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, 1998, Abnormally high fluid pressure and seal impacts on hydrocarbon accumulations in the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins, Egypt, in
Law, B.E., G.F. Ulmishek, and V.I. Slavin eds., Abnormal pressures in
hydrocarbon environments: AAPG Memoir 70, p. 161180.
Chapter 10
Abstract
The Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins are active geodynamic (high subsidence rate) basins with a
thick, clay-dominated Oligocene to Recent sedimentary section. Abnormally high formation pressures
have developed in this section and in the underlying pre-Tertiary section primarily due to rapid sedimentation. Secondary mechanisms may be locally superimposed where the Messinian evaporite super
seal is present. The abrupt development of pore pressure in the southern part of the Nile Delta is
believed to be due to changes in the volume of pore fluids or rock matrix as a consequence of either
aquathermal expansion, hydrocarbon generation, or thermal cracking of oil to gas in the lower Mioceneupper Oligocene compartment. Fluid flow in the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins is mainly due to
compaction-and thermal-driven forces.
The sedimentary sequence in the study area is divided into eight pressure compartments, separated
by seals, some of which are associated with major unconformities. Four seals are clearly demonstrated
in the North Sinai, Early Cretaceous basin and are referred to as: 1) Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous; 2)
Aptian; 3) Albian; and 4) Upper Cretaceous-Eocene carbonates. A total of four seals are also recognized
in the Nile Delta and are referred to as: 5) Aquitanian-Burdgalian; 6) Langian; 7) Serravalian-Tortonian;
and 8) Messinian.
INTRODUCTION
The Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins cover an area
of 76,600 km2 (29,540 sq.mi.). These basins are further
subdivided into three basins that include the middle to
late Miocene deltaic basin, the late Oligocene to early
Miocene basin, and the Early Cretaceous basin (Figure
1). These basins are bounded on the south by the hinge
fault zone on the stable carbonate platform. The northern boundary extends offshore, to the deeper parts of
the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1). The middle to late
Miocene deltaic basin is bounded on the west by the
upper Cretaceous platform, west of Abu Qir field (Figure 1). The east and west boundaries of the early
Miocene-late Oligocene basin are defined by shear
zones (Figure 1) and the eastern boundary of the Early
Cretaceous basin is believed to be bounded by a northeast-southwest trending transcontinental megashear
(Jenkins, 1990).
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Figure 1. Location map of the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins showing the principal structural areas, oil and gas
fields, and selected wells.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Nile Delta and North Sinai regions are located
in the northern continental to marine transitional margin of the African and Sinai Plates (Figure 1). The Nile
Delta and North Sinai Basins are divided into three distinct structural regions (Figure 1). From west to east
they are: 1) the middle to late Miocene Deltaic basin, 2)
the early Miocene to late Oligocene basin in the eastern
part of the Nile Delta, and 3) the Early Cretaceous
basin in the northern offshore part of Sinai Peninsula.
A hinge line separates the southern carbonate platform
from the Nile Delta and Sinai Basins (Figure 1).
The break-up (rifting) of this area started in Late Triassic time and probably extended through Early Cretaceous time (Tethys opening). By the end of the Early
Cretaceous, an extensional phase took place causing
the northern part of Egypt, including the study area, to
sink (Paul, 1991).
The second tectonic phase was dominated by northwest to southeast oriented oblique compression in Late
Cretaceous (Laramide) time, ending in the Eocene. This
phase reflects the closing of the Tethys which produced
a series of en echelon northeast-southwest trending,
doubly plunging anticlines (Syrian Arc structures) in
the northern Sinai.
The last significant tectonic phase in the area
occurred during late Oligocene to early Miocene time,
with uplift and separation of the Arabian Platform
from the Levantine Basin (Figure 1), culminating in
middle Miocene time. Finally, during early Pliocene
time, a northwest-southeast trending listric (wrench)
fault pattern developed in the northern offshore area.
Sedimentation of the Nile Delta was initiated during
late Oligocene-early Miocene time, west of the presentday location (Said, 1981). During late Oligocene to
early Miocene time, coincident with the rifting of the
Gulf of Suez, the delta abruptly shifted to a more
northeast position, in the vicinity of the Port Said
South-1 (PSS-1) well location (Figure 1). The presentday location of the Nile Delta was established during
middle to late Miocene time.
A generalized stratigraphic column for the region is
shown on Figure 2. The Lower Cretaceous rocks in the
North Sinai Basin were deposited in fluvial dominated
environments and are mainly composed of shale and
sandstone with minor, thin beds of dolomitic limestone
(Paul, 1991). Maximum thickness of the Lower Cretaceous sediments penetrated in the basin is 5,965 ft
(1,818 m). During Late Cretaceous to Eocene time,
chalky and marly limestones were uniformly deposited through the area in an open marine environment.
The upper Oligocene to lower Miocene sequence
(Tineh Formation) is represented by a marine shale section with some sandstone interbeds (possibly turbidite
sand influx). In the Nile Delta, lower to upper Miocene
rocks include the Qantara, Sidi Salim, Qawasim, Abu
Madi, and Rosetta Formations. The Qantara Formation
consists mainly of shale, limestone (dolomitic in some
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METHODS OF STUDY
Data from 45 wells were utilized in the study. The
pressure data were derived from wireline formation
tests (WFT), drillstem tests (DST), mud weights, well
kicks, leak-off tests (LOT), and wireline acoustic logs.
The wireline formation tests, drillstem tests, and well
kick data are the most reliable for pressure evaluation.
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PRESSURE COMPARTMENTS
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Figure 4. Maps of the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins showing: (a) depth to the top of overpressure zones (in ft);
(b) rates of sedimentation for Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments (reprinted from Nashaat, 1992).
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Figure 5. Chronostratigraphic chart of the Northeastern part of the Nile Delta illustrating the main stratigraphic gaps,
the main pressure seals, and pressure compartments (from Nashaat, 1994).
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Figure 6. Chronostratigraphic chart of the North Sinai Early Cretaceous Basin illustrating the main stratigraphic gaps,
the main pressure seals, and compartments.
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Figure 7. Pressure-depth
profile of Tineh-1 well, showing
coincidence of direct pressure
values with those calculated
from the aquathermal equation in
the Oligocene to lower Miocene
rocks (from Nashaat, 1991).
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water type I (10,00030,000 ppm). The second represents the Upper Cretaceous-Eocene aquifer and is
dominated by CaCl2 water type II (>35,000 ppm). The
Lower Cretaceous aquifer has been subjected to mixing
and dilution conditions caused by shale ion-filtration
during compaction history (Nashaat, 1990a).
The definitions of the these pressure compartments
based on pressure conditions alone are, to some extent,
reinforced by the salinity of formation water in each of
the compartments. Three to four different hydrochemical systems are coincident with the fluid pressure
compartments (Figures 6 and 11). The deepest
compartment, (Ij), which exhibits 22,000 ppm water
salinity, is significantly different from the salinity of
compartment IIc, with a salinity of 15,000 ppm. The
range of water salinity in compartments IIc and IIIc is
13,500 to 18,000 ppm. In this case, there is not enough
difference to distinguish the compartments on the
basis of water salinity alone. However, compartment
IVc has a water salinity of 30,000 ppm, considerably
different from the underlying compartments in most
wells. The only exception observed is in the Enab-1
well (Figure 1), where compartments IIIc and IVc have
essentially the same formation water salinity of
approximately 30,000 ppm. In this case, perhaps there
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Figure 9. Pressure and temperature profiles of Tarif-1 well showing the zone of fluid expansion (aquathermal pressuring and/or hydrocarbon generation) in the early Miocene-Oligocene rocks (from Nashaat, 1994). Location of well is
shown on Figure 1.
PRESSURE SEALS
The development of effective pressure seals is of
critical importance in the definition of the pressure
compartments. Effective pressure seals may be formed
by faults, salt and mud diapirs, and vertical or lateral
facies changes. In the Nile Delta, there is a coincidence
between the occurrence of unconformities and pressure seals (Figure 5). This is due to the presence of
impermeable lithologies such as evaporites or limestones adjacent to the unconformity. The development
of diagenetic seals may also play a significant role in
seal efficiency at these unconformable surfaces. Lateral,
seal-bounding overpressure domains in the southern
areas of the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins are probably associated with the hinge fault zone (Figure 1).
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Figure 10. Pressure gradient maps for (a) the upper Miocene Qawasim and Abu Madi Formation and (b) the middle to
lower Miocene Sidi Salim Formation in the Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins (from Nashaat, 1991).
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Figure 11. NW-SE structural cross section showing relationships among different pressure compartments in the
North Sinai Basin. The overpressure regime in the offshore changes to normal hydrostatic pressure in the southern
onshore block across the fault bounded Misri-1 block (from Nashaat, 1990b; reprinted by permission).
Seal Bm
The Langian seal (Bm on Figure 5) is of early to middle Miocene age and is easily traced throughout most
of the southeastern part of the Nile Delta. The seal
forms the upper boundary of the early Miocene Qantara Formation pressure compartment II and is mostly
composed of shale and limestone beds with an average
thickness of 650 ft (200 m). The maximum differential
pressure of this seal occurs in the Tarif-1 (Figure 9) and
PSS-1 wells in the southeastern part of the onshore Nile
Delta (Figure 1). Differential pressures across the seal
in these wells are 2,450 psi (17.1 MPa) and 2,200 psi
(15.2 MPa), respectively. Near the hinge fault complex
area (Figure 1), pressure differences across this seal
have not been recognized, most likely because of pressure dissipation along fault planes.
Seal Cm
The middle to late Miocene Cm seal (Figure 5) forms
the upper boundary of the middle Miocene (Sidi Salim
Formation) pressure compartment III. The seal is primarily composed of limestone with shale and sandstone intercalations. The thickness of the seal ranges
from 100 ft (30 m) in the PSS-1 well (Figure 1) to 1,850
ft (565 m) in the Matariya-1 well (Figure 1). The maximum seal efficiency occurs in the PSS-1 and Matariya-
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Seal Cc
The Albian seal Cc (Figure 6) forms the upper
boundary of the Aptian pressure compartment IIIc and
consists mainly of shale with minor thin beds of limestone. The average thickness of the seal is 300 ft (90 m).
The difference in pressure across the seal ranges from
300 psi (2.1 MPa) in the Mango-1 well to 1,100 psi (7.6
MPa) in the NS 21-1 well (Figure 1).
Seal De
Seal De separates Tertiary from Mesozoic rocks (Figure 6). Seal De is a regional seal throughout both the
Nile Delta and North Sinai Basins. The seal is composed of limestone and ranges in thickness from 300 to
900 ft (90 to 275 m).
The evaluation of seal De is inconclusive because of
the unreliable pressure data collected from carbonate
sequences. The pressure difference between Tertiary
and Mesozoic rocks is at least 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) as
determined in the Mango-1 well (Figure 12). In the
Tineh-1 (Figure 1) well, the difference in pressure
between Tertiary and Mesozoic rocks is 1,600 psi (11.0
MPa on Figure 7).
Seal Efficiency
In order to compare the seal efficiency in this area,
the following equation was utilized to quantify the seal
efficiency factor (SEF):
SEF(psi/ft) = PHLHF
where P is the difference in pressure across the seal
(psi), H is the thickness of the seal (ft), and LHF is the
lithological homogeneity factor which ranges from 1 to
0.9 for evaporite seals, 0.9 to 0.8 for overpressured
shale, 0.6 to 0.4 for carbonates, and 0.4 to 0.2 for siltstone. Detailed sealing analysis was performed on the
seals Bc and Cc taking into account the SEF, the pressure gradient in the seal rocks (SG), and the seal differential pressure (P).
Application of these analyses to seal Bc shows that
in the Mango-1, Ziv-1, and Enab-1 wells (Figure 14)
seal Bc has a very good to excellent seal efficiency,
while seal Cc is poor (leaky) in the same wells. In contrast, seal Cc in the NS 21-1 well (Figure 14) has an
excellent efficiency but seal Bc is less efficient. In the
Mango-3 and Tufah-1 wells, both seals Bc and Cc have
fair to poor (leaky) efficiencies (Figure 14).
Pressure is released either in seismically active areas
(fault re-activation) or when the magnitude of overpressure approaches the fracture gradient of the seal.
In the case where the pore pressure equals or exceeds
the fracture gradient of the seal, pressure-induced fractures develop and fluid loss will occur, causing an
abrupt drop in the pore-fluid pressure (Caillet, 1993).
The Mango-3, Dag-1, and Tufah-1 wells were drilled
near the crest of structural highs, and were interpreted
to have experienced seal failure, most likely due to the
influence of tectonic deformation or pressure-induced
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Figure 13. Maps showing differential pressure (P) across (a) the Messinian seal, Dm and (b) the Aquitanian/Burdgalian seal, Am (from Nashaat, 1994).
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deposition of Pliocene sediments. The pressure modeling used in this example clearly demonstrates the role
of compaction disequilibrium as an effective mechanism in generating overpressure in the study area.
Sand bodies interbedded with clay can be overpressured due to expulsion of fluids from the clay into
the sandstone rocks (transference), and hence maintain
pressure equilibrium in the entire rock system (Osborne and Swarbrick, 1995). Frequently, a combination
of additional pressure processes are superimposed as
well. Additional pressure-producing causal mechanisms which are believed to locally contribute to overpressuring in the Nile Delta are discussed below.
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,,
,,
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,, ,
Figure 16. Cross-plot showing the relationship between reservoir pressure and temperature for oil and gas fields
in the Nile Delta and different pressure compartments of three wells in the North Sinai Basin. Note the lower most
pressure compartment (IIc) in the NS 21-1 well lies in the envelope of the non-economic hydrocarbon accumulation
system. G.W.R. = gas-water ratio (from Nashaat, 1992).
ated fractures, may experience cycles of periodic opening and closing as the pressure within each compartment builds up and then dissipates. During early
stages of this cycle, fluids may flow along these pathways. Later, when pressure differences across the seal
equilibrate, the fluid pathways probably close and
fluid flow ceases until sufficiently high pore pressure
develops to re-open or create new fluid flow pathways.
This cyclic process is similar to that described by Momper (1978). The process could conceivably permit pulses of hydrocarbon-bearing fluids to migrate along fault
planes into shallower compartments.
The anticipated short migration pathways in the
study area favor the accumulation of hydrocarbons in
close proximity to thermally mature source rocks in the
basin depocenter. Structural features with four-way
dip closure are believed to be the most prospective in
the upper Oligocene-lower Miocene compartment (I),
since faults may have been leaky because of episodic
faulting due to the cyclic pressure buildup that may
have occurred in this compartment.
Conversely, the overpressuring in the northeastern
part of the Nile Delta may create some problems relat-
CONCLUSIONS
The main cause of abnormally high pressure in both
the Nile Delta and North Sinai regions is rapid sedimentation and burial of sediments during Pliocene and
Pleistocene time. Secondary pressure generating mechanisms include possible volume changes of pore fluids
or rock matrix by aquathermal expansion, hydrocarbon generation, or thermal cracking of oil to gas in the
upper Oligocene-lower Miocene compartment in the
eastern part of the Nile Delta. The presence of the
Messinian evaporites also contributed to the development of overpressuring in pre-Messinian rocks by
inhibiting pressure dissipation. The occurrence of the
top of overpressure at shallow depths in the northern
parts of the region compared to deeper depths in the
southern part of the region, is attributed to the higher
rates of basin subsidence and sedimentation in the
northern regions.
In a regional sense, the sedimentary sequence in the
study area can be divided into eight well defined pressure compartments that are separated by effective
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Bradley, J.S., 1975, Abnormal formation pressure:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 59, p. 957973.
Caillet, G., 1993, The cap rock of the Snore field, Norway: a possible leakage by hydraulic fracturing:
Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 10, P 4250.
Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC),
1994, Nile Delta and North Sinai fields, discoveries
and hydrocarbon potentials (a comprehensive
overview): Cairo, 387p.
Fertl, W.H., 1976, Abnormal formation pressures,
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Hunt J. M., 1990, Generation and migration of petroleum from abnormally pressured fluid compartments:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 74 No. 1, p 112.
Jenkins, A.D., 1990, North and central Sinai, in R. Said,
ed., The geology of Egypt: A.A. Balkema-Rotterdam-Brookfield, p. 361389.
Lerche, I., 1990, Basin analysis: quantitative method:
Academic Press, San Diego-New York, v.1, 561 p.
Maghara, K., 1978, Compaction and fluid migration-
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