9.

Noise Pollution and Control

CIVL 2410, Spring 2016

Reference
Davis, M. L. and D. A. Cornwell (2008). Introduction to
Environmental Engineering, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY.

Key Questions

1.

What are some key properties of sound waves?

2.

How to describe the loudness of sound?

3.

How can the propagation of sound be modeled for

predictive purposes?

OUTLINE
9.1 Properties of Sound Waves
9.2 Weighting networks
9.3 Rating systems
9.4 Transmission of sound
9.5 Noise control

9.1 Properties of Sound Waves

Sound waves are caused by the vibration of
solid objects.
The vibration causes the surrounding air (or
liquid) to undergo alternating compression and
rarefaction.
This leads to changes in pressure and density,
which are detected by the human ear as sound.

Properties of Sound Waves

Period, P

Pressure

(+)
Amplitude, A
Time

(-)

Sound waves are sinusoidal

5

Properties of Sound Waves

Amplitude, A Height of the wave at a peak.
Period, P Time between successive peaks.
Wavelength, Distance between successive peaks.
=c/f

<-- c is the speed of sound in medium

Frequency, f Number of peaks in 1 second of oscillations,

inverse of period.
f=1/P
6

Properties of Sound Waves

Root means square sound pressure (prms) as a
measure of average pressure.

( )

p rms = p

0.5

1 T 2

= p (t )dt
T 0

0.5

where T is the length of the time period of concern, t is

time, p is pressure and the overbar above p2 means
time-weighted average.
7

Sound Power and Intensity

Traveling sound waves transmit energy.
Sound power, W is a measure of this energy, per unit time.
Sound intensity, I is the time-weighted average sound
power per unit area normal to the direction of propagation.

I=W/A

A is the unit area normal to the

direction of propagation

Intensity and power are related to pressure.

I=

(prms)2

/ ( c)

is the density of the medium

c is the speed of sound in medium, c = 20.05 T0.5
assuming a pressure of 1 atm. T is temperature in
K and c is in m/s.

Levels and Decibel

Faintest detectable sound ~ 0.00002 pascal.
At a rocket liftoff ~ 200 pascal.
To accommodate this large range, a log scale is
used to describe the loudness of sound.

L = log (Q / Q0)

L = level (bel), Q = measured

quantity, Q0 = reference quantity

A decibel is ten times a bel.

L = 10 L = 10 log (Q / Q0)
9

L = level (decibel)

Levels and Decibel

In-class exercise (PRS)
A sound has a decibel of 10. Another sound has a
decibel of 13. How much louder is the second sound
compared to the first? In other words, find the ratio:
Loudness13dB / Loudness10dB

(1) 13 / 10

(3) Approx. 2

(2) 10 / 13

(4) Approx. 0.5

10

Levels and Decibel

Sound power level (reference:

10-12

W as in the units
of power, watt

W)

Lw = 10 log (W / 10-12)
W as in the variable of power

Sound intensity level (reference: 10-12 W/m2)

LI = 10 log (I / 10-12)
Sound pressure level (reference: 20 10-6 Pa)
LP = 10 log (prms2 / prms,02) = 20 log {prms / (20 10-6)}

11

Levels and Decibel

Sound pressure
level, LP (dB)

Sound pressure,
P (Pa)

Jet engine, 25 m distance

140

200

Threshold of pain

130

63.2

Chainsaw, 1 m distance

110

6.3

Vacuum cleaner, 1 m distance

70

0.063

Conversational speech, 1 m distance

60

0.02

Average home

50

0.0063

Library

40

0.002

Bedroom

30

0.00063

Threshold of hearing

0.00002

Sound

12

Adding Levels and Decibels

Example
What is the resulting power level from combining the three
power levels 68 dB, 79 dB and 75 dB?
Solution
To solve, determine the power for each power level, sum them up, then
convert the sum to decibel.
For 68 dB: W = W0 10(68/10)
For 79 dB: W = W0 10(79/10)
For 75 dB: W = W0 10(75/10)
Total W = W0 {10(68/10) + 10(79/10) + 10(75/10)}
Power level in dB = 10 log (Total W / W0)
Power level in dB = 10 log (6,309,573 + 79,432,823 + 31,622,777)
Power level in dB = 80.7
13

Adding Levels and Decibels

In-Class Exercise
(PRS)
The sound power
level in an engine
room is 55 dB.
There are 2
engines in the
room. The power
level of noise from
the first engine is
50 dB. What is the
power level of
noise from the
second engine?
14

(1)53.3 dB
(2)52 dB
(3)5 dB
(4)50 dB
(5)55 dB

9.2 Weighting Networks

The loudness of a sound as
perceived by the human ear is
affected by the frequency of the
sound.
Weighting networks are used to
account for this.
There are 3 networks: A, B and C.

Frequency (Hz)

A sound level meter with a weighting network will subtract or add a

certain number of dB from the sound pressure level of the sound
depending on its frequency.
The resulting reading is the sound level, usually denoted in terms of
dB(A), dB(B), dB(C) dBa, dBb, dBc or dBA, dBB, dBC.
15

Weighting Networks
Example 1:
What is the sound level of a sound with a sound
pressure level of 90 dB. Its frequency is 1000 Hz.
Use the A weighting network. Repeat for the B and C
networks.
Solution:
1000 Hz, A: Sound level = (90 0) dBA = 90 dBA
1000 Hz, B: Sound level = (90 0) dBB = 90 dBB
1000 Hz, C: Sound level = (90 0) dBC = 90 dBC

16

Weighting Networks

Consider the results in the previous

example.
Do you expect a sound with a lower
frequency but the same sound pressure
level to have a lower or higher sound level?

17

Weighting Networks
Example 2:
What is the sound level of a sound with a sound
pressure level of 90 dB. Its frequency is 100 Hz.
Use the A weighting network. Repeat for the B and C
networks.
Solution:
100 Hz, A: Sound level = (90 19.1) dBA = 70.9 dBA
100 Hz, B: Sound level = (90 5.6) dBB = 84.4 dBB
100 Hz, C: Sound level = (90 0.3) dBC = 89.7 dBC

18

Weighting Networks
In-class exercise (PRS)
Consider the following sound level readings:
Sound 1 94 dBA, 95 dBA, 96 dBC
Sound 2 74 dBA, 83 dBA, 90 dBC
Do you expect Sound 1 to be mid-high range in frequency? Or low range?
How about Sound 2? (Mid range is about 1 kHz.)

(1) Sound 1 low range; sound 2 mid to high range.

(2) Sound 1 mid to high range; sound 2 low range.
(3) Sound 1 mid to high range; sound 2 mid to high range.
(4) Sound 1 low range; sound 2 low range.
19

9.3 Rating Systems - LN

A rating system is to summarize sound level
measurements meaningfully.
LN concept
LN is a statistical measure of how frequently a sound
level is exceeded.
L30 = 67 dBA means 67 dBA is exceeded 30% of the
time.
LN can be determined from the cumulative distribution
curve or the probability distribution function of sound
level measurements of interest.
20

Rating Systems - LN
Example
100

80 dBA

% of time sound level

greater than stated value

90

What is L30?

Cumulative
distribution curve

80
70

68 dBA

60

What is L60?

50

55 dBA

40

What is L90?

30
20

Unknown

10

What is L100?

0
50

60

70

80

90

Sound level, dBA

21

100

110

Rating Systems - Leq

Leq concept
Leq is equivalent continuous equal energy level.
It is the constant sound level that if applied over the period
of time of interest gives the same amount of energy as the
actual sound level that is fluctuating with time.
Continuous:

1 T L(t)/10
L eq = 10 log 10
dt
0
T

Discrete:

L eq = 10 log i

22

t i Li /10
10
T

Rating Systems - Leq

Example:
What is Leq for a case where the sound level is
90 dBA for 10 minutes, then 70 dBA for 30
minutes?
Solution:
Leq = 10 log {(10/40)1090/10 + (30/40)1070/10} dBA
Leq = 10 log {2.5 108 + 7.5 106} dBA
Leq = 84.11 dBA ~ 84 dBA

23

Rating Systems - Ldn

Ldn concept
Ldn is Leq computed over a 24-hour period.
To compute Ldn, a penalty of 10 dBA is imposed for the
nighttime, taken as between 10 PM and 7 AM.
The following equation is for time in seconds. i refers to time
intervals during the day, and j during the night.

1
L eq = 10 log
86,400

[ t 10

Total secs
in a day
24

Day

L i /10

+ j t j10

(L j +10 )/10

Night

9.4 Transmission of Sound

Inverse square law
The transmission of sound outdoors without obstruction in an
echo-free environment can be modeled using the inverse square
law.
Intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the source of energy.
r = distance from
the source, m

1
I 2
r

W
I=
4 r 2

I = intensity of
sound, watts/m2
W = power of sound
at the source, watts

25

Transmission of Sound
Inverse square law
In terms of sound power level (rather than sound power), for a
spherical source in an echo-free environment:

L p L w 20 log(r ) 11
r = distance from the source, m
Lp = sound pressure level, dB re: 20 Pa
LW = sound power level, dB re: 10-12 W
20 log(r) = decibel transform = 10 log (r2)
11 = decibel transform ~ 10 log(4) = 10.99

26

Transmission of Sound
Inverse square law
Practically, it may be difficult to measure sound power at the source,
but easier to measure it at a known distance near the source.
To estimate sound pressure level from the pressure level at another
distance, for a spherical source in an echo-free environment:

L p,2

r2
= L p,1 10 log
r1

For a line source (e.g. a road or a

railroad) in an echo-free environment:

r
L p,2 = L p,1 10 log 2
r1
27

Subscript 1
= distance closer to
the source
Subscript 2
= distance farther
away from the source

Transmission of Sound
In-class exercise (PRS)
You live 50 m away from a
highway. You just bought a
new house 100 m away
from highway and will move
there soon. How much %
reduction in sound pressure
do you expect? That is, find:

(1) 20%
(2) 30%
(3) 40%

1 - p2 / p1
where p2 is the sound
pressure at the new house,
and p1 at the current place.
28

(4) 50%

Transmission of Sound
Directivity
In reality, most sources do not radiate sound uniformly in all directions (e.g. due
to obstructions).
The directivity factor, Q is the ratio of the measured intensity at a distance and
angle from the source to the intensity at the same location if the radiation of the
total energy from the source were uniform in all directions.
The directivity index, DI is ten times the log of Q.
The greater Q and DI at a location, the greater the
concentration of sound energy in its direction.

I
Q =
Is

I = measured sound intensity

Is = sound intensity if uniform radiation
from a spherical source
Lp, = measured sound pressure level
Lp,s = sound pressure level if uniform
radiation from a spherical source

29

I
DI = 10 log
Is
DI = L p, L p, s

Transmission of Sound
Directivity factor
Space

Directivity
factor, Q

No surface near source, radiation of sound

energy uniform in all directions

Source on a flat surface, radiation of sound

energy to 1/2 of a sphere

Source at the corner of two flat surfaces

perpendicular to each other, radiation of
sound energy to 1/4 of a sphere

Source at the corner of three flat surfaces

perpendicular to each other, radiation of
sound energy to 1/8 of a sphere

30

Transmission of Sound
Directivity
To account for directivity in the transmission of sound for a spherical
source:

L p, = DI + L p,s
L p, DI + L w 20 log (r ) 11
Taken at a distance
and angle from the
source
Taken at the source

31

Transmission of Sound
Example on directivity
For a spherical source of sound on a hard flat surface such that the radiation
of the sound is limited to a hemisphere (half a sphere), what is the directivity
index (DI) at a location directly above the sphere?

DI = 10 log (Q ) = 10 log (2 ) = 10 (0.3 ) = 3

What is Lp, as a function of Lw and 20 log(r)?

L p, DI + L w 20 log (r ) 11

L p, 3 + L w 20 log (r ) 11
L p, L w 20 log (r ) 8
32

Basic Point Source Model

To model noise transmission taking into account real (nonideal) conditions:

Inverse square law

L p = L w 20 log (r ) 11 A e
Ae = Ae1 + Ae2 + Ae3 + Ae4 + Ae5
Ae1 = attenuation by absorption in air, dB
Ae2 = attenuation by the ground, dB
Ae3 = attenuation by barriers, dB
Ae4 = attenuation by foliage, dB
Ae5 = attenuation by houses, dB

33

Attenuation factor to
account for non-ideal
conditions:

Basic Point Source Model

Attenuation by Absorption in the Air, Ae1
Sound propagation is affected by absorption in the air. Generally,
the greater the humidity, the smaller the effect. The greater the
temperature, the smaller the effect. The absorption effect also
depends on the frequency of the sound.

A e1 =

d
1000 m/km

= air attenuation coefficient, dB/km

d = distance, m

34

Basic Point
Source Model
Air attenuation
coefficient as a
function of
temperature,
relative humidity
and sound
frequency
(taken from
Davis and Cornwell, 2008)

35

Adapted from Example 8-7 in Davis and Cornwell (2008)

The sound power level (re: 10-12 W) of a compressor is 124.5 dB at 1000 Hz.
What is the sound pressure level 200 m downwind on a clear afternoon? Wind
speed is 5 m/s, temperature 20oC, relative humidity 50%, and pressure 1 atm.
To determine Ae1
From table 8-8, = 4.7 dB/km,
Therefore:
Ae1 = d / [1000 m/km]

Ae1 = 4.7 dB/km 200 m / [1000 m/km]

Ae1 = 0.94 dB

Neglecting the other attenuation factors, Ae2, Ae3, Ae4, Ae5

Ae = Ae1 = 0.94 dB
To determine sound pressure level
Lp = Lw 20 log(r) 11 Ae
Lp = 124.5 20 log(200) 11 0.94
Lp = 66.54 dB

36

Basic Point Source Model

In-Class Exercise (PRS)
The sound power level (re: 10-12 W) of a loud radio is 100 dB at 1000 Hz. What
is the sound pressure level 500 m downwind? Temperature is 30oC, relative
humidity 20%, and pressure 1 atm. Consider just noise attenuation by air.

(1) 23.8
(2) 34.1
(3) 32.0
(4) 35.1
37

9.5 Noise Control

Noise control at the source
Better design of noise generating machines and other
equipment.

Noise control along the path of transmission

Use of barriers to block or reduce the flow of noise.

Noise control at the receiver

Use of personal protective equipment.

38

Noise Control at the Source

Reduce impact forces
Reduce speeds and pressures
Reduce friction
Reduce radiating area
Reduce noise leakage
Isolate and/or dampen vibrating elements

39

Noise
Control at
the Source
Isolators

Isolators to reduce transmission of noise (source:

http://www.kineticsnoise.com)
40

Noise Control Along the Path of Transmission

Separation of source and receiver

Use of sound absorbing materials
Use of barriers and panels
Use of enclosures

41

Noise Control Along the

Path of Transmission
Noise enclosures

Source:
http://www.msnoise.com/images/uploadimage/
xevo_enclosure_SV65_vacuum_pump_1.jpg

http://www.drillingnoisecontrol.com/images/New%20Pics
/Drilling%20-%20Portable%20Unit/
Drill_Truck_Enclosure.jpg

http://www.environmental-noisecontrol.com/noise_control_construction.ph
p

42

Noise Control
Along the Path of
Transmission
Barriers and Panels

http://www.forster.at/uploads/tx_templavoila/
Steinhaeusel_169_01.jpg

http://www.armtec.com/en-ca/products-andservices/noise-control/acrylitesoundstop/acrylite-soundstop-noise-barriersheets.aspx

http://www.agrestatechnologies.com/en/produ
cts/ industrial-solutions/noise-barrierprecast.html

43

Noise Control at the Receiver

Modification of work schedule
Use of ear protection

44