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A
rA
RA
(West)
o
X (East)
(South)
(North)
RA
x
A
rA
Y
RA (ti )
RA (t f )
o
O
A
rA
RY
R
RX
X (East)
X
cos(1t )
Figure 3(b) was obtained by letting 0 , o 5
(m) .
sin(1t )
Yo
X
cos(1t )
Figure 3(c) was obtained by letting o 5
(m) and ot .
sin(1t )
Yo
10
Y (m)
10
Y (m)
Y (m)
-1
-2
-2
-2
-4
-4
-3
-6
-6
-4
-8
-8
-5
-5
-10
-10
-10
-10
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
X (m)
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
X (m)
10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
X (m)
10
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3: Trajectories of a rectangle; (a) rotation only, (b) translation only, and (c) rotation and
translation (Matlab Programs: Lecturer1_1R.m, Lecturer1_1T.m, and Lecturer1_1R_T.m).
Linear velocity and acceleration
The velocity and acceleration of a point in an object can always be calculated by the time derivative(s) of the
displacement vector (from the origin) of the point in the EF coordinates. Taking point A in Figure 4 as an
example, its velocity is defined as the time changing rate of the displacement vector RA
dRA
.
dt
Similarly, the acceleration is
d 2 RA
aA
.
dt 2
vA
(3)
(4)
A
RoA
Y
RA
o
Ro
(6)
d
is the angular acceleration
dt
vector of the rigid body. The second term on the RHS of Eq. (6) represents the tangential acceleration with
respect to the origin of EF coordinates, while the third term is called the centripetal acceleration.
eZ ,
dt
and
d d 2 (t )
(8)
eZ .
dt
dt 2
d
It is worth to note that as only the 2D motion of the rigid body is considered, and
are all in the eZ
dt
direction.
y
A
rA
(eY )
A
rA
(t dt )
(t )
o
O
o
X (e X )
Z (eZ )
Figure 5: Illustration of the change in the angular position of a rectangle.
The readers may like to look at the kinematics of a three dimensional rigid body and see how much new
physics and mathematics will be involved.
Linear momentum and force
A more complete description between the motion and force is obtained by define the linear momentum of a
rigid body:
pc mvc .
(9)
which represents a more complete nature of the motion of the body when its causes are concerned. It is noted
that this momentum is defined by product of the mass of the rigid body and the velocity at the centre of the
mass. The centre of the mass is better determined in the BF coordinates (why?). Using Figure 6 as an
example, the centre of mass can be determined by:
S rdxdy
.
(10)
rc
dxdy
where is the mass density per unit area (for 2D case), and S is the surface of the 2D rigid body. Eq. (10)
can be readily extended for a 3D rigid body (Can you do it?). It is clear that m dxdy .
S
b/2
x
b/2
a
As an exercise, the rectangle shown in Figure 7 has a moment of inertial around the origin as:
a /2 b /2
(a 2 b 2 )
I O ( x 2 y 2 )dxdy m
.
(14)
a /2 b /2
12
If the origin of the BF coordinates does not overlap with the centre of mass, as in the example of Figure 8,
what would be the moment of inertial around the origin?
b
b/4
C
o
b/2
a
Figure 8: An example for the calculation of moment of inertial.
Can you show that if we I O and the distance between the origin and the centre of mass is d, then the moment
of inertial about the centre of mass can be determined by:
(15)
IC IO md 2 ?
Similar to Newtons second law for relate the linear momentum to the force, the change of angular
momentum with time is caused by the moment:
dhc
(16)
mc .
dt
Following the definition of the displacement, velocity and acceleration, it becomes clear that if one of them,
is known (Can you think about how would you find one of them?), the others can be determined by
derivatives or integration. On the other hand, if the force and moment vectors on a rigid body are known and
so are the initial conditions (initial displacement and velocity vectors), then the linear and angular
momentums, and linear and angular displacements can be predicted.
Indeed, the causes of the changes in momentums are explained by Eqs. (11) and (16). Then what are the
causes of the force and moment? The following part of dynamics can only answer part of this question. The
rest may be found in other field of studies such as electromagnetics and quantum mechanics.
Tutorial Question 1:
A rectangle rigid body is located at the top of a cliff as shown in Figure 9. The rectangle will move from this
v
initial position as it is subject to an initial linear velocity Xo and initial angular velocity. What are the
vYo
acceleration, velocity and displacement of this rectangle as a function of time?
Y
vYoY
v Xo
b
X
O a
Figure 9: Initial position and velocity of a rectangle for tutorial question 1.
Solution:
The equations of motion of the rectangle (with three degrees of freedom) are:
mX C 0
mYC mg .
(17)
I 0
The initial conditions are:
X C 0, YC b / 2, 0 .
(18a)
(18b)
X C contant= vxo ,
(19a)
X C vxot
YC g
YC gt v yo
and
(19b)
1
b
YC gt 2 v yot
2
2
0
o .
o t
(19c)
Therefore in the BF coordinates, any point A of the rectangle will have the following trajectory in the EF
coordinates (calculated by Eq. (2)):
vxot
cos( t ) sin( t )
XA
o
o xA
(20)
b
.
Y 1 2
A gt v yot
sin(ot ) cos(ot ) y A
2
2
Figure 10 shows the position of the rectangle as several time instants. It would be interesting to view the
trajectory of a typical point (such as the center of the rectangle, or a corner of the rectangle) in the EF
coordinates by using the matlab program provided.
10
-10
-20
-30
Y (m)
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-30
-20
-10
X (m)
Figure 10: The positions of the rectangle as several time instants. (Tutorial1.m)
Tutorial Question 2:
Given the displacement of the point A in a rigid rectangle shown in Eq. (20), can you find out the velocity
and acceleration of the point, and forces and moment on the rectangle?