CASTINGS: The products made by casting process are known

as castings.
Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal
casting process characterized by using sand as the mold
material.
It is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel
foundry use. A suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed
or occurs with the sand.
Principle:
The mixture (clay & sand) is moistened with water to develop
strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate
suitable for molding. . A typical mixture by volume could be
89% sand, 4% water, 7% clay. Control of all aspects of the
properties of sand is crucial when manufacturing parts by
sand casting, therefore a sand laboratory is usually attached
to the foundry.
Setup for sand mould casting

Tools & Equipment used: Pattern, Moulding boxes,

Rammer, Well prepared moulding sand (green sand), Trowel,
Wood smother, Strike off bar, Sprue cutter, Draw spike, Lifter,

Slicks, Bellow, Small brush, Mallet, Vent wire, Furnace, Chisel,

Hummer, Wire brush, Hacksaw, grinder, and file.
Procedure:
a) Select a mounding box suitable for then pattern provided.
It should be large enough to allow some space around the
pattern for ramming of sand.
b) Place the drag part of the moulding box upside down on
the floor and place the lower part of the pattern in the center
of the drag. The drag is then filled and rammed properly with
well prepared green sand. The excess sand is then cut off to
bring it in level with the edges of the drug with the help of a
strike of bar. Then drag is turned downside up along with
lower half pattern in it and sprinkle small amount of parting
sand over the top surface to avoid sticking. Now turn the drag
upside down with lower half of the pattern in it.
c) Place the cope over the drag in its proper position in
alignment with locking pins. Then assemble top part of the
pattern in it.
d) Sprinkle parting sand over the surface of the drag and the
pattern.
e) Place the runner and riser in position and fill the cope with
green sand and ram it properly. Cut off excess sand to bring it
in level with the edges of the cope.
f) Remove the runner and riser to from the pour basin.
g) Using a venting wire perform the venting operation. It is
done to allow exit of gases and steam generated during
pouring.
h) Remove the cope from the drag, and three after remove
the pattern from cope and drag.

i) Repair the mould cavity for any small damage caused while
removing the pattern; cavity should be free from any
undesirable sand particles.
j) The cope and drag are then locked with locking pins. The
mould is thus ready for pouring.
k) Melt the metal, and then pour the molten metal through
pouring basin continuously till the riser is filled and allow it to
solidify.
l) The solidified casting is then removed by breaking the
mould and cleaned by removing adhering sand. The sand is
recycled and reused.
SAFETY PRECOUTION
a) Ramming of filled sand should be proper and uniform
throughout surface of drug and cope.
b) Place the pattern in the drag properly.
c) Make the gate properly with broadening at the gate point.
d) The cope and drag should fit properly.
e) Take out the pattern carefully causing minimum damage.
f) Molten metal should be poured in to the mould cavity
carefully, to avoid any accident.
g) The riser should be filled completely.
h) Do not touch casting immediately after from the sand
mould.
FORGING
Forging can be defined as a method of shaping, heated metal
by compression. The special tools that a blacksmith use are
various kinds of dies, swages and fullers. The application of

heat increase the plasticity of metal thus making it possible

to conduct the operations necessary for the fabrication of
various shapes of product.
Principle of forging
In forging operation, medium and large size components are
shaped using machine forging process. The metal is heated
above the recrystallization temperature to make it soft and
plastic. The metal is heated in closed furnaces. In hand
forging, hand tools and hammers are used to shape metal.
The skill of the operator is the primary to produce the
required shape. Forging process is the only one used to make
parts like hooks, levers, cranks, connecting rod, etc.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1.Always wear proper apron & gloves while working in the
smithy
shop.
2. remove the wristwatch, ring & bangles if worn, while
working.
3. Wear goggles or a face shield during operation.
4. Always use the appropriate tongs whose jaws fit the
shape of the
forging to avoid slipping of the work piece.
5. check that the hand hammers & sledge hammers are
securely
fastened with a wedge to prevent loosening of hammer
while in
use.
6. Do not use hammers with damage handles.
7. Hot stock & anvil should be properly cleaned & free from
scale,
film or grease if any.
8. Do not use the mushroom head chisel, hammers &

flatters.
9. never
10.touch the hot job with your hands or other parts of the
body.
11.Heat the job carefully as per forgeability requirements
of to the metal.
12.Hammering should be done on the
13.red- hot job only
TOOL USED IN A SMITHY SHOP:
1. Supported tools: Anvil, swage block, iron blocks.
2. holding tools: various type of tong.
3. striking tools: hammers
4. cutting tools: chisels
5. forming & finishing tool: flatter, set hammer, hand
hammer, fullers, swages, punches.
6. measuring tools
FORGING OPERATIONS (procedures):
i. Drawing down: drawing down is the process of increasing
the length of any work pieces, while the cross-section area is
reduced.
ii. Jumping & up setting: it is the operation in which the
thickness of the bar or cross section is increased and length
is decreased.
iii. Swaging: swaging is the process used to form or finish
different shapes such as circular, hexagonal and square etc.
iv. Flattening: flattening process is done on an anvil face. Hot
work piece is placed on anvil and flatten the work piece with
the help of flatter and hammers blow.

v. Punching & drifting: used for producing hole in metal plate

by using a tool known as punch. in thicker work piece the
holes are punched &the work piece is heated to 1000c.
vi. Bending: the process of giving desired angels or curvature
to hot piece is known as bending. The process is done on the
edge of anvil or on chipping block.
vii. Forge welding: the process of joining two metal pieces by
heating
& hammering is known as forge welding. The metal piece to
be welded are cleaned & heated in a furnace up to the
welding temp.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING:
Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is
generated by an electric arc struck between an electrode and
the workpiece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge
between two electrodes through ionized gas.
The setup for electric arc welding

Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit

consisting of the following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC)
b. Welding electrode
c. Work piece and d. welding leads
Electric arc tween the electrode and work piece closes the

electric circuit. The arc temperature may reach 10000F

(5500C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges
and joining them.
Principle: Power supply is given to electrode and the work. A
suitable gap is kept between the work and electrode. A high
current is passed through the circuit. An arc is produced
around the area to be welded. The electric energy is
converted into heat energy, producing a temperature of
3000C to4000C.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Protection of eyes and face Never look at a welding arc
without shield as the ultraviolet rays and infra-red rays
emitted from the arc can harm the eyes as well as skin of the
face.
2. Always wear flexible gauntlet gloves and a leather apron
when welding in order to save the rest of the body from weld
metal spatter and sparks, and ultra violet rays. Shoes worn
by the welder should be high topped.
3. Use of specified current and electrodes for arc welding
4. Never touch the hot object with hands. Always use a pair
of tongs for this purpose.
5. one should carry carry out the welding process by standing
on the insulating mater like dry wood.
6.always use ear protection devices because excessive noise
caused during the process of arc welding may cause
temporary or permanent hearing loss.
Arc Welding Equipment
Arc welding power source
Welding cables

Electrode holder
Welding Electrodes
Hand Screen
Chipping hammer
Wire brush
Protective clothing

TECHNIQUES OF WELDING (Procedure):

Preparation of work:
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned
of rust, scale and other foreign material.
o Before commencing the welding process, the following
must be considered:
Ensure that the welding cables are connected to
proper power source.
Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate
to be welded.
Set the welding current, as per the size of the
electrode to be used.
Marking and cutting the material you are using.
Start the welding transformer machine, and then set the
current to a certain value.
Hold the Electrode at an angle. Keeping the Flat position
& then complete the welding layer.
Clean with a chipping hammer and a wire brush.
Oxy-acetylene Welding
The oxyacetylene welding process uses a combination of
oxygen and acetylene gas to provide a high temperature
flame.
acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the
welding torch

and ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is

sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal.
Principle of Oxy-acetylene Welding
A very hot flame is produced by burning of the gases coming
through the torch tip. The edges to
be welded are heated up to melting. A filler metal is also
added to complete the welding. This
molten metal mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a
welded joint.
Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases.
Both the cylinders are attached with pressure gauges,
regulators and cylinder valves. The cylinder containing
oxygen is painted black whereas the acetylene cylinder is
painted maroon. Hose pipes, are provided with each cylinder.
These pipes are connected to welding torch.
Apparatus
Apparatus used for oxy-acetylene (high pressure) welding is
shown in the
the following:
1. Oxygen cylinder
2. Acetylene cylinder
3. Pressure gauges
4. Valves
5. Hose pipes
6. Torch
7. Welding tip
8. Pressure regulators
9. Lighter
10. Goggles
An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up

Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas

cylinders. These gas cylinders differ widely in capacity,
design and colour code. An acetylene cylinder is filled with
some absorptive material, which is saturated with a chemical
solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb a large
volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls. If
large quantities of acetylene gas are being consumed, it is
much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with
the help of acetylene gas generators. Acetylene gas is
generated by carbide-to-water method. Oxygen gas cylinders
are usually equipped with about 40 litres of oxygen at a
pressure of about 154 Kgf/cm2 at 21C.
Safety Recommendations for oxyacetylene welding
1. Never hang a torch with its hose on regulators or cylinder
valves.
2. During working, if the welding tip becomes overheated it
may be cooled by plunging the torch into water; close the
acetylene valve but leave a little oxygen flowing.
3. Always use the correct pressure regulators for a gas.

Acetylene pressure regulator should never be used with any

other gas.
4. Do not move the cylinder by holding the pressure regulator
and also handle pressure regulators carefully.
5. Use pressure regulator only at pressures for which it is
intended.
6. Open cylinder valves slowly to avoid straining the
mechanism of pressure regulator.
7. Never use oil, grease or lubricant of any kind on regulator
connections.
8. For repairs, calibrations and adjustments purposes, the
pressure regulators should be sent to the supplier.
Procedures
Verify that equipment visually appears safe IE: Hose
condition, visibility of gauges
Clean torch orifices with a tip cleaners (a small wire
gauge file set used to clean slag and dirt form the torch
tip)
Crack (or open) cylinder valves slightly allowing pressure
to enter the regulators slowly
Opening the cylinder valve quickly will Slam the
regulator and will cause failure
Never stand directly in the path of a regulator when
opening the cylinder
Check for leaks using by listening for Hissing or by
using a soapy Bubble solution
Adjust the regulators to the correct operating pressure
Slightly open and close the Oxygen and Acetylene valves
at the torch head to purge any atmosphere from the
system.
Always use a flint and steel spark lighter to light the
oxygen acetylene flame.
Never use a butane lighter to light the flame