Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Module 2.4
Steam Quality

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.4.1

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Steam Quality
Steam should be available at the point of use:
o

In the correct quantity.

At the correct temperature and pressure.

Free from air and incondensable gases.

Clean.

Dry.

Correct quantity of steam

The correct quantity of steam must be made available for any heating process to ensure that a
sufficient heat flow is provided for heat transfer.
Similarly, the correct flowrate must also be supplied so that there is no product spoilage or drop
in the rate of production. Steam loads must be properly calculated and pipes must be correctly
sized to achieve the flowrates required.

Correct pressure and temperature of steam

Steam should reach the point of use at the required pressure and provide the desired temperature
for each application, or performance will be affected. The correct sizing of pipework and pipeline
ancillaries will ensure this is achieved.
However, even if the pressure gauge is correctly displaying the desired pressure, the corresponding
saturation temperature may not be available if the steam contains air and /or incondensable
gases.

Air and other incondensable gases

Air is present within the steam supply pipes and equipment at start -up. Even if the system were
filled with pure steam the last time it was used, the steam would condense at shutdown, and air
would be drawn in by the resultant vacuum.
When steam enters the system it will force the air towards either the drain point, or to the point
furthest from the steam inlet, known as the remote point. Therefore steam traps with sufficient air
venting capacities should be fitted to these drain points, and automatic air vents should be fitted
to all remote points.
However, if there is any turbulence the steam and air will mix and the air will be carried to the
heat transfer surface. As the steam condenses, an insulating layer of air is left behind on the
surface, acting as a barrier to heat transfer.
Automatic
air vent
Steam
Strainer

Air vented to
safe location

Steam heated
cooking vessel

Strainer

Condensate
Fig. 2.4.1 Steam process equipment with an automatic air vent and strainers

2.4.2

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Steam and air mixtures

In a mixture of air and steam, the presence of air will cause the temperature to be lower than
expected. The total pressure of a mixture of gases is made up of the sum of the partial pressures
of the components in the mixture.
This is known as Daltons Law of Partial Pressures. The partial pressure is the pressure exerted by
each component if it occupied the same volume as the mixture:
(IIHFWLYHVWHDP   $PRXQWRIVWHDPDVDSURSRUWLRQ [ ,QGLFDWHGSUHVVXUH 
SUHVVXUHEDUD

EDUD
Equation 2.4.1
RIWRWDOE\YROXPH

Note: This is a thermodynamic relationship, so all pressures must be expressed in bar a.

Example 2.4.1
Consider a steam/air mixture made up of steam and air by volume. The total pressure is
4 bar a.
Determine the temperature of the mixture:
 [ EDUD EDUD


Therefore the steam only has an effective pressure of 3 bar a as opposed to its apparent pressure
of 4 bar a. The mixture would only have a temperature of 134C rather than the expected saturation
temperature of 144C.
This phenomena is not only of importance in heat exchange applications (where the heat transfer
rate increases with an increase in temperature difference), but also in process applications where
a minimum temperature may be required to achieve a chemical or physical change in a product.
For instance, a minimum temperature is essential in a steriliser in order to kill bacteria.

Other sources of air in the steam and condensate loop

Air can also enter the system in solution with the boiler feedwater. Make-up water and condensate,
exposed to the atmosphere, will readily absorb nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide: the main
components of atmospheric air. When the water is heated in the boiler, these gases are released
with the steam and carried into the distribution system.
Atmospheric air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 0.03% carbon dioxide, by volume
analysis. However, the solubility of oxygen is roughly twice that of nitrogen, whilst carbon dioxide
has a solubility roughly 30 times greater than oxygen!
This means that air dissolved in the boiler feedwater will contain much larger proportions of
carbon dioxide and oxygen: both of which cause corrosion in the boiler and the pipework.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.4.3

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

The temperature of the feedtank is maintained at a temperature typically no less than 80C so
that oxygen and carbon dioxide can be liberated back to the atmosphere, as the solubility of
these dissolved gases decreases with increasing temperature.
The concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide is also kept to a minimum by demineralising and
degassing the make-up water at the external water treatment stage.
The concentration of dissolved gas in the water can be determined using Henrys Law. This states
that the mass of gas that can be dissolved by a given volume of liquid is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of the gas.
This is only true however if the temperature is constant, and there is no chemical reaction between
the liquid and the gas.

Cleanliness of steam

Layers of scale found on pipe walls may be either due to the formation of rust in older steam
systems, or to a carbonate deposit in hard water areas. Other types of dirt which may be found in
a steam supply line include welding slag and badly applied or excess jointing material, which may
have been left in the system when the pipework was initially installed. These fragments will have
the effect of increasing the rate of erosion in pipe bends and the small orifices of steam traps and
valves.
For this reason it is good engineering practice to fit a pipeline strainer (as shown in Figure 2.4.2).
This should be installed upstream of every steam trap, flowmeter, pressure reducing valve and
control valve.

C
B

D
Fig. 2.4.2 A pipeline strainer

Steam flows from the inlet A through the perforated screen B to the outlet C. While steam and
water will pass readily through the screen, dirt will be arrested. The cap D can be removed,
allowing the screen to be withdrawn and cleaned at regular intervals.
When strainers are fitted in steam lines, they should be installed on their sides so that the
accumulation of condensate and the problem of waterhammer can be avoided. This orientation
will also expose the maximum strainer screen area to the flow.
A layer of scale may also be present on the heat transfer surface, acting as an additional barrier to
heat transfer. Layers of scale are often a result of either:
o

Incorrect boiler operation, causing impurities to be carried over from the boiler in water droplets.

Incorrect water treatment in the boiler house.

The rate at which this layer builds up can be reduced by careful attention to the boiler operation
and by the removal of any droplets of moisture.
2.4.4

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Dryness of steam

Incorrect chemical feedwater treatment and periods of peak load can cause priming and carryover
of boiler feedwater into the steam mains, leading to chemical and other material being deposited
on to heat transfer surfaces. These deposits will accumulate over time, gradually reducing the
efficiency of the plant.
In addition to this, as the steam leaves the boiler, some of it must condense due to heat loss
through the pipe walls. Although these pipes may be well insulated, this process cannot be
completely eliminated.
The overall result is that steam arriving at the plant is relatively wet.
It has already been shown that the presence of water droplets in steam reduces the actual enthalpy
of evaporation, and also leads to the formation of scale on the pipe walls and heat transfer
surface.
The droplets of water entrained within the steam can also add to the resistant film of water
produced as the steam condenses, creating yet another barrier to the heat transfer process.
A separator in the steam line will remove moisture droplets entrained in the steam flow, and also
any condensate that has gravitated to the bottom of the pipe.
In the separator shown in Figure 2.4.3 the steam is forced to change direction several times as it
flows through the body. The baffles create an obstacle for the heavier water droplets, while the
lighter dry steam is allowed to flow freely through the separator.
The moisture droplets run down the baffles and drain through the bottom connection of the
separator to a steam trap. This will allow condensate to drain from the system, but will not allow
the passage of any steam.
Air and incondensable gases vented

Dry steam out

Wet steam in

Moisture to trap set

Fig. 2.4.3 A steam separator

Waterhammer

As steam begins to condense due to heat losses in the pipe, the condensate forms droplets on
the inside of the walls. As they are swept along in the steam flow, they then merge into a film.
The condensate then gravitates towards the bottom of the pipe, where the film begins to increase
in thickness.
The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.4.5

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

The build up of droplets of condensate along a length of steam pipework can eventually form a
slug of water (as shown in Figure 2.4.4), which will be carried at steam velocity along the pipework
(25 - 30 m/s).
Steam
Condensate
Steam
Slug
Steam

Fig. 2.4.4 Formation of a solid slug of water

This slug of water is dense and incompressible, and when travelling at high velocity, has a
considerable amount of kinetic energy.
The laws of thermodynamics state that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but simply converted
into a different form.
When obstructed, perhaps by a bend or tee in the pipe, the kinetic energy of the water is converted
into pressure energy and a pressure shock is applied to the obstruction.
Condensate will also collect at low points, and slugs of condensate may be picked up by the flow
of steam and hurled downstream at valves and pipe fittings.
These low points might include a sagging main, which may be due to inadequate pipe support or
a broken pipe hanger. Other potential sources of waterhammer include the incorrect use of
concentric reducers and strainers, or inadequate drainage before a rise in the steam main. Some
of these are shown in Figure 2.4.5.
The noise and vibration caused by the impact between the slug of water and the obstruction, is
known as waterhammer.
Waterhammer can significantly reduce the life of pipeline ancillaries. In severe cases the fitting
may fracture with an almost explosive effect. The consequence may be the loss of live steam at
the fracture, creating a hazardous situation.
The installation of steam pipework is discussed in detail in Block 9, Steam Distribution.
Incorrect use of a concentric reducer
Steam

Inadequate drainage before a rise

Condensate

Steam
Incorrect installation of a strainer
Steam

Condensate
Condensate

Fig. 2.4.5 Potential sources of waterhammer

2.4.6

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Steam Quality Module 2.4

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Questions
1. Steam supplied at 6.5 bar g contains 20% air by volume. What is the temperature of the
mixture ?
a| 165C

b| 127C

c| 167C

d| 159C

2. Why is a boiler feedtank heated to approximately 85C ?

a| To reduce the energy required to raise steam

b| To reduce the content of total dissolved solids in the water supplied to the boiler

c| To reduce the gas content of the water

d| To reduce the content of suspended solids in the water

3. What is used to dry steam ?

a| A separator

b| A strainer

c| A steam trap

d| A tee piece

4. What causes waterhammer ?

a| Suspended water droplets

b| An air /water mixture

c| Strainers fitted on their sides

d| Slugs of water in the steam

5. How does air enter a steam system ?

a| Through joints, on shut down of the steam system

b| With make-up water to the boiler feedtank

c| With condensate entering the boiler feedtank

d| All of the above

6. Why should strainers installed on steam lines be fitted on their sides ?

a| To prevent the build-up of water in the strainer body

b| To trap more dirt

c| To reduce the frequency of cleaning

d| To provide maximum screening area for the steam

Answers

1: d, 2: c, 3: a, 4: d, 5: d, 6: a
The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.4.7

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

2.4.8

Steam Quality Module 2.4

The Steam and Condensate Loop