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Seakeeping in Rough Weather
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e-22228) ty omestcd inthe anew out of the framework (me 2@# through the opposite face 28) 55 cad Hence the net mass flow into the framework through these two faces is o Fluid dynamics [ch.2 (Resp os Fig. 2.1 — Equation of cominuity: mn low inthe x dieston. pu) 3r Br dy d connes'second ‘The same approach is used to find the net mass flow into the framework through the other pair of faces: (pu) oy Br Syd tonnessecond and the total mass flow into the framework is _ (ow , 5100)" (22-2) a ore ame ‘The mass of fluid within the framework is approximately p 6x By d tonnes. Since the dimensions of the framework are fixed. this mass can only change ifthe density See. 2.4] ‘The velocity potential s changes. [n this case the rate of increase of the mass of fluid inside the framework is (29/98) Sx By d tonnes/second and this must balance the net mass flow through the faces imto the framework. Hence ) &x Sy d_tonnessecond and the general equation of continuity is 2 as re + eu) tonnes/(metre® second) (28) ‘which is valid for both real and ideal fluids. Ifthe density is constant (1.2. the fuid is incompressible) this reduces to oe 1 2 5p 7 9 see0nds 29) which is the equation of continuity for an ideal fui. 24 THE VELOCITY POTENTIAL ‘The flow of an ideal fluid can be described in terms ofthe velocity potential. This isa fanction 6(x, y,t) which has some value everywhere in ¢ fluid low and varies such that the velocity components are given by its partial derivatives: «= meures/second (2.102) BE waonseoee (2.100) As an illustration Fig. 2.5 shows velocity potential contours for a particular two-dimensional fuid flow in the x-yplane. The potential may be visualised as.a“hill with the fluid velocities given by the slopes in the appropriate directions. So the velocity «in the x direction at point Q is obtained by taking asection at the plane AA ‘and finding the slope of the velocity potential at Q. The velocity »may be found by a 36 [cn.2 Section Aa, Fig, 25 — Velocty potentials 2 two-dmensonal nus ow 2.6, Ifthe velocity potential at A (r. €) is > and the velocity potential at B(r-+8r, 0+ 26) 18 6+ 59, i follows that 3 ea? o+26 = 9+ a+ Bay a = orBirs ban mmesinond 288 5c 4 Bb gy = 2 5 BG y Se b+ Soy = SF r+ ZF 60 metressecond Now Bx = 1.80 cos 0+ 6r sin @ metres Sy = Srcos0—r 80 sinO metres Qo ‘The velocity potential 37 “ rae LAK Sec. 24] srcos Fig. 26—Convension wo pola coontinates 56 8 oc 20 snd cst) +0 (Sout-S2on6) and, from equations (2.10) Br(w sin 8+ » cos 8) +r 88 (u cos B—v sin 0) 36 5 8b y = 257454 50 metres:isecon So r+ Zh 50 met i ‘Separating radial and tangential components we obtain for the radial velocity usin 8+ cos 8 2 metrestiecon 2 metressecond positive away from the origin (2.11a) 38 Fluid dynamics [ch.2 and for the tangential velocity iy = cos O—u sin 0 199 = 183 mowes'second positive antcockwise (arb) 2.5 INTEGRATION OF EULER'S EQUATIONS OF MOTION: BERNOULLI'S EQUATION An analogous force potential may also be defined for the externally applied forces so that 2 nevecnnt em) yx 2 noeavennd en) Partial differentiation of equations (2.10) gives 2 ou ow Substituting the “<* equations (2.10a). (2.12a) and (2.13) into Euler's equation of ‘motion for the x direstion (equation (2.7a)) we obtain 30 & b metressecond? Qu) Now 5) metessecon (2.158) 2) menace cum) 0 metrevsecond® (2.16) See. 2.5] Integration of Euler’s equations of motion: Bernoulli's equation 39. if p is assumed to be constant ([.e, the fuid is incompressible). Equation (2.16) may now be integrated 10 give ao a art = Fly.) metres*isecond® (@.tay where ¢?= = + v°(q isthe total velocity) and F, isan arbitrary function which does not vary with x (in other words F, isa ‘constant’ of partial integration with respect to 1). Asimilar procedure for the y component yields = Filx1) metres*second? (2.176) where F, is not a function of ». Since the left-hand sides of equations (2.17) and (2.17) are the same. itis clear that the functions F and F, must be identical and have the sume values at all positions and that they are therefore functions only of time. Hence the integrated form of Euler's equations of motion for an inviscid incompres- sible uid is FQ) metrestisecond® G8) Now equation (2.10) shows that the velocities are functions only of the deriva- y potential and not of the potential function itself It follows that any arbitrary constant may be subtracted from the potential function without affecting the velocities. The quantity f F(0) de meites*/second hhas the same value everywhere in the fluid at some arbitrary time rand may therefore be regarded as a constant. We may define 2 new velocity potential of Fd) di metres*/second without affecting the velocities in any way. Then 30 ar 7 ar —F(d) dt metres*second 0 Frid dynamics {cn.2 and equation (2.18) becomes 38 ar second £ +P 20 meres 2 P This alternative form of Bernoulli's equation is sometimes convenient. The prime may of course be omitted so that 43094? ate 8TG metrestisecond? 19) If the flow is steady (Le. no variations with time) equation (2.18) reduces 10 a+? > £ smetres*cconé? Q. : F me é 2 where F is now an arbitrary constant, If there is no external applied force the force potential ©is constant and the equation reduces to the well known form PPE = Pog kN/metre? 21) Where Poa is another arbitrary constant If the Fd is brought rest at some point so that gC, the pressure will be P= Pug kNimette! and Pag is Known asthe stagnation pressure. 2.6 LAPLACE’S EQUATION Substituting equations (2.10) for the velocity potential in the continuity equation for an incompressible fluid (equation (2.9)) leads to the Laplace equation Fb (2.22) which must be satisfied at every point in an ideal fluid flow. A potential function which satisfies Laplace's equation will therefore describe some ideal flow of an inviscid incompressible Nid Sec. 2.7] ‘The stream function 4 2.7 THE STREAM FUNCTION Consider a small rectangular element of sides &x and y and depth d metres in the ‘two-dimensional flow field shownin Fig 2.7. The volume flow through the clement is = f wayne ox Fig. 2.7 —Defirition ofthe stream fusion u dy d_ metces'/second in the positive x direction and vaxd_ metrest/second in the positive y direction. So the total volume flow across the line OS,Ris fia 4y—v dx) metres'isecond “The related quantity v= fy-28) emeehnmt cay Js the volume flow across the line OS/R per unit depth of ud, Consider now a second line OS;R joining the origin to the point R. Provided that 2 Fluid dynamics [nz ‘no fluid is created or destroyed in the space between the two lines (i.e. the equation of continuity (2.9) is satisfied) the value of y will be unchanged. y is therefore a function only of the position of R and is independent of the path of integration, vis, called the scream function, Differentiating equation (2.23) gives dy = wdy—vdr_ metrestisecond but ay = Bare Say metesisecond 50 the velocities are ce sarees am) v= -& metressecond 2.24) Referring to equations (2.10) we see thatthe stream function is related to the velocity potential by 26 $2 metrevsecond (2.25a) oy ay ay metres/second (2.256) Lineson which y isconstant are called streamlines, and the fluid flows along these lines when the flow is steady. Streamlines intersect lines of constant potential at right angles. ‘In the polar coordinates defined in Fig. 2.6 the stream function is related to the tangential and radial velocities by (2.268) (2.266) See.2.8] Some simple flows a 2.8 SOMESIMPLE FLOWS 2.8.1. Uniform stream + auniform stream with velocity U metrevsezondincined otan angle x tothe 1 axis as shown in Fig. 2.8, The velocities everywhere are given by °, x Fig, 2.5—Uniform steam inthe 2-y plate u = Usin, metreysecond v= Ucos x metresisecond and the stream function at any point R is, from equation (2.23) vy = Uysin y—Ux cos x metresi/second 22 From equation (2.10) w= Using metresisecond v= Ucosy metrey/second ad ae 30 ay ang the potential function is therefore = Ux sin y+ Uy cos 1+ an arbitrary constant metres*/second (2.28) ‘We note in passing that the potential function satisfies Laplace's equation. confirm- “4 ‘Fluid dymamies ing that it represents a valid flow of on ideal uid. Fig. 2.9 shows streamlines an equipotential contours for a uniform stream derived from equations (2.27) and (2.28). 2.8.2 Sources and sinks Fig. 210 illastrtes point source atthe origin in the x-y plane. The souree may be visualited a «narrow cube with porous walls extending over the depth ofthe Mud Fluidis created within the tube at arate md metres second and the source strengths suid to be m metressecond, At some radial distance r metres the uid recently treated by the source © Aovting outwards at a rate md mettessecond across 2 ‘vlinrical boundary of circumference 2rr metres and depth d mies. The redial ‘locity therefore md _ om FE = FB metrevsecona where r= VF +7) metres ‘The component velocities are J se x metres/second oy by smexres'second Integrating, we obtain the stream funetion for a point source atthe origi: eo) and the potential function is BB petressecond e2) $= FeV loge r metres*/second 230) ‘Streamlines and equipotential contours for a point source are shown in Fig. 2.11 ‘As expected, the streamlines raciate outwards from the source and the equipotential ‘contours are concentric cizeles centred an the source. ‘Asink is simply a source with a negative strength. Fluid is therefore drawn into, the source at arate md metres'/second and the stream and potential functions are (ca.2 | Sec.2.8] 4s p29 sreamnesanequpteil conto rar seam ig 230 tt serenity Y Bun (2) MP) mewesisecond 31) tows Vit4y2) = =Zloger meessecond 32) Note that the equation of continuity is violated at the source (or sink) but is valid elsewhere in the flow. 2.11 — Streamline 394 egaipotentl contours fr point sours athe igi in they ane 2.8.3 Doublet or dipole Siream and potential functions for sources, sinks and uniform streams may be added to build more complicated flow patterns. One of the simplest combinations is a source of strength m and a sink of strength — m on the x axis as shown in Fig. 2.12 Fi — Combination ofa source and aah on he xa “The stream function is then metressecond tan! @—tan-* b ‘and the stream function is Uwe now choose ro move the source and sink towards the origin and tthe same time to increase their strengths in such a way that the product M =2ms metre"Ysecond remains constant, we may write for the stream function My. _ Moos VE Dar v metressecond (233) and the potential function is, Ms Maing oo Ve em) ‘The combination ofa source and a sink at the origin is called a doublet ora dipole. Fig. 2.13 shows the streamlines and equipotential contours associated with a dipole aligned with the x axis. These are all cicies centred on the y and x axes respectively. The centres ofthe circles are at (0, MI2zy) and (M?2x6. 0). ‘ina similar way it can be shown that the stream and potential functions for a lipole aligned withthe y axis are given by Mx Msin® = retresseco : Y" “Rye Sy) Bar ne es) My M080 ce Oo Bevery) ~~ dar Tewesisecond oa So changing the orientation of the dipole exchanges streamlines for equipotential contours and viee versa. [ch 2 — Flow paers associ with cipolecgned with + ax —. steambes: eaaporenta 2.8.4 Multipoles Sources, sinks and dipoles are often termed singularities because their stream and potential functions adopt infinite values atthe origin. The poteatial functions satisfy Laplace's equation everywhere except at the singularity itself and these functions therefore represent valid lows of an ideal uid ‘These particular singularities may be visualised in physical terms, Asan example ‘we have already seen that a source may be imagined as # porous tube from wich fluid flows in all directions. However, ths isnot a necessary requirement for a valid potential function. A wide range of singularities exist which represent no simple physically understandable fow. Yet they still represent a valid flow of an ideal tid provided that the potential funetion satisfies Laplace's equation (2.22). Multipoles fall into this category. The stream and potential functions for multipoles aligned with the x axis are defined as MeO etrstsecond m= 123, @3n M3000) peepee ex and the corresponding functions for mutpoles aligned with they axis ae = MSOC) perestnocond m= 123, 038) See. 2.8] Some simple flows 9 M.cos (ri) BrP mecreecond —m 2.40) If m=1 the multipoles become the dipoles already discussed in section 2.8.3, Some examples of streamlines and equipotential contours for various valucs of m are showa in Fig, 2.14, Fig 2.4 —Multpoles: streamlines: ~~ ~ equipotent 2.8.5 Flow around a circular cylinder in uniform stream ‘The stream and potential functions for a uniform stream of velocity U metres/second parallel to the x axis are, from equations (2.27) and (2.28), y= Uy metres?second 30 ‘Fluid dynamics [ch.2 Ux metresisecond These may be combined with a doublet to give smetressecond ay TEEepS Mettessecond (2.2) 5 and these functions are plotted in Fig. 2.15, msvase Fg. 2.15 —Pocental ow around x crear cyinder ina niorm steam, Now we have seen that the lines on which the stream function is a constant are streamlines. Since in stezdy flow the uid flows along these lines, any one of them could be replaced by a sclid boundary of the same shape without altering the characteristics of the rest of the low. If we choose the particular streamiine Sec.2.8] Some simple flows 3 v= 0. motrest/second from the set of streamlines defined in equation (2.41), we find it reduces to = 0 meres 2.3) Mt 2 e. sy metres (aa Equation (2.43) isthe x axis and equation (2.44) is the equation ofa circle of radius a= (Zh) neves eas) ‘and we can see that equations (2.41) and (2.42) represent the flow around a circular cylinder in a uniform sizeam. For simplicity only streamlines and equipotential contours outside the circle are shown inthe illustration of the flow in Fig. 2.15. The velocities are obtained by differentiating equation (2.41) or (2.42): (2.46) vn = - -_Oerzessc 2.47 Se ~ F - - sarc metrestecond an) At the points A.(~r, 0) and B,(r, 0) the velocities are zero, and these points at the front and rear ofthe eyinder are called stagnation potnss. As explained in section 2.5 the pressure is then equal to the stagnation pressure of the fui, AtC{0, ~r)andD.(0,r) on the topand bottom ofthe cylinder the velocities are 1 metresssecond y= 0 metres'second So the velocity at these points is twice the freestream velocity and, as would be expected, parallel tothe x axis. The pressure at these points is a minimum given by ‘equation (2.21): P = Pooy—29U N/mette?, 2 Fluid dynamics [ch.2 2.9 CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS ‘The solution for the potential Now around a circular eylinder in a uniform stream fs but one example ofthe many ways in which complicated flows can be syathesised by adding the sream and potential functions for elementary fows. Many such solutions ‘can be built up by suitable combinations of sources, sinks and uniform streams. ‘A powerful additional technique allows a wide range of further flow patterns £0 be derived from these basic synthesised solutions, The method involves mapping the streamlines and eguipotential contours of 2 known flow into the streamlines and ing some Suitable ms wi) = wes) = 6.tiy) metacond This often results in a considerable algebraic simplification, For example, the complex potential functions ofthe elementary flows already considered are simply (a) uniform stream at an angle 10 the y axis w(z) = Us sin x—iUz cos x metces/second (2.48) (b) source at the origin 2) = tog el metes*second 49) (6) sink at the origin (2) = — FE log. [z|_metres*/second 2.50) (4) doublet aligned withthe x axis atthe origin metrestisecond 2st) See. 2.9] ‘Conformal transformations 3 (¢) circular cylinder in 2 uniform stream parallel to the x axis Ure 2h meites?second 232) ‘The velocities u, and v, are obtained by differentiating the complex potential function: dome) a dita) a 253) (see equations (2.10) and (2.24)). ; ‘Suppose that we require to find the flow pattern (ie. the streamlines and the ‘equipotential contours) around some arbitrary shape which is defined in another ‘complex plane © such that = fg titys metres (see Fig. 2.16) Fig 2 16— Mapplag 2 supe nthe = plane ito anoter supe the plane. 4 Fluid dynamics [ch 2 ‘Then we need to find a mopping function ¢ = fle) mews ‘and its inverse = FQ metres ‘lating all points in the z plane to corresponding points inthe ¢ plane. We requie ‘the function to map all points onthe surface of the body in our known solution in the =z plane (for example. the circular cylinder) onto the surface of the body about which the flow is required in the | plane. Finding 2 suitable function t0 ‘nap a simple geometric shape in the z plane into an arbitrary shape in the & plane may be a formidable probiem. However. a wide range of shapes can be produced and i is often pessible to achieve a reasonable approximation to a desired shape using relatively simple mapping functions ‘Let us suppose that a suitable mapping function has been found. Then for any ‘point in the ¢ plane we may calculate the numerical value of the complex potential H(z) atthe corresponding point in the : plane. Let us call this W(c) where WO) = Wiest ita) > me) jy. metres/second Thea 36, metrevsecond (254) Comparing equations (2.54) with equations (2.25) itis evident that the complex potential w(2) calculated inthe > plane must also represent some valid fuid flow in the & plane Consider the value of the complex potential on any streamline (including the surface of the body) in the z plane. Since the stream function is constant everywhere along a streamline the complex potential must be ofthe form w(z) = real number-+i x constent ‘Since w(=) has the same value at corresponding points in the planeitisclear that the Sev. 2.9] ‘Conformal transformations 5 streamlines in the = plane rust map into streamlines in the ¢ plane. By a similar argument equipotential contours inthe plane must also map into equipotential contours inthe ¢ plane. ‘The velocities in the ¢plane are obtained by differentiating the complex potential with respect to = FQ W.-iv, ing metrevsecond (2.55) ‘Asan example consider the mapping function 4 metres 256) ‘where the coefficients a, a, and a; are real. Choesing different values for these ‘coefficients allows the flow around the circular cylinder in the = plane to be mapped into the low around a wide variety of shapes in the ¢ plane. We shall meet this ‘mapping function again in Chapter 11 where we shall se that it is used to obtain the solution to the fow around shapes of ship-like crosssection. The coefficients are then required to have particular values to ensure that the mapped shapein the plane approximates fo the required hull eoss-section, However. forthe time being It us choose the values e= a0 ‘Then the mapping function becomes (On the surface ofthe eylinder we have ze ae metres 2m ige” metres 6 Fluid dynamics [cn.2 where ) mee yuien 25 Fig. 2.17 shows the streamlines and equipotential contours obtained from this ‘mapping function for the particular case of a, = 5 metres ae ‘The major and minor axes are then * 2 3° 3 The velocities are obtained from equations (2.53) and (2.55) See. 29] Conformal transformations 7 ‘The front and rear stagnation points A, and B, of the circular cylinder map into the corresponding points A- and B.on the elliptical cylinder (Fig. 2.17). Putin in equation (2.57) yields u-—iv.0 metres'second, 50 that these points are also stagnation points in the { plane. Similarly the pois C. and D. on the circular cylinder. which experience the maximum velocity 2U mettes/second in the = plane, map into the corresponding points C_ and D. on the elliptical cylinder. Putting ‘= a metres in equation (2.57) and equating real and imaginary parts sives, 2 gmetresisecond metressecond for the velocities at C,and D,, The velocities at any point in the ¢ plane may be found, by this method, 3 ud dynamics [on.2 210. VISCOSITY ‘Although neglect of viscosity can often be justified, it cannot always be ignored. In particular, viscosity has important effecs very close tothe surface ofa body in afhuid ‘and is responsible for the existence of the “boundary layer". a thin layer of slow ‘moving fluid immediztely adjacent to the body surface. ‘Consider the flow around the body shown in Fig. 2.18. Immediately behind the Fig. 2.15 —Growthand separation boundary lve (Ovunday layer tihnes cassette) {ont stagnation point the boundary layer will be laminar with a smooth well ordered structure and the velocity profile shown in Fig. 2.19. (x and y are here taken as 18 ol oa | Fig. 2.19 — Laminar an uralem velocity profes Sec. 2.11] Lifting surface characteristics 39 parallel and nonmal to the local body surface.) At the «ransiion point eddies will begin to grow in the boundary layer and the velocity cistribution changes to the ‘turbudent profile aio shown in Fig. 2.19, ‘Tae shear stress applied by one layer of fluid moving over another is given by cm tee ass whore isthe coefficient of viscosity. At the surface this appears frictional force ‘onthe body. Clearly the force applied to the body by the turbulent boundary layer is ‘much greater than that applied by the laminar boundary layer. ‘Outside the boundary layer the velocity gradient is very small and the viscous forces are negligible. So potential low methods can be applied provided that the boundary layer is relatively thin. This is generally rue over the forward porsion of the body where there is a favourable (falling) pressure gradient. This hips to ‘minimise the growth of the boundary layer and keeps the flow firmly attacked to the body surface. However, the pressure gradient beyond the maximum diameter ofthe ‘bodys adverse (rising) which tends to slow the flow and leads to.arapid thickening of, the boundary layer. At some stage the velocity gradient atthe surface may become zero as shown in Fig 2.18. Beyond this point flow reversal occurs and the boundary layer is said to separate. Large-scale eddies which are not predicted by potential flow methods wil then occur. Predictions of forces based on potential flow may then bein Flow separation may occur whenever there is an adverse pressure gradient on bodies with tapering tals. The more rapid the taper, the more likely is separation. In particular, separation is virtualiy guaranteed at any discontinuity or sharp coraer on the body surface. 241 LIFTING SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS ‘Ship hulls are usualy fitted with appendages such as rudders, propeller shat brackets and roll stabiliser fins. These can influence the behaviour of the ship in rough weather land we shall require a method of estimating the forces developed by them. These forces may be estimated using potential fow methods based on the techniques, described above, but results of adequate accuracy can be obtained using the simple ‘empirical forrmuize given below. ‘Consider the typical ling surface appendage shown mounted on the hu in Fig, 2.20, The geomeity of the surface is conveniently defined by the root and tip chords and ¢, and the outreach b. The mean chord is e- S25 motes o Fluid dynamics [cn.2 a | Fig. 2.20 Ling surface rota, and the planform area is el : An be = Fle te) metres 59) ‘The aspect ratio, defining the general proportions of the surface. is (2.60) ‘When the surface i atan angle of incidence a to the incident flow it will generate a lift force Land a drag force D. These forces are respectively normal and parallel to the direction ofthe incident flow. Fora given angle of incidence and planform shape the lft and drag are found to be proportional to the square ofthe forward speed and the planform area. So the lift and drag may be expressed in non-dimensional terms as Lifting surface characteristics 6 (asi) (2.0) Mast surfaces used in ship applications have a streamlined symmetrical section like that shown in Fig. 220. For these sections there is no lift at zero incidence and the drag isa minimum. Fig. 2.21 shows typical non-dimensional lift characteristics of such a surface. Fig, 2.21 —Typie iting sures characte, For small angles of incidence the lift coefficient increases more or less linearly with the angle of incidence and we may write the lift coefficient as = & eae (283) where dC; /da isthe lift curve slope. ‘The slope of the curve diminishes as the angle of incidence is increased and maximum lift occurs atthe stall angle ani. The lift curve slope increases with the aspect ratio, but surfaces of high aspect ratio stall earlier and more abruptly than those of low aspect ratio. The lift characteristics of symmetrical sections are only weakly dependent on the section shape. Whicker and Fehlner (1958) teste a variety oflitingsurtace of ow aspect ratio such as are typically employed oa ships and derived an empirical forma forthe lift curve slope as a function of aspect ratio: a ieee ~ | seiay cen 7 Brecon) becomes 20. The drag force en ven large and act normal tthe plane of te surface. For this ae Hoerner (988) pee | Cosi 266) $0 et at! es | Fig. 2.22 shows this formula plotted for rectangular lifting surfaces together with { rr a a Fig 222 Lite slope (Aller Whicer and Felner (1958) illustrations of the surface plonforms associated with various aspect ratios. Clearly the lift curve slope increases dramaticaly with increasing aspect ratio: inother words Jong slender iting surfaces (like a elider’s wings) are much more effeetive than short stubby surfaces ‘Whicker and Fehlner also reported the stall ‘These are given approximately by gles found for their lifting surfaces. Gay = 1.050.480 + 0.07502 radians for a<3.0 (2.654) Swan = 0.39 radians for a>3.0 (2.650) If the angle of incidence approaches 90 degrees the lift force (normal tothe flow 3 Regular waves 3.1 INTRODUCTION “The waves which influence the behaviour of ships at sea are generally iregular and ‘more of less random in nature. No two waves have exactly the same height and they travel across the surface at different speeds and in different directions. Techniques for coping with the chaotic nature of the real sea surface are described in Chapter 4, ‘but itis first necessary to discuss the characteristics of ideal regular waves. Such waves never occur in the real ocean environment although they can be produced in laboratory towing tanks and form the basis of many scakeeping model ‘experiments. Of equal importance is the fact that the theory of irregular waves is based on the assumption that they can be represented by ‘superposing’ or adding together a suitable assembly of regular waves. Soit is clear thatthe characteristics of, regular waves have a profound influence on the behaviour of ships in rough weather even though they are never actually encountered at sea: an understanding of their nature is one of the vital tools in the study of seakeeping Fig. 3.1 shows a train of regular waves advancing across the surface of a body of water of constant depth d. The waves are two-dimensional: that is, they advance in, the x direction and the crests are perpendicular to the x axis. The crests may be xy on either side ofthe x axis; alternatively the waves ‘may be imagined to be advancing down along narrow tank bounded by vertical walls parallel to the x axis. ‘The salient characteristics of the waves are: the instantaneous depression ofthe water surface below the mean level the wave amplitude or vertical distance fromthe meanlevel =0) o acrestor 4 trough; Si always positive the wave height: wice the wave amplitude the wave length: the horizontal distance (in the x direction) between one crest (or rough) and the next ¢ the wave celery: the velocity ofan individual crest inthe x direction ee en Sec. 3.2] ‘The potential function “ the wave period: the time interval between successive crests (or troughs) passing a fixed point a the instantaneous wave slope: the gradient of the surface profile (in radians) the maximum wave slope (in radians) HOA the wave steepness Fig 3.1— Regular waves. “These waves progress across the surface ina regular orderly fashion. Each wave crest advances at the same steady velocity ¢ so that the waves never overtake each other and the wavelength 2 and period T remain constant. The shape of each wave remains the same and the whole wave train appears to advance like a rigid corrugated sheet. Fortunately for the student of seakeeping, the characteristics and detailed structure of regular waves are very well predicted by the technique of classical fluid ‘mechanies outlined in Chapter 2. In common with the treatment of many other amenable flows itis necessary to assume that the water is incompressible and inviseid in order to obtain a workable solution. This does not imply that water is actually ‘incompressible or inviscid: merely thatthe values of compressibility and viscosity are such that they have litte discernible influence on the characteristics ofregular waves. We shall also assume that the effects of surface tension are negligible. This restricts the validity of the solutions to wavelengths greater than about 0.1 metres. 32. THE POTENTIAL FUNCTION It is first necessary to find a potential function 4 which describes the fluid flow associated with a regular wave. A large number of potential functions which happen 6 Regular waves [ch.3 to satisfy Laplace's equation (2.22) could be formulated and each would describe some flow of an ideal inviscid incompressible uid. The choice ofa potential function to describe some particular flow is a matter of considerable mathematical skill and insight coupled, no doubt. with 2 good deal of tril and error. Lamb (1932) showed, that the potential function cosblACd— 91) (ex cosa) “8 (EO) ee is appropriate to the case of the two-dimensional regular wave of amplitude ropagating cross the surface ofa body of fluid of any constant depth ds illustrated in Fig. 3.1; & and o are constants whose physical meaning willbe derived in Section 33. “The potential function satisfies Laplace's equation (2.22) so its confirmed as a ‘ald representation of some ideal uid flow. Ie assume thatthe bottom boundary (Ghe sea bed) at y= dis impervious ar waterproof there should beno flow through it So Oye metrevsecond and hence, from equation (2.10b) (22) = messed ey, and the chosen velocity potential also satisfies this condition, 3.3. PRESSURE CONTOURS AND THE SURFACE PROFILE, Bernoull’s equation (2.19) for the unsteady motion of an ideal fuid 26 _9,?. 5 ecopi! “ Sp O+ 70 merresisecond 62) ‘must apply everywhere and can be used to find the surface profile associated with the velocity potential given by equation (3.1). The only force applied externally to any fluid particle is gravity. Hence, from equation (2.12), 0 metres'second? 30 vans metrevsecond? Sec.3.3) Pressure contours and the surface profile or Hence - Q=gy metres/second? and equation (3.2) becomes z =0. metres*second? 63) In calm water the pressure at depth y, metres is P=pgyy kNimetre® and aconstant pressure contours a horizontal straight line. Under regular waves this contour is distorted as shown in Fig. 3.2. The depth ofa point on this contour is Y=Yptty metres where & is the depression ofthe contour below the depth y, Surtie protie ‘Constant pressure contour Fg. 42—Consant pressure contour beneath a eglar wave Since the pressure everywhere along the contour and the depth yj, are both constant, the quantity 6 Regular waves [ch.3 [. (Co) # noe will be a constant on the contour at any given time. Itmay be added to the potential without affecting the velocities in any way (since they are functions of the potential aradients and not of the potential itself). So we may define a new velocity potential ones J ‘(E-ex) ae mewessecond so that 4p metrest/second? and equation (3.3) becomes 2 ag! 23 85,70 metres*/second® and the prime may now of course be omitted Ifwe now assume thatthe velocity is small (tantamount o assuming amplitude ¢, is small compared with the wave length) we may neglect. depression of the constant pressure surface is 64 Substituting the expression for the velocity potential (equation (3.1)) yields the ‘equation for the constant pressure contour at depth y, metres: cosh con bo SM in ron) metres 6s) See. 3.3] Pressure contours and the surface profile oe ‘This and many other expressions which follow can be simplified by using the following approximations: (a) for water depth greater than about haf the wave length cosh[k(d— sinha =, 3] _ coshk(a— yy)] _ sinh(&(d— y,)] ‘cosh(kd) ‘cosh(kd) sinh(kd) sink(kd) exn(— hy) 66 tanh(kd) = 1.0 (©) for water depth ess than about 0.03 times the wavelength cosh{A(d=y)]_ jg, soshlhld—yg)] 1 cosh(kd) sinh(kd) kd (3.7) sinhACd=Y9}_ gig), Smblkld= yall d= ‘cosh(kd) sinh(kd) a tanh(kd) = kd So the constant pressure contour in deep wate is given by 9 So expC Ay) sin (kx ox) metres 68) and in shallow water by Sp bo sin (kx cot) metres 6) {As an illustration of these equations Fig. 3.3 shows typical pressure contours beneath regular wave of length 100 metres in three diferent depths of water. These results have been obtained by setting '=0 in equations (3.5), (3.8) and (3). In very shallow water (d= 2 metres) equation (3.9) applies and the amplitude of the pressure contour is everywhere the same. In deeper water (d= 20 metres) equation (3.5) is appropriate and the amplitude decreases as the bottom is approached. In very deep water (d= 100 metres) equation (3.8) applies and the amplitude of the pressure contour then becomes very small atthe bottom, ‘The surface profi is one ofthese constant pressure contours (with the pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure. It is obtained by setting ypm 0 metres
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