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Implementation of New Technologies in Traction

Power Systems
Conference Paper May 2004
DOI: 10.1109/RRCON.2004.1300912 Source: IEEE Xplore

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Proceedings of JRC 2004:

2004 ASME/IEEE Joint Rail Conference
Baltimore, MD April 6-8, 2004

RTD 2004-66014

IMPLEMENTATION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN TRACTION POWER SYSTEMS

Sergo Sagareli
Long Island Rail Road Engineering Department,
Hollis
New York, USA
Tel: 718 558 3268; Fax: 718 558 3197;
ssagare@lirr.org

ABSTRACT
Due to significant developments in power electronics
since the 1980s, a row of new components are being used for
both utility [1] and traction power substations, leading to new
concepts in their design and construction. Among others, such
innovations as incorporation of microprocessor-based multifunction protective relays and programmable logic controllers
are changing traditional substations equipment layout and
inter-connections; the development and experimental use of
thyristor rectifiers and solid-state DC circuit breakers is under
way.
A significant reduction in the amount of protective and
control devices (and associated wiring) has been achieved by
introduction of multi-function relays (MFR or MPR - MultiPurpose Relay), capable of replacing a whole group of relays
used for equipment protection and automated control; for
example, one MFR may perform functions of overcurrent and
ground fault protection, over- and undervoltage protection, fault
sensing and reclosing. Plus, it may be used for data logging and
data recording purposes [2]. Additionally, high end MPRs have
remote access features allowing not only to set any parameters,
but even provide firmware upgrade without visiting the
substation, thus providing labor savings. Therefore, one MFR
may replace about a dozen of traditional relays and devices,
along with their wiring and save maintenance expenses as well.
Thyristor Controlled Rectifiers (TCRs) are another
significant innovation in traditional DC traction power
substation design. Thyristor rectifiers are offering very
important benefit of regulated DC voltage: at the substations
bus output, the voltage may be constant from 0 to a 100% or

Vitaly Gelman
Powell PECO
Vernon
New Jersey, USA
Tel: 973 764 6500; Fax: 973 764 6603;
vgelman@vgcontrols.com

even 150% load, which means improved train performance in

terms of speed and reliability, as well as lower losses of energy
in third rails, and possibility of raising third rail system voltage
in the future, thus further lowering losses of energy in the
system. Alternatively, it allows to increase the distance
between the substations and thus reduce total number of
substations. LIRR installed one thyristor rectifier for
experimental use in 2003.
Flywheel-based energy storage system is another
important innovation that is being installed by the LIRR for
experimental use. LIRR is installing for experimental use
trackside fly-wheel energy storage system developed and tested
by the British uranium enrichment company URENCO.
According to Tarrant [3], in March 2002 the company
successfully tested the KESS - Kinetic Energy Storage System
and demonstrated 11% to 18% energy savings in different
conditions of operation, because of the lower losses due to
higher voltage during the acceleration period.
KEY WORDS
Traction power system, multifunction relay, thyristor
rectifier, TCR, flywheel, PLC.
INTRODUCTION
Electrical traction systems have been successfully used for
over 100 years, and during this time they underwent dramatic
changes, from independent power systems with their own
power plants, transmission lines and substations, to
incorporation into utility power systems on the substation level,

Copyright 2004 by ASME

and from rotary motor-generator type rectifier substations to

mercury diodes, to solid state rectifiers, and they still continue
to develop. Their reliable, cost-effective, and environmentally
clean performance directly affects the overall performance of
the railroads they serve.
Emerging and experimentally proven new technologies in
both fields - power systems and railroading, add another
dimension to the complex choices engineers have to make to
arrive at the best possible solution. Properly applied, these
technologies could help railroads to improve their position in
competition with other modes of transportation. Traction power
systems, traditionally very conservative, are seeing more and
more technological advances in their day-to-day operations.
Some of them already have proven record by utility power
systems; some others are comparatively new.

2. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are
replacing traditional relay-based Remote Terminal Units
(RTUs) in Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems, used for remote controlling and the
monitoring of power systems from the Control Center. They
may be used to perform such functions as transfer trip and DC
feeder re-closing automatics.
According to the concept adopted by the LIRR, each major
group of equipment in the substation, such as AC Switchgear,
Transformers, Rectifiers, and DC Switchgear have their own
PLCs that are connected to one Main PLC that coordinates
work of groups and interfaces with the systems SCADA. Each
group PLC has its own Human-Machine Interface (HMI) for
equipment control and status indication, usually a
microprocessor-based touch-screen monitor. Any HMI can
control any piece of equipment within a substation. Unit PLCs
are connected to the main PLC by fiberoptic cable, thus
eliminating need for copper cables running throughout
substations between each piece of equipment, local control
panels and RTUs. All copper wiring is contained within each
group. That offers significant savings on copper cable and labor
on its installation, simplified design, field construction and
maintenance, while providing higher flexibility in control and
monitoring options, as well as a higher level of electrical
insulation between control and power circuits, compared to the
traditional relay-based design. One major concern for
incorporating PLCs in existing SCADA systems is their
compatibility: different vendors use different communication
protocols. While for private companies choosing one supplier
and sticking with it is not a problem, for state-owned railroads
governed by lowest-bidder rule, sole-sourcing is not an
acceptable solution. Recently IEC developed a standard for
communication protocols (IEC 61850 - 2003, Communication
networks and systems in substations) that will allow smooth
communication between PLCs and IED's of different
manufacturers. Similar Standard is being developed by IEEE
with expected time of approval - April 2004.

NOMENCLATURE
Psub - subsation power, MW
Vsub - subsation voltage, VDC
Itrain - train current, ADC
Vtrain - train voltage, VDC
Ploss - power loss in the rails
Vdr - combined voltage drop in the 3rd and running rails.

1. MULTI-FUNCTION PROTECTION RELAYS

A significant reduction in the amount of protective and
control devices (and associated wiring) has been achieved by
introduction of multi-function relays (MFR), capable of
replacing a whole group of relays used for equipment
protection and automated control; for example, one MFR may
perform functions of overcurrent and ground fault protection,
over- and undervoltage protection, hot/grounded structure
protection; fault-sensing and reclosing automatic functions with
all associated annunciation. Thus, one MFR (or, MPR - multiprotection relay) may replace about a dozen traditional relays
and devices, along with their wiring.
Additionally, high end MPRs [2] have extensive data logging
and data recording capability. Data logging which includes an
alarm and a time stamp allows to reconstruct sequence of
events and thus facilitates system level troubleshooting. Data
recording provides high speed data capture both before and
after the event. Such snapshots are stored in the memory and
can be retrieved; one particular MPR [2] provides 65 us sample
time on all channel. Having detailed information about voltage
and current sheds the light on many mysterious trips. Another
advantage of the MPR is remote communication capability. Not
only any and all parameters can be set remotely (via modem or
Local Area Network) but the alarm log and captured
snapshots can be retrieved remotely. Even the firmware
upgrade can be done without visiting the substation. Measured
values (voltage and current) can be retrieved remotely as well,
thus eliminating the need of remote Terminal Unit in many
situations.
These features reduce both equipment cost and maintenance
expenses, thus offering a significant TOC (Total Ownership
Cost) advantages.

3. THYRISTOR CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Thyristor Controlled Rectifiers (TCRs) are another
significant innovation in traditional DC traction power
substation design.
Thyristor rectifiers are offering very important benefit of
regulated DC voltage thus allowing:
Keep the substations bus voltage constant from 0 to a
100% (or even 150%) load, which means improved train
performance in terms of speed and reliability, as well as
lower losses of energy in third rails.
Limit the fault current by quickly collapsing the voltage
once the fault is detected.
For example, lets consider a diode rectifier with 700 VDC rated
voltage and 6% voltage regulation. Its no-load voltage is 745
VDC. Moreover, if the incoming AC line voltage is 5% high,
this will bring the no-load voltage to 784 VDC. Thus all
traction equipment should be able to operate at 784 VDC level.
Lets assume that we have TCR with constant voltage of 770
VDC (to have a margin of about 2%) from 0 to a 100% load,
between 100% and 300% TCR will go into voltage starving and
the output voltage will have the same slope as diode rectifier.

Once the load current achieves 300% the TCR switches into
current mode and keeps the load current 300%.
Figure 1 shows diode rectifier voltages for both nominal and
5% increased AC incoming line voltage, and TCR
characteristics.

so power losses are

Ploss = 12,000 A*159 V = 1.91 MW, or
Power actually consumed by the train
Ptrain = Vtrain*Itrain = 544 V*12,000 A = 6.52 MW, so
Ploss% = 1.91/6.52*100% = 29.3%
In case of TCR, voltage at the substation bus is being
maintained at 770V; to determine losses for the same power
consumption by the train of 6.52 MW, train current and voltage
should be determined first.
The train voltage
Vtrain = Vsub - Itrain*R, or from Ptrain = Vtrain*Itrain
Vtrain = Ptrain/Itrain,
thus current will be determined from the resulting equation:
Ptrain/Itrain = Vsub - Itrain*R, or
V I - I 2*R - P = 0;

Rectifier Output voltage

800.0
750.0

Output voltage

700.0
650.0
600.0

sub train

500.0
450.0
400.0
0%

50%

100%

150%

200%

250%

300%

350%

train

train

Solution of this quadratic equation with Vsub = 770 V yields

Itrain = 10,300 A,
meaning that same power of 6.52 MW needed for train is
provided at higher voltage of
Vtrain = Ptrain/Itrain = 6.52 MW/10,300 A = 633 V;
since substation voltage Vsub = 770 V, voltage drop is
Vdr = Vsub - Vtrain = 770 V- 633 V = 137 V
(or Vdr = Itrain*R = 10,300 A*0.01325 Ohm = 137 V),
which means that power losses are
Ploss = 10,300 A*137 V = 1.41 MW,
so full power drawn from substations is 6.52 + 1.41 = 7.93
MW, or
Ploss% = 1.41/6.52*100% = 21.6%,
hence, reduction of power (and energy) losses by
29.3% - 21.6% = 7.7%,
which for system about the size of LIRR may translate into
savings of about $3.50M in annual energy bills.
The actual energy savings will be somewhat lower because if
the train is sitting at one of the substation, the rail resistance
and rail voltage drop will both be zero. The average energy
savings can be between 50% and 80% of calculated value,
depending on the train position, current profile, etc. Lets
assume the savings to be $3.5 M* 0.65=2.27M
Thyristor rectifier construction is more complex compared
to silicon diode rectifiers, which means higher purchase and
maintenance prices. The cost of a typical 4.5MW TCR is
approximately $120,000 to $180,000 as opposed to the same
size diode rectifier cost of $60,000. Assuming the typical cost
of $160,000, and assuming the actual savings of we get that
3.5-year annual savings on energy costs could have offset
prices of replacing 75 diode rectifiers with TCRs
($2.270,000*3.5/$100,000 = 79); however, there are another
factors to consider before the decision on rectifier selection or
replacement is made: additional internal losses in the rectifier
and energy recuperation.
Losses in the rectifier itself are the product of the current
and semiconductor voltage drop times two for full-wave
rectifiers. While for silicone diodes, the forward voltage drop is
0.7 V, for the thyristor it is about 0.9 V. But since the TCR will
run at lower current (10.3 kA vs. 12 kA) the actual losses in the
diodes are 2*0.7*12,000=16.8 kW while the losses in the

550.0

400%

Current Id
Doide rectifier
Diode rectiifer, +5% volt
TCR

Figure 1 Diode and TCR output characteristics

Lets consider an example of a two 4.5 MW substations 1 mile

apart and a 12 car train sitting 0.5 mile from either substation
and pulling 12,000 Amps. This current will be supplied by both
substations, 6,000 Amps each. Lets also assume that the
combined 3rd rail and running rail resistance is 10
milliOhm/1000 ft or 53 milliOhm/mile.
In case of diode substations with 6% regulation, the substation
bus voltage is 703 VDC, the power consumed by the train from
the substation is
Psub = Vsub*Itrain = 703 V*12,000 A = 8.44 MW
Where Psub is subsation power
Vsub is subsation voltage
Itrain is train current
Power losses in the third rail for a train between two
substations located 1 miles apart,
Ploss = Itrain*Vdr ,
where Ploss is power lost in the rails
Vdr is the voltage drop in the 3rd and running rails.
With a combined rail resistance of 53 milliOhm/mile, the
equivalent resistance, considering that the train is fed by two
sections of third rail working in parallel from the equipotential
bus of two substations,
Vdr = Itrain*R = 12,000 A*0.013 Ohm = 159V,
where R is combined rail resistance, 0.053/4=0.01325 Ohm
Voltage at the train shoe
Vtrain = Vsub - Vdr = 703 V - 159 V = 544 V,

thyristors are 2*0.9*10,300=18.6 kW. Thus the rectifier losses

are increased by only 1.8 kW, we can neglect the number.
In
addition, a rectifier transformer shall be oversized due to a
higher harmonics level, and to support higher voltage; it also
requires a higher K factor, compared to ones used with diode
rectifiers, which means an overall higher cost. Retarded firing
of thyristors creates a lagging current, similar to an inductive
load, and might require the use of line capacitors for VAR
compensation. These factors reduce potential energy savings to
some degree, increasing ROI from 3.5 years to 5 to 7 years
period.

proved that using TCRs allows one to reduce number of

substation from 18 to 14. Consequently, the TCRs were
specified for the project.
3.3. TCR FAULT CURRENT REDUCTION
There is yet another benefit of using a thyristor rectifier
reduction of short circuit currents and their related equipment

3.1. TCR ENERGY RECUPERATION

Energy recuperation is another possible benefit for using
TCRs: for an additional $25,000 a second converter within the
same cubicle may be supplied to capture energy from
regenerative braking. This double converter may provide a
minimum of 20% energy savings during off-peak hours, thus
decreasing ROI.
Some utility power systems are not willing
to accommodate customers with random backfeed in their grid
for a variety of reasons, ranging from safety to technicalities
(excess power is a problem for most power systems in low
demand times, such as night) to accounting (complicated
balance sheets of sold and bought power and energy in the
different times of day with different tariffs). Many of these
reasons are due to misconception on the part of power
companies on the nature of TCR power regeneration (some
engineers assume that process is the same as with independent
synchronous generator, requiring synchronization equipment,
etc.). The process of power recuperation in TCRs is very
similar to rectification, it does not require any changes on the
part of power companies, and both voltage distortion and
harmonics are the same as for rectification. The metering
problem can be resolved easily if the traction authority has
combined metering for its system, rather then individual
metering for each substation, the amount of the power is about
25% of maximum power at the substation level, while on the
system level we, most likely, see just reduction of power
consumption rather than periodic negative flow. The power
regeneration essentially allows the braking power to be
transferred to AC side and then transmitted at high voltage
level to a different part of the traction system. During off peak
hours such transmission is not practical over DC bus due to its
low voltage and substantial voltage drop inn the third and
running rails.

Figure 2 2500 kW TCR

stresses. By changing the firing angle the TCR voltage can be
collapsed very quickly. This way the TCR can operate in one of
three modes: constant voltage (normally from 0% load to 100150% load), voltage starving (the firing angle is minimal and
TCR behave like a diode rectifier, from 100-150% load to
about 300% load) and constant current (the current is kept at
preset level (say 300%) while the voltage is determined by the
load (see Figure 1). This way should the short circuit appear at
the system, the TCR goes into current mode and maintain this
current level (say 300% load) till the feeder breaker opens and
isolates the fault. The stresses on the breaker, connecting cables
and transformer are reduced substantially, since both
mechanical and thermal stresses are proportional to the current
square. TCR allows one to reduce maximum short circuit
current by at least a factor of 4 (from 1200% to 300%) thus
reducing the stress by a factor of 16. The breaker stress is
determined by the arcing energy which is also proportional to
the product of current square and inductance, so breaker stress
is reduced as well.
The current limiting action improves both safety and equipment
reliability, increasing the service life and thus creating
additional savings.
Figure 2 shows 2.5 MW TCR rectifier.
Additional possible benefit of using a thyristor rectifier that has
not yet been given practical consideration: elimination of the
cathode breaker, as well as feeder breakers and replacing them
with contactors since removing firing pulse from the thyristor
gates has the same effect on rectifier units as opening of the

3.2. TCR SUBSTATION NUMBER REDUCTION

With all factors mentioned above, calculating yearly energy
savings from the TCRs becomes a complicated task.
However, in many cases the most important cost savings is not
just the energy savings. Increased voltage at the train shoe
allows us to increase substation spacing, thus reducing the
number of substation. Assuming typical diode substation cost is
about $1M/MW, the TCR substation carry a premium cost
adder of 5% to 10%. In a typical system the number of
substation can be reduced by 15% to 25%, thus achieving an
overall equipment savings between 10% and 15%. However,
the installed substation cost is also determined by real estate
cost (the biggest factor in metropolitan areas), the cost of high
voltage power hook ups, etc. This makes TCR substation very
attractive. In a Phoenix, AZ project extensive simulations

cathode breakers. In case of a fault we can bring the close-by

TCRs down, reduce the fault current substantially, then open
feeder contactors to isolate the fault. Arranging rectifiers this
way yields considerable savings on breakers and on the section
switches , the latter can become no-load switches rather than
customary load switches.
The development of this concept may lead to total elimination
of feeder breakers, this type of substation will occupy at less
than half the space, which is very important in metropolitan
areas, and after reaching a serial production level, will be less
expensive in manufacture, installation and maintenance due to
absence of such major parts as DC breakers. Use of energy
storage systems, such as the fly-wheel system, may further
reduce rectifier capacity requirement, thus reducing its size and
cost, while simultaneously achieving energy savings.

generation M7 trains will cause voltage drops that force the

train current limiters to circumvent performance. With one of
the substations out of service because of the fault or
maintenance, existing rolling stock operation is restricted, and
new train operation is more than questionable. The need for a
new substation in the middle of the run is imminent. However,
surrounding territory is a highly developed suburban area with
prohibitive prices for real estate, making land acquisition
practically impossible. The one possible solution, again, is an
energy storage system that may be built into the existing rightof-way.
Power systems engineers have always been interested in
electrical energy storage as a means of leveling a power
systems load by utilizing excess power and releasing it during
peak consumption. Capturing and re-using kinetic energy from
slowing-down trains by means of regeneration, rather than
wasting it in mechanical brakes, is another important technical
problem that may be successfully solved by energy storage
systems. Other important applications include improving
reliability and quality of electrical energy due to quick
responsiveness of these systems to supply interruptions, voltage
dips, and frequency deviations. From the variety of energy
storage systems developed to date by different companies, the
following are of the practical interest for the traction power
system applications.
The University of Texas Center for Electromechanics
(CEM) flywheel program is focused on the design of a 600-MJ,
3-MW prototype for a locomotive. The rotor is two feet high
and two feet in diameter, made of composite material separated
by thin layers of glass, and spins at 45,000 rpm with a rim
speed of over 950 meters per second. The flywheel can
discharge at a rate of 3 MW for 2.5 minutes.
While this unit is developed for a locomotive, adaptations can
be made for its use as a trackside system.
Promising trackside fly-wheel energy storage systems are
being developed and tested by the British uranium enrichment
company URENCO [3]. URENCO has built centrifuges that
can operate for 10 years without interruption. When power
interruptions became a main reason for lost production,
URENCO used their expertise in centrifuge manufacture to
develop a PIROUETTE - FES system that is capable of
providing 120 kW of power at 600 V for 28 seconds. The rotor
is made of carbon and glass fibers, its outer diameter is 300 mm
while the inner diameter is 170 mm. According to Tarrant, in
March 2002 the company successfully tested the KESS Kinetic Energy Storage System UPT tr 100 designed for
transportation applications. The test was done on a specially
constructed track by Hong Kong CityBus, and demonstrated
11% to 18% energy savings in different conditions of
operation, because of the lower losses due to higher voltage
during the acceleration period.
A 300 kW flywheel system (3-100kW units) was
successfully tested in London Underground with Metro Train
having regenerative braking. Tests clearly show the capturing
of braking energy from the train and reduced power demand
from the substation during train acceleration, with an
accordingly smaller voltage drop: to 450 V without vs 530 V
with KESS.
URENCO has tested 200 kW 5 feet tall units with 5x3
footprints, and is offering 600 kW UPT ru-600 units consisting
of three flywheels and switchgear, that is housed in

4. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

There are three factors that warrant the incorporation of energy
storage systems into existing traction power systems:
1 - Increasingly uneven demand for power and need for
power conditioning (voltage support) ;
2 - Lack of space for substation construction in metropolitan
areas, whereas energy storage systems due to much smaller
footprint, may be easily built into the existing infrastructure;
3 - Simplicity of using energy from trains with regenerative
braking; alternative way calls for thyristor converters capable
of working as both, rectifiers and inverters. Special
arrangements with the utility power system are required for
inverter usage.
As an illustration to this statement, there are two locations
on the LIRR property that are currently being considered in
need of an installation of an energy storage system: Jamaica
Station and West Hempstead branch.
Jamaica Station in Queens, New York, is LIRRs main hub.
Extensive trackwork around the train station represents one of
the biggest interlockings in the world, consisting essentially of
two interlockings: Jay and Hall. The interlocking area is fed
from three substations located about a mile away from its
center. Eight tracks are in constant use for arriving and
departing trains during rush hours. In the middle of
interlocking, there is a breaker house that somewhat alleviates
the problem of sagging voltage when numerous trains are
attempting to leave the station simultaneously. However, the
need for a power input in immediate proximity to platforms is
obvious. The area around the train station has developed an
urban infrastructure and high population density, so it does not
yield enough space to add a substation anywhere near the
station or platforms, where it is needed most. The only solution
to the situation is installing an energy storage system with a
much smaller space requirement in the existing breaker house
building, after new prefabricated breaker house is put in
service.
The second problematic place is the West Hempstead branch
that spans a distance of five miles from Valley Stream to West
Hempstead without a feed in between (normally, substations
are spaced every 1 to 2 miles apart). There are three train
stations on the branch, where regular trains stop, and,
consequently, accelerate to proceed on the route. With both
substations normally feeding, the existing rolling stock of M1
and M3 trains have acceptable performance, with the third rail
system on the verge of its capability. Introducing new

approximately 27x10x10 prefabricated buildings with the

weight of 25,000 lb.
Even though 600 kW is of little practical value to the
railroads that need 3 to 4 MW of power to offset excessive
demand at certain points, the footprint-to-power ratio of the
demonstrated unit warrants its expanded version use, if needed:
considering that half of the building is occupied by switchgear
and its size will not increase considerably with capacity
increase, a 1.2 MW unit will require the building size of only
10x40 feet. Two such units would provide 2.4 MW of power
that can considerably improve power system performance in a
deficient point. However, it would be more logical to suggest
that the company is capable of developing a bigger unit with
the economy of scale that will lead to a better size-to-power
ratio, as well as the price-to-power ratio. A very important
benefit of the URENCO system is the design life of 10 million
cycles with an extremely rapid discharge and recharge rate, and
an extremely high reliability with minimal maintenance due to
use of special maintenance-free sleeve bearings.
Some utility power systems are not willing to accommodate
customers with random backfeed in their grid for a variety of
reasons, ranging from safety to technicalities (excess power is a
problem for most power systems in low demand times, such as
night) to accounting (complicated balance sheets of sold and
bought power and energy in the different times of day with
different tariffs), see discussion in section 4. Thats where
trackside energy storage systems are indispensable for
capturing and re-using energy of braking trains, since energy
circulates within the traction power system, as opposed to
selling it back to utility through thyristor rectifier/inverters.
Among the benefits offered by FES are:
1. Peak demand shaving, leading to:
a) reduced substation capacity requirements;

b) reduced power demand from utility and associated

charges;
2. Voltage support that leads to:
a) improved train performance;
b) reduced energy losses in third rail;
3. Ease of energy recovery from regenerative-braking trains,
resulting in:
a) lower energy bills due to lower losses;
b) lower costs on brakes due to lower wear and tear;
c) less environmental pollution from the brake pads dust
along the tracks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors want to thank Brian Finn and James Bontempi of
the LIRR whose hard work and innovative thinking made
possible implementation of new technologies described in this
article.
Authors also want to thank John Frederick of Powell
PECO whose leadership and vision greatly contributed to
implementing and promoting new technology for traction
systems.
REFERENCES
1. Proudfoot, D. Innovative Substation Design - The Bay
Controller Concept. Raleigh, NC: Siemens Power
Transmission & Distribution, 1999.
2. Internet: Powell Electrical Manufacturing Co. websites ppeco.com; vgcontrols.com
3. Tarrant, C. Hong Kong CityBus UPT tr100 Success.
URENCO Power Technologies Ltd. Capenhurst, Chester,
England, 2002.
4. IEC 61850 - 2003, Communication networks and systems in
substations.