General Chemistry I

Dr. PHAN TI HUN

Faculty of Food Science and Technology
Nong Lam University

Module 3:
The Three States of Matter
Gas state (Equation of state: ideal gas and real gas).
Liquid state (Attractive forces between molecules, fluid
viscosity).
Solid state (Amorphous and crystalline solids, crystal
structure).

Comparison of solids, liquids, and gases

Gases An overview
Chemists use 4 basic measurements when working with gases:
The pressure of the gas, P (in atmospheres).
The temperature of the gas, T (in kelvins).
The quantity of the gas, n (in moles).
The volumes of gas, V (in liters).

Gases An overview
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. All fluids (liquids
and gases) exert pressure at all points within them in all
directions.
Gas Pressure is defined as the measure, per unit area, of
force exerted by gas molecules on the walls of their container
Unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to
kg/(m.s2)
1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 1.01 x 105 Pa.

Simple Barometer and Manometer

Gas Pressure
The pressure relative to absolute vacuum is called the
absolute pressure.
The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure is called the gage (gauge) pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum
pressures.
The absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related by:
Pgage = Pabs Patm (for pressures above Patm).
Pvac = Patm Pabs (for pressure below Patm).

Standard temperature and pressure

In order to standardize the quantities of gases measured
and conveyed, arbitrary reference conditions called
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) have been
chosen and internationally accepted.

The standard molar volume of an ideal gas is taken to be

22.4 liters per mole at STP.

Gas laws
Gases behave ideally under reasonably high temperatures
and low pressures. The gas laws are helpful in
quantitatively relating pressure, volume, temperature, and
molar units.
Boyles Law
Charless Law
The Combined Gas Law
Avogadros Law
The Ideal Gas Law
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
Grahams Law

Boyles law (1662) :

The volume pressure relationship

10

Boyles law

11

Boyles law
At constant temperature the volume, V, occupied by a
definite mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the applied
pressure, P.

12

Exercise
A sample of gas occupies 12 L under a pressure of 1.2
atm. What would its volume be if the pressure were
increased to 2.4 atm (the temperature did not change)?
Ans:

13

Charless law: the volume - temperautre

relationship (ca. 1800)

14

Charless law

15

Charless law
At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a definite
mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
K = C + 273.15.

16

Exercise
A sample of nitrogen occupies 117 mL at 100.C. At what
temperature in C would it occupy 234 mL if the pressure
did not change?
Ans:

17

The combined gas law

The gas laws (Charles' and Boyle's law) can be combined
to form the combined gas law.

18

Exercise
A sample of neon occupies 105 liters at 27C under a
pressure of 985 torr. What volume would it occupy at
standard temperature and pressure (STP)?
Ans:

19

Avogadros law (1811)

At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of
all gases contain the same number of molecules.
At constant temperature and pressure, the volume, V,
occupied by a gas sample is directly proportional to the
number of moles, n, of gas.

20

10

The ideal gas law

R, the universal gas constant

21

Exercise
How many moles of O2 are present in a 0.5 L sample at
25C and 1.09 atm?
Ans:

22

11

Exercise
Design an air bag for a car. The bag should be filled with gas
with a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, say 828
mm Hg, at temperature of 22C. The bag has a volumee of
45.5 L. What quantity of sodium azide, NaN3, should we use
to generate the required quatity of gas?
2 NaN3(s) => 2 Na (s) + 3 N2(g)
Ans:

23

Dalton's law of partial pressures

24

12

Dalton's law of partial pressures

The total pressure exerted by a mixture of ideal gases is
the sum of the partial pressures of those gases.
PTotal = PA + PB + PC +... (constant V, T)
The partial pressure of an individual gas A in a mixture of
gases:
PA = PTotal XA

XA =

nA
Number _ of _ moles _ of _ gas _ A
=
nTotal Total _ number _ of _ moles _ of _ gases _ in _ the _ mixture
25

Exercise
A sealed vessel contains 0.50 mol of neon gas, 0.20 mol
hydrogen gas, and 0.3 mol oxygen gas. The total pressure
of the the gas mixture is 8.0atm. What is the partial
pressure of oxygen?
Ans:

26

13

Water vapor
At 25C, water is ordinarily a liquid. However, even at
25C, water evaporates. In a closed container at 25C,
water evaporates enough to get a 24-torr water vapor
pressure in its container.
The pressure of the gaseous water is called its vapor
pressure at that temperature.
At different temperatures, it evaporates to different extents
to give different vapor pressures.
The water vapor mixes with any other gas(es) present, and
the mixture is governed by Daltons law of partial
pressures.
27

Gas collected over water

28

14

Exercise
How many moles of oxygen are contained in a 1.00-L
vessel over water at 25C and a barometric pressure of
1.00 atm?
Ans:

29

Grahams Law
Diffusion of gases can be described as the process by
which a gas spreads to occupy the available and accessible
space, thereby creating a uniform pressure throughout the
space the gas occupies.
A gas having a higher partial pressure will travel or diffuse
toward regions of gases having a lower partial
pressure,until an equilibrium is reached.
The effusion rate of a gas is inversely related to the square
root of the molecular weight of the gas.

30

15

Grahams Law :
Diffusion and effusion of a gas

31

Exercise
Calculate the ratio of effusion
of the gases oxygen and
hydrogen. Assume that the
two gases are in the same
container having a tiny hole
in it.
Ans:

32

16

Kinetic theory of gases

1.

Gases consist of discrete molecules. The individual

molecules are very small and are very far apart relative
to their own sizes.

2.

The gas molecules are in continuous, random, straightline motion with varying velocities.

3.

The collisions between gas molecules and with the walls

of the container are elastic; the total energy is conserved
during a collision; that is, there is no net energy gain or
loss.

4.

Gas particles neither attract nor repel one another.

33

Kinetic theory of gases

The kinetic energy (KE) of an individual gas molecule :
KE = 12 mv2
(where m is the mass of the molecule and v is the velocity)
To calculate an average kinetic energy, we therefore need
an expression for the average velocity, alternately written
as urms (the root-mean-square velocity).
u=

3RT
M

The kinetic energy per mole of a gas:

KE = 32 RT
34

17

Maxwell-Boltzman distribution
The average kinetic energy of gaseous molecules is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the sample.

35

Real gases: deviations from ideality

The van der Waals equation, like the ideal gas equation, is
known as an equation of state.

36

18

van der Waals constants

37

Exercise
Calculate the pressure exerted by 1.00 mole of methane,
CH4, in a 500.-mL vessel at 25.0C assuming (a) ideal
behavior and (b) nonideal behavior.

Ans:

38

19

Comparison of solids, liquids, and gases

39

Comparison of solids, liquids, and gases

The molecules of most gases are so widely separated at
ordinary temperatures and pressures that they do not
interact with one another significantly.
The physical properties of gases are reasonably well
described by the simple relationships.
#
In liquids and solids, the so-called condensed phases, the
particles are close together so they interact strongly.
Although the properties of liquids and solids can be
described, they cannot be adequately explained by simple
mathematical relationships.
40

20

The liquid state

Liquids are considered to be relatively incompressible.
Unlike gas molecules, liquid molecules are tightly packed.
Liquids have a fixed volume, whereas gases do not.
Liquids do not have a definite shape.
The properties of liquids can be attributed to the presence
of various types of intermolecular forces.

41

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are weak attractive forces that
contribute to many of the physical properties exhibited by
liquids
1) Hydrogen bonding.
2) Dipole-dipole interactions.
3) London forces or dispersion forces (van der Waals).

42

21

Properties of the liquid state

Viscosity
Surface tension
Capilary action
Evaporation
Vapor Pressure
Boiling Points
Heat Transfer Involving Liquids

43

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow
of a liquid.
For a liquid to flow, the molecules
must be able to slide past one
another. In general, the stronger
the intermolecular forces of
attraction, the more viscous the
liquid is.

44

22

Viscosity
The viscosity of a liquid can be measured with a viscometer

45

Viscosity
Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature, as long as
no changes in composition occur.
Substances that have a great ability to form hydrogen bonds
usually have high viscosities.

(The viscosity of water at 25C is 0.89 centipoise.)

The poise is the unit used to express viscosity.
46

23

Viscosity
Increasing the size and surface area of molecules generally
results in increased viscosity, due to the increased
dispersion forces.

47

Surface tension
Molecules below the surface of a
liquid
are
influenced
by
intermolecular attractions from all
directions. Those on the surface are
attracted only toward the interior.
These attractions pull the surface
layer toward the center. The most
stable situation is one in which the
surface area is minimal.

48

24

Surface tension
Surface tension is a measure of the inward forces that
must be overcome to expand the surface area of a liquid.
The toughness of the skin``.

49

Capilary action
Cohesive forces: intermolecular forces of attraction within
a substance, which cause the molecules of the substance to
resist separation.
Adhesive forces: intermolecular forces of attraction
between two different substances.
Capillary action occurs when one end of a capillary tube, a
glass tube with a small bore (inside diameter), is immersed
in a liquid. If adhesive forces exceed cohesive forces, the
liquid creeps up the sides of the tube until a balance is
reached between adhesive forces and the weight of liquid .
50

25

Capilary action
Water adheres to glass, or is said
to wet glass. The surface of the
water, its meniscus, has a concave
shape.
Mercury does not wet glass
because its cohesive forces are
much stronger than its attraction to
glass. Thus, its meniscus is
convex.

51

Evaporation
Evaporation, or vaporization, is the process by which
molecules on the surface of a liquid break away and go
into the gas phase.

52

26

Evaporation
Kinetic energies of molecules in liquids depend on
temperature in the same way as they do in gases.
Only the higher-energy molecules can escape from the
liquid phase.

53

Evaporation vs condensation
A molecule in the vapor may strike the liquid surface and
be captured there. This process, the reverse of evaporation,
is called condensation.
In the closed container, the system composed of the liquid
and gas molecules of the same substance eventually
achieves a dynamic equilibrium in which the rate of
evaporation equals the rate of condensation.

54

27

Vapor Pressure
The partial pressure of vapor molecules above the surface
of a liquid at equilibrium at a given temperature is the
vapor pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

55

Vapor Pressure
Because the rate of evaporation increases with increasing
temperature, vapor pressures of liquids always increase as
temperature increases.

56

28

Vapor Pressure
Stronger cohesive forces tend to hold molecules in the
liquid state.

57

Boiling point
When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature
under a given applied pressure, bubbles of vapor begin to
form below the surface.
If the vapor pressure inside the bubbles is less than the
applied pressure on the surface of the liquid, the bubbles
collapse as soon as they form.
If the temperature is raised sufficiently, the vapor pressure
is high enough that the bubbles can persist, rise to the
surface, and burst, releasing the vapor into the air. This
process is called boiling evaporation.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its
vapor pressure equals the external pressure.
58

29

Exercise
When a sealed flask of water is connected to a vacuum
pump, the water in the flask is observered to boil at a
temperature much lower than the normal boiling point of
100C. Why does this occur? What does the vacuum
pump do to allow the water to boil at such a low
temperature?

59

Heat transfer involving liquids

The specific heat (J/g C) or molar heat capacity
( J/molC) of a liquid (or solid, or gas) is the amount of heat
that must be added to the stated mass of liquid (or solid, or
gas) to raise its temperature by one degree Celsius.
Q= m.C. (t2 t1) = C. t
where q is the heat required, m is mass, C is the specific
heat, and t is the change in temperature.
For example, the specific heats of water (L), ice (S) and
steam (G) are 4.18 J/gC, 2.09 J/gC and 2.03 J/gC,
respectively.

60

30

Heat transfer involving liquids

Calculate the amount of heat, in joules, required to convert
100 grams of water at 25C to 35C.
(the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/gC)
Ans:

61

Heat transfer involving liquids

Heat of vaporization (Hvap) of a liquid substance is the
quantity of heat required to vaporize one gram of that
substance at its boiling point. The unit used is J/g (can also
be expressed on a per mol basis; kJ/mol).
Heat of condensation of a substance is the quantity of
heat that should be removed to condense one gram of that
substance at its condensation point. The unit used is J/g
(can also be expressed on a per mol basis; kJ/mol).
The heat of condensation of a liquid is equal in magnitude
to the heat of vaporization.

62

31

Heats of vaporization, boiling points, and

vapor pressures of some common liquids

63

Exercise
Calculate the amount of heat, in joules, required to convert
180 grams of water at 10C to steam at 105C.
Ans:

64

32

The ClausiusClapeyron Equation

When the temperature of a liquid is changed from T1 to T2,
the vapor pressure of the liquid changes from P1 to P2.
These changes are related to the molar heat of vaporization,
Hvap, for the liquid by the ClausiusClapeyron equation.

The units of R must be consistent with those of Hvap.

(R=8.314 J/mol.K).

65

The ClausiusClapeyron Equation

The normal boiling point of ethanol, C2H5OH, is 78.3C, and
its molar heat of vaporization is 39.3 kJ/mol. What would be
the vapor pressure, in torr, of ethanol at 50.0C?
Ans:

66

33

The solid state

Solids have definite shapes and volumes.
Solids are not very compressible, are dense, and diffuse
only very slowly into other solids.
Solids are generally characterized by compact, ordered
arrangements of particles that vibrate about fixed positions
in their structures.

67

Melting point
The melting point (freezing point) of a substance is the
temperature at which its solid and liquid phases coexist in
equilibrium.

The melting point of a solid is the same as the freezing point

of its liquid. It is the temperature at which the rate of melting
of a solid is the same as the rate of freezing of its liquid under
a given applied pressure.

68

34

Heat transfer involving solids

The molar heat (or enthalpy) of fusion (Hfus; kJ/mol) is
the amount of heat required to melt one mole of a solid at
its melting point. Heats of fusion can also be expressed on
a per gram basis.
The heat (or enthalpy) of solidification (or
crystallization) of a liquid is equal in magnitude to the
heat of fusion. It represents removal of a sufficient amount
of heat from a given amount (1 mol or 1 g) of liquid to
solidify the liquid at its freezing point.

69

Heat transfer involving solids

70

35

Exercise
Calculate the amount of heat that must be absorbed by 50
grams of ice at -12.0C to convert it to water at 20.0C
Ans:

71

72

36

Sublimation and the vapor pressure of solids

Some solids such as I2 and CO2(s) vaporize at atmospheric
pressure without passing through the liquid state. This
process is known as sublimation.
The reverse process, by which a vapor solidifies without
passing through the liquid phase, is called deposition.

Solids exhibit vapor pressures just as liquids do, but they

generally have much lower vapor pressures.
Solids with high vapor pressures sublime easily.
73

Phase change: Phase diagram

Pressure

Temperature

74

37

Phase diagram of H2O

75

Phase diagram of CO2

76

38

Crystalline and Amorphous Solidss

Solid-state chemistry is one of the most active areas of
science, especially in the development of new materials.
We classify solids into two major group: crystalline and
noncrystalline (amorphous).

77

Crystalline and Amorphous Solidss

Amorphous solids have no well-defined, ordered structure.
Particles in amorphous solids are irregularly arranged, so
intermolecular forces among their particles vary in strength
within a sample.
Melting occurs at different temperatures for various portions
of the same sample as the intermolecular forces are
overcome.
e.g glass, rubber, some kinds of plastics, and amorphous
sulfur.

78

39

Crystalline Solidss
The molecules, atoms, or ions of crystalline solids are
arranged in a regular structural array, called a crystal
lattice.
Crystal lattices are built of unit cells, which are the
smallest repeating units with all of the symetry
characteristics of the general structure.

79

80

40

Unit cell

81

82

41

Crystal structure
We classify crystalline solids into categories according
to the types of particles in the crystal and the bonding or
interactions among them. The four categories are:
1) Metallic solid
2) Ionic solid
3) Molecular solid
4) Network solid (Covalent solid)

83

Metallic solid
A metallic solid consists of positive atomic cores
surrounded by electrons. Almost all metals are solids at
room temperature. The free electrons in metallic solids
account for their superior electrical conductivity (e.g.,
iron, gold, silver).
Most metallic solids are composed of metal atoms packed
together in crystal lattices based on a cube-shaped unit
cell. These cubic unit cells can be one of three structural
types: simple cubic (sc), body-centered cubic (bcc), and
face-centered cubic (fcc).

84

42

Metallic solid

85

Band theory of metals

86

43

Band theory of metals

87

Ionic solid
An ionic solid consists of cations and anions which are
held together by the electrostatic attraction between them.
These attractive forces are very strong and thus ionic solids
have high melting points.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), and cesium chloride (CsC1) are
examples of ionic solids.

88

44

Molecular solid
A molecular solid consists of atoms
or molecules held together by
intermolecular attractive forces. In
molecular solids, the attractive forces
include hydrogen bonds and dipoledipole forces
(e.g. Ice [H2O (s)], Ice [CO2 (s)] ).
Because of the relatively weak
intermolecular forces of attraction,
molecules can be easily displaced.
Thus, molecular solids are usually
soft substances with low melting
points
89

Network solid
In a network solid, the atoms are held together by large
networks of covalent bonds. For these reasons, network
solids have very high melting points.

90

45

Summary
After you have studied this module 3, you should be able to
List the properties of gases and compare gases, liquids, and
solids.
Describe how pressure is measured.
Use and understand the absolute (Kelvin) temperature
scale.
Describe the relationships among pressure, volume,
temperature, and amount of gas (Boyles Law, Charless
Law, Avogadros Law, and the Combined Gas Law).
Use Boyles Law, Charless Law, Avogadros Law, and
the Combined Gas Law, as appropriate, to calculate
changes in pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of
gas.
91

Summary
Use the ideal gas equation to do pressure, volume,
temperature, and mole calculations as related to gas
samples.
Describe how mixtures of gases behave and predict their
properties (Daltons Law of Partial Pressures).
Describe molecular motion, diffusion, and effusion of
gases
Understand the kineticmolecular description of gases.
Describe the molecular features that are responsible for
nonideal behavior of real gases and explain when this
nonideal behavior is important.

92

46

Summary
Describe the properties of liquids and solids and how they
differ from gases.
Understand the kineticmolecular description of liquids
and solids, and show how this description differs from that
for gases.
Use the terminology of phase changes.
Understand various kinds of intermolecular attractions and
how they are related to physical properties such as vapor
pressure, viscosity, melting point, and boiling point.
Describe evaporation, condensation, and boiling in
molecular terms.
Calculate the heat transfer involved in warming or cooling
without change of phase.
93

Summary
Calculate the heat transfer involved in phase changes.
Describe melting, solidification, sublimation, and
deposition in molecular terms.
Interpret P versus T phase diagrams.
Describe the regular structure of crystalline solids.
Describe various types of solids.
Relate the properties of different types of solids to the
bonding or interactions among particles in these solids.
Visualize some common simple arrangements of atoms in
solids.

94

47