General

design Principles
EC3

Durgesh C. Rai
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kanpur

Design
Philosophies

Characteristic Values
External loads and internal resistance

Frequency

Characteristic
Load

Characteristic
Resistance

Resistance
Resistance

Load
Load

Force

Margin of Safety
Use of partial safety factors
Design Resistance
= Characteristic Resistance / m

Frequency

Design Load
= f Characteristic Load

Resistance
Resistance
Load
Load

0
4

Safety
Margin

Force

Design onBective
onBective

Frequency

Failure probability

Resistance
Resistance
Load
Load

Failure
Failure

Design objective
objective

Failure probability
Order of 1 in 104 to 106

Ensure the design inequality to remain true (at

least during design life)
Design Load Effect

Qd = fk Qck
k

Design Resistance

Sd = S u m

Force

Methods of Design
Four
Working Stress Design
Plastic Design
Traditional IS:800 methods

Load and Resistance Factor Design

Modern method used in steel codes elsewhere
in the world

Limit State Design

New IS:800 method

Methods of Design
Design

Working Stress Design

Also called Allowable Stress Design
Material strengths reduced
Factors of safety
Yield Stresses

Resistance
Resistance

FS
Working Stresses

Safety
Safety

Load
Load

Working loads

Methods of Design
Design

Plastic Design
Loads enhanced

Load Factors
Ultimate Stresses
Yield Stresses

Resistance
Resistance

Safety
Safety
Enhanced loads

LF
9

Working loads

Load
Load

Methods of Design
Design

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

Loads enhanced
Member resistance reduced

Strength reduction factors

Ultimate Stresses

Resistance
Resistance

Reduced Member Strength

Safety
Safety
Partially Enhanced Loads

LF
10

Load
Load

Working loads

Methods of Design
Design

Limit State Design

Loads enhanced
Partial safety factor for loads L

Material stresses reduced

Partial safety factor for loads m
Resistance
Resistance

Ultimate Stresses

m
Limiting Stresses

Safety
Safety

11

Limiting Loads
Working loads

Load
Load

Methods of Design
Design

Comparison
Allowable Stress Design
all = fchar/FS
Factor of Safety FS = 1.67 for compression; 1.5 for flexure;

Plastic Design
Qd = LF Qw
Load factor LF = 1.7 for (DL+LL); 1.3 for (DL+LL+EL);

Load and Resistance Factor Design

iQwi Rn

Resistance factor = 0.9 for flexure; 0.85 for compression;

0.75 for fracture; 0.9 for shear (steel)
(<0.9 for shear of RC members)

12

Tuning of Methods
ASD and PD tuned
Balance achieved by
LF = 1.0/FS

LRFD results in structures of similar kind

But, it is rational and more reliable

13

Tuning of Methods
Methods

LRFD versus LSD

in LRFD applied on strength of member
Accounts for variation in strength of member
and varies with mode of failure
(e.g., buckling, flexural yielding, and rupture)
=0.6 for shear
=0.9 for flexure

m in LSD applied on material stresses

Similar to FOS for material stress variation
Material is in order but its use in different forms
(slender or stocky) determines it overall response
(e.g., buckling failure or flexural yielding failure)
14

LSD does not address such issues

Less rational

Why use Plastic Design

Allowable Stresses
Design of RC structures based on
strength & overloads
Design of steel structures based on
allowable stresses and working loads
to control local and global instabilities
Fixed increase in allowable stresses (say 1/3rd)
cannot give a uniform reserve capacity in all elements
of a steel structure for EQ loadings

15

Why use Plastic Design

Design

Benefits of PD, LRFD or LSD

Behaviour of Members at Ultimate Loads
Plastic design more accurately predicts behaviour and
ultimate capacity of structure

Pre-selected yield mechanism

Most suitable for seismic design
Selected for adequate ductility & strength, optimum safety,
economy and reparability
Insensitive to EQ characteristics, initial deformations,
residual stresses, etc.
Structure may not develop undesirable yield mechanism,
e.g., a soft storey, resulting in brittle behaviour
Potential brittle regions can be safely protected by
designing them for strength exceeding those of
strain-hardened plastic regions
16

Is800:2007 design philosophy

Limit State Design
Limit State of Strength
Loss of equilibrium
Loss of stability
Excessive deformation or Rupture
Part or whole of structure

Limit State of Serviceability

Deformations and deflections that adversely affect
appearance, or effective use of structure or its
contents
Vibrations causing discomfort, damage or limiting
functional effectiveness of structure
17

Limit State Design Philosophy

Basic Requirement
Design Action Design Strength

Qd Sd

18

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Dual move
Loads enhanced
Partial safety factor for loads f

Material stresses reduced

Partial safety factor for loads m

Much like
Limit State Design philosophy
in IS:456 for RC structures
19

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Dual move
Ultimate Stresses

Resistance
Resistance

m
Limiting Stresses

Safety
Safety
Limiting Loads

Load
Load
20

Working loads

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Partial safety factors for loads f

Limit State of Strength: Qd = fkQck
k

Limit State of Strength

LL

Combination

DL

Leading

Accompanying
(e.g., Crane Load)

WL/EL

AL

DL+LL+CL

1.5

1.5

1.05

DL+LL+CL+
WL/EL

1.2
1.2

1.2
1.2

1.05
0.53

0.6
1.2

DL+WL/EL

1.5
(0.9)*

1.5

DL+LL+AL

1.0

0.35

0.35

1.0

1.2
(0.9)

1.2

DL+ER
21

* When stability against overturning or stress reversal is critical

DL= Dead load; LL= Live Load; WL= Wind Load; EL= Earthquake Load; AL= Accidental Load

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Partial safety factors for loads f

Limit State of Serviceability:
Limit State of Serviceability
LL

Combination
Leading

Accompanying
(e.g., Crane Load)

WL/EL

DL+LL

1.0

1.0

1.0

DL+LL+WL/EL

1.0

0.8

0.8

0.8

DL+WL/EL

1.0

1.0

DL+LL+AL

* When stability against overturning or stress reversal is critical

DL= Dead load; LL= Live Load; WL= Wind Load; EL= Earthquake Load; AL= Accidental Load
22

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Partial safety factors for materials m

For different load effects: Sd = Su m
S.No.

Definition

Partial Safety Factor

Resistance governed by yielding m0

1.10

Resistance of member to buckling m0

1.10

Resistance governed by ultimate stress m1

1.25

Resistance governed by ultimate stress m1

Shop
Field
Fabrication Fabrication

Bolts (Friction or bearing type), Rivets

Welds

1.25
1.25

1.25
1.50

23

Limit State Design Philosophy

Philosophy

Example:
Design for Tension P=100kN due to DL
Demand

IS:800-1984
IS:800-1984

P = 100 kN
Resistance

all ,t = 0.6 f y = 150 MPa

IS:800-2007
IS:800-2007

Qd = f P = 1.5 100 = 150 kN

Tdg = f y m0 Ag = (250 1.10 )Ag

P = all ,t Ag = 150 Ag kN
Balance

Ag = (100 1000 150 ) = 667 mm 2

24

Ag = 150 1000 /(250 1.10 )

= 660 mm 2

The Key Concerns

in Steel Structures
25

Why are steel structures vulnerable?

Main challenge is to prevent sudden failure
Steel as a material is excellent in tension and
compression
But, steel structures are poor in compression

Two main threats

Geometric failure in compression
Sudden instability (buckling)

Material failure in tension

Brittle fracture due to large stress concentrations and
three-dimensional restraints to plastic flow

26

Why are steel structures vulnerable?

vulnerable?

Instabilities
Inhibit members to reach their capacity (yield
strength) and limit the level of ductility.
Local buckling of plate elements due to large widththickness (b/t) ratio
Flexural (global) buckling of long columns and
bracing members
Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB) of beams and
beam-columns

Local
LocalBuckling
Buckling

LTB
LTB

27

Why are steel structures vulnerable?

vulnerable?

Instabilities
Inhibit members to reach their capacity (yield
strength) and limit the level of ductility.
Frame instability and P- effect of frames under a
large vertical load

28

Why are steel structures vulnerable?

vulnerable?

Brittle Fracture
Fracture of plates due to large strains caused by local
or flexural buckling
Tension failure of net sections in bolted & riveted
connections
Fracture of welds subjected to stress concentration
Lamellar tearing of plates

29

Local Buckling
30

Local instability of sections

Local Buckling
Local buckling of plate elements
Pronounced effect on reducing stiffness and ductility,
and capacity of member

31

Local instability of sections

sections

Local damage of box sections

32

Local Instability of sections

sections

Effect on moment capacity

33

Web Local Instability

Buckling versus yielding in webs

34

Local Buckling of Thin Plate

Thin plates of flanges, web etc. may develop local
buckling and hence limit column buckling strength
Local buckling should be prevented to let the column
reach the strength corresponding to global buckling

35

Local Instability of Steel Sections

Steel sections are made of plate-like elements
b/t ratios determine their susceptibility under compression

36

Buckling of Thin Plates

Elastic Plate Buckling
For simply supported plate

4y
4y
4y
2 y
bD 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 = P 2
x y
z
x
x
P/bt

P/bt

EI

37

4y
4y
4y
2y
bD 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 = P 2

z
x

4y
2y
= P 2
x 4
x

Buckling of Thin Plate

Plate
Elastic Plate Buckling
Solution:

m x n z
y = sin
sin
with n = 1
L b

f cr =

Pcr
k
2E
=
2
bt 12(1 ) ( b t )2

b
1 L
k=
+m
k
m b

where
k = buckling coefficient = fn (type of stress, edge support,

aspect ratio of plate L/b)

m = no. of half sine waves in loaded direction

38

Buckling of Thin Plate

Plate
Elastic Plate Buckling

For simply supported on

all edges

Fixed
SS

minimum k = 4
(for short plate L/b < 0.5)
[error 10%]

SS
Fixed

SS
Fixed

Fixed
SS

SS

SS

Fixed

k=7

SS

SS
Fixed

Fixed
SS

Fixed

k = 1.33 SS

SS
Free

SS

39

SS
Free

L/b

Local instability of sections

sections

Effect of boundary conditions

k =0.43
40

SS
Free

SS
SS

SS
SS

Free

k = 0.43

SS
SS

k =4

Local instability of sections

Inelastic and elastic buckling of plates

Elastic buckling stress

Non-dimensional slenderness

P
k
2E
f cr = cr =
bt 12(1 2 ) ( b t )2

fy

f cr

b
t

f y k(1 2 )

2 Ek

41

Local instability of sections

sections
Limiting b/t ratio for axial compression
f cr =

Pcr
2E
k
=
2
bt 12(1 ) ( b t )2

b
If f cr = f y =
t

For steel E = 200 10 3 MPa , = 0.3

f cr =

k(180 10 )
3

(b t )

k
(180 10 3 )
fy

b
= 53.8
t
b
= 17.6
for k = 0.43
t
for k = 4.0

k =0.43
fy

Py

k =4

0.5fy

15.7 17.6
42

42

53.8

b /t

Local instability of sections

sections
bf /tf = 15.7

Applying to structural shapes

Stiffened web
h /tw (k = 4)
Unstiffened flange
bf /tf (k = 0.43)

h
tf
bf

h /tw = 42

h /tw = 42

Limit decrease with higher fy

fy
250
D

43

D /t = 88

b+d
< 25
t

Local Flange Buckling

of Beams
44

Flange Local Instability

Stress distribution in an I-section
Buckling below yield stress prevent section to reach its plastic capacity

45

Local instability of sections

sections

Problem is more severe in columns

Unstiffened Element (Flange outstand)
Stiffened Element (Web)

46

Flange Local Instability

Effect on monotonic behaviour

Pronounced influence of local flange buckling on
reducing member
Yield capacity
Ductility capacity
Post-ultimate stiffness

d/t
d/tww=31
=31and
andP=0.3P
P=0.3Pyy
47

Flange Local Instability

Local plastic mechanism patterns

Due to large compression in flanges

48

Flange Local Instability

Local Instability
Flexural capacity in inelastic range
Function of induced (compressive) strain
Affected by residual stresses

Euler buckling for stresses below proportional limit

Strain states prescribed as slenderness parameters in
design equations

49

Local instability of sections

Pcr
2E
k
f cr =
=
2
bt 12(1 ) ( b t )2

50

Generalized
slenderness

Local instability of sections

Basic features
strain hardening at low
yielding at = 0.5 0.6
inelastic buckling transition curve
elastic buckling ( > 1.4)
post buckling strength and stress redistribution
and large deformation ( > 1.5)

51

Inelastic Buckling of Thick Plates

Elastic limit states modified when stress > fy
Use Elastic hardening modulus

f y f cr = 0.57
= 0.46

for simply supported

Py

for free along one edge

Correspondingly
0.57 =

b
t

fy

12(1 2 )
2 E(4)

0.46 =

b
t

fy

12(1 2 )
2 E(0.43)

b
t

fy

1
189800(4)

b
t

fy

1
189800(0.43)

52

0.46 0.57

b fy
= 31.4
t 250

b fy
= 8.3
t 250

f y fcr

Local Web Buckling

of Beams
53

Web Local Instability

Diagonal tension and compression
stiffener

h
a
54

2
2
2
FF==k
k2E/[12(1E/[12(1-2)(h/t)
)(h/t)2]]==kF
kF00

Web Local Instability

Reduction in load carrying capacity

h
a

24

FF == kF
kF00

16
8

0.80

0.16

0.24

0.32

0.40

a/h

55

Plate Elements in Shear

Elastic Buckling Stress cr

kc
2E
cr =
2
12(1 ) ( d t )2
56

d
kc = 5.34 + 4
L

L >> d

d
= 5.34 + 4
L

Ld

Plate Elements in Shear

For unstiffened web L/d is large

E = 210, 000 MPa
= 0.3

kc = 5.34
cr =

5.34 2 E
12(1 2 ) ( d L )

This elastic buckling stress is equal to the yield stress in shear

y =

fy
3

d fy
= 83.8
t 250

57

Plate Elements in Bending

cr =

k
2E
2
12(1 ) ( d t )2

k = 23.9

58

d fy
23.9 189800
=
= 134.7
250
t 250

Summary of Limiting b/t ratios

1

Mp

Beams

Py , My

Columns

b/t

Flange
Outstand

BS 5950

10

14

IS 800

9.4

10.5

15.7

Simple
Supports

BS 5950

33

38

42

IS 800

29.3

33.5

42

BS 5950

72

83

124

IS 800

84

105

126

Web

BS 5950 : = 235 f y
IS 800 : = 250 f y

59

Classification of Sections

Four categories

Mp
Plastic
Plastic

60

Compact
Compact

SemiSemiCompact
Compact

Slender
Slender

Slenderness Ratio

Classification Of Sections

Four categories
Based on strength and ductility
Moment M

Compact

Plastic

(Class 2)

(Class 1)

Plastic
Plasticstrength
strengthM
Mpp

SemiCompact

Yield
Yieldstrength
strengthM
Myy

(Class 3)

Slender
(Class 4)

61

Deformation
Desired
Desiredductility
ductility

Local instability of sections

sections

Local instability..
Limiting factors
Type of section
Fabrication method
Buckling type

62

Classification of Sections
Sections

Limiting width-to-thickness ratios

List of bf /tf and dw /tw requirements
Hot-rolled
Cold-rolled
Welded

for Plastic, Compact and Semi-compact sections of all

types
I-, C-, L-, T-shapes
Box
Tube

63

Classification of Sections
Sections

64

Classification of Sections
Sections

Section classification
Based on the least favorable classification of all plate
elements forming the section
Elements of compound sections for b/t calculations
are defined as follows:

65

IS:800 - 2007
Provisions
66

Overall Layout
Sections

1: General
2: Materials
3: General Design Requirements
4: Methods of Structural Analysis
5: Limit State Design
6: Design of Tension Members
7: Design of Compression Members
8: Design of Members subjected to Bending
9: Members subjected to Combined Forces
10: Connections

67

Overall Layout
Layout

Sections

68

11: Working Stress Design

12: Design and Detailing for Earthquake Loads
13: Fatigue
14: Design assisted by Testing
15: Durability
16: Fire Resistance
17: Fabrication and Erection

Overall Layout
Layout

Annexures

A: List of Referred Indian Standards

B: Analysis and Design Methods
C: Design against Floor Vibration
D: Determination of Effective Length of Columns
E: Elastic Lateral Torsional Buckling
F: Connections
G: General Recommendations for Steelwork Tenders
and Contracts
H: Properties of Beams
In all 143 pages
69

Section 1
70

Section 1
General

Scope
Reference to Other BIS Standards
Terminology
Symbols
Units
Standard Dimensions, Form and Weight
Plans and Drawings
Convention for Member Axes

71

Section 1
Convention for Member Axes
Change from older codes
Exercise care while using older steel tables, handbooks
Consistent with modern computer methods of analysis

72

Section 2
73

Section 2
Materials
Properties of Structural Steel
Basic values: E, , , G and
Exhaustive list of all steels in tabular form
Structural element steel
Welding steels

74

Section 3
75

Section 3
General Design Requirements
Methods of design
Normally Limit State Method shall be used
Calculations alone may not ensure safety
Suitable materials, quality control, adequate detailing and good
supervision required

Loads and Forces

DL, IL, WL, EL, ErL, AL, TL, DSL

76

Classification of Sections

Four categories

Mp
Plastic
Plastic

77

Compact
Compact

SemiSemiCompact
Compact

Slender
Slender

Slenderness Ratio

Classification of Sections
Sections

Maximum effective slenderness ratios

Beam, Strut or Tension Member
Non-seismic cases
S.No.

78

Member

kL/r

Compression due to DL + LL

180

Tension other than WL or EL

180

Compression due to WL/EL,

if deformation of such a member does not adversely
affect the stress in any part of the structure

250

Compression flange of a beam against LTB

300

Tie in roof truss/bracing,

if not considered effective when subjected to WL or EL

350

Members always in tension (other than pre-tensioned)

400

Section 4
79

Section 4
Methods of determining action effects
(Methods of Structural Analyses)

80

Elastic Analysis
Plastic Analysis
Advanced Analysis in accordance with Annex B
Dynamic Analysis in accordance with IS 1893
(Part 1)

Section 4
4

Elastic Analysis
Consider non-prismatic properties, if any
Second order effects
First order analysis + Amplification Effects
Second order analysis

81

Section 4
4

Plastic Analysis
Steel
Grade less than 450 MPa
Strain-hardening type
Yield plateau
Plateau at least 6 times the yield strain

Ratio u/y not less than 1.2

Ultimate elongation not less than 15%

Sections
Plastic
At least, COMPACT when subjected to NO plastic hinges

82

Symmetrical about axis perpendicular to plastic

rotation

Section 4
4

Plastic Analysis
Member
Retrained against LTB
Stiffeners at plastic hinge locations

No concerns of fracture

83

Section 4
4

Types of frames
Sway
Non-Sway

Types of constructions
Rigid connection
Semi-rigid connection
Simple connection
Hinged connection

84

Section 4
4

Assumptions in analysis
Structures shall be analysed in their entirety
Except in Regular buildings
When there is significant redistribution of forces between them
As a series of 2D substructures

Centerline analysis
Live loading on spans
Uniform on all spans, if LL<DL
Pattern loading, if LL>DL

Rotational stiffness of column base

Fixed, Partially retrained, hinged
85

Section 5
86

Section 5
Limit State Design
Limit State of Strength
Loss of equilibrium
Loss of stability
Excessive deformation or Rupture
Part or whole of structure

Limit State of Serviceability

Deformations and deflections that adversely affect
appearance, or effective use of structure or its
contents
Vibrations causing discomfort, damage or limiting
functional effectiveness of structure
87

88