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Introduction
A gate is defined as a digital circuit which
follows some logical relationship between the
input and output voltages. It is a digital circuit
which either allows a signal to pass through as
stop, it is called a gate.
The Logic Gates are building blocks at
digital electronics. They are used in digital
electronics to change on voltage level (input
voltage) into another (output voltage) according
to some logical statement relating them.
A logic gate may have one or more inputs, but
it has only one output. The relationship
between the possible values of input and
output voltage is expressed in the form of a
table called truth table or table of combinations.
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BASIC GATES
There are three basic logic gates which
follows Boolean expression.
1. OR GATE
The OR gate is a two inputs and one output
logic gate. It combing the input A and B with
the
output
following
the Boolean
expression.
Y =A+ B
The Boolean algebra, the addition symbol (+)
is called OR (i.e. OR operation OR operator).
The various possible combinations of the input
and output of the OR gate can be easily
understand with the help of the electrical
circuit. In this electric circuit, a parallel
combination of two switches A and B is
connected to a battery and a lump L.
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2. AND GATE
The AND gate is also a two inputs and one
output logic gate. It combines the input A and
B with the output Y following the Boolean
expression.
Y =A. B
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3. NOT GATE
The NOT gate is a one inputs and one output
logic gate. It combines the input A with the
output following the Boolean expression.
Y=A
i.e. Y not equal A. The way, the NOT gate
gives the output it is also called inverter. It is
represented by the symbol.
The Boolean algebra, the negative sign (-) is
called NOT. The equation Y= A called Boolean
expression.
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Aim
To construct a simple NOT gate
Circuit.
Materials Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wires;
NPN Transistor;
Resistors;
Circuit Board;
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5.
6.
7.
Theory
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
1) Conductors: material capable of
carrying electric current, i.e. material which
has mobile charge carriers (e.g.
electrons, ions,..) e.g. metals, liquids with
ions (water, molten ionic Compounds),
plasma
2) Insulators: materials with no or very few
free charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most
covalent and ionic solids, plastics
3) Semiconductors: materials with
conductivity between that of conductors
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Semiconductors
Semiconductors are the materials whose
electrical conductivity lies in between
metals and insulator. The energy band
structure of the semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of the
forbidden energy gap is much smaller than that
of the insulator. In this class of crystals, the
forbidden gap is of the order of about 1ev, and
the two energy bands are distinctly separate
with no overlapping. At absolute 0oC no
electron has any energy even to jump the
forbidden gap and reach the conduction band.
Therefore the substance is an insulator. But
when we heat the crystal and thus provide
some energy to the atoms and their electrons, it
becomes an easy matter for some electrons to
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INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. In a pure semiconductor, each atom
behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence
shell and therefore the entire material behaves as an
insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of
1.1ev to shake off the valence electron. This energy
becomes available to it even at room temperature.
Due to thermal agitation of crystal structure,
electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The
bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is
created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is
called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a
covalent bond. As an electron from covalent bond
moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the
covalent bond from which the electron has moved.
Since the direction of movement of the hole is
opposite to that of the negative electron, a hole
behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room
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Extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is
poor, so intrinsic semi-conductors are of little
practical importance. The conductivity of pure semiconductor can, however be enormously increased by
addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity in
a very small amount (about 1 to 106). The process
of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as
to improve its conductivity is called doping. Such
semi-conductors are called extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are of two
types:
I.
n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the
periodic table like Arsenic is added to the pure semiconductor, then four of the five impurity electrons
form covalent bonds by sharing one electron with
each of the four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth
electron from each impurity atom is almost free to
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II.
p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure
semi-conductor, the impurity atom can provide only
three valence electrons for covalent bond formation.
Thus a gap is left in one of the covalent bonds. The
gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons. As
the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the
silicon crystal, it is called acceptor impurity. The
holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the p-type
Si-crystal so obtained is called p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also
possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the
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DIODE
o Diode is a biased p-n junction, i.e. p-n junction
with voltage applied across it.
o Forward biased: p-side more positive than nside;
o Reverse biased: n-side more positive than pside;
TRANSISTORS
o Transistor is the combination of two diodes that
share middle portion, called base of transistor;
other two sections: emitter'' and collector;
o Usually, base is very thin and lightly doped.
o There are two kinds of bipolar transistors: PNP
and NPN transistors
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Transistor operation
Capacitor
The capacitor has a property to store energy as
potential energy in the electric field of capacitor.
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Principle of a Capacitor:
A capacitor is based on the fact that an arranging the
two metallic conductors, so that when conductor is
connected to the earth, the other conductor has the
ability to store a large amount of charge on it.
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Observations
The truth table for it i.e. for NOT Gate is as
follows
Input (A)
Output (Y)
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Conclusion
A NOT Gate is usually called an inverter
because it gives complement value of the
input. When the output signal is high the
input signal is low, when the input signal is
low the output signal is high. It is confirmed
by seeing the truth table as the input is one
then the output is zero and vice-versa.
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Output
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4. Pressure Plate.
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