunciation of vowels in American English is their nasalization, when they are preceded or
followed by a nasal consonant (e.g. in such words as take, small, name, etc.). Nasalization is often called an
American twang. It is incidental and need not be marked in phonemic transription.
3.Differences in consonant pronunciation. This mainly involves the different pronunciations of letter t.The British
allophonic differentiation does not exist in USa.
4.Change of stress. This comprises the change of stress in French loanwords, and certain suffixes such as -ate and
-atory.
5.Differences in articulation. American English has a clear tendency to pronounce unstressed syllables where
British English does not show such a disposition.

American English intonation differs from British English intonation mainly in unemphatic, or emotionally neutral
speech. Preterminal pitch contour in Britain is gradually descending stepping, in USA it. is mid-level or mid-wavylevel. American English intonation produces an impression of level or monotonous melody.
The monotony of USA intonation is explained by the following factors: 1) pitch characteristics, 2) narrow range of
the utterance, 3) slow tempo