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I. Introduction. Inflationary cosmological models [1, 2, 3] is very similar to that in de Sitter space.
are generically eternal to the future [4, 5]. In these mod- The intuitive reason why de Sitter inflation cannot be
els, the Universe consists of post-inflationary, thermal- past-eternal is that, in the full de Sitter space, expo-
ized regions coexisting with still-inflating ones. In co- nential expansion is preceded by exponential contraction.
moving coordinates the thermalized regions grow in time Such a contracting phase is not part of standard inflation-
and are joined by new thermalized regions, so the comov- ary models, and does not appear to be consistent with
ing volume of the inflating regions vanishes as t . the physics of inflation. If thermalized regions were able
Nonetheless, the inflating regions expand so fast that to form all the way to past infinity in the contracting
their physical volume grows exponentially with time. As spacetime, the whole universe would have been thermal-
a result, there is never a time when the Universe is com- ized before inflationary expansion could begin. In our
pletely thermalized. In such spacetimes, it is natural analysis we will exclude the possibility of such a con-
to ask if the Universe could also be past-eternal. If it tracting phase by considering spacetimes for which the
could, eternal inflation would provide a viable model of past region obeys an averaged expansion condition, by
the Universe with no initial singularity. The Universe which we mean that the average expansion rate in the
would never come into existence. It would simply exist. past is greater than zero:
This possibility was discussed in the early days of in- Hav > 0. (1)
flation, but it was soon realized [6, 7] that the idea could
not be implemented in the simplest model in which the With a suitable definition of H and the region over which
inflating universe is described by an exact de Sitter space. the average is to be taken, we will show that the averaged
More general theorems showing that inflationary space- expansion condition implies past-incompleteness.
times are geodesically incomplete to the past were then It is important to realize that the terms expansion and
proved [8]. One of the key assumptions made in these contraction refer to the behavior of congruences of time-
theorems is that the energy-momentum tensor obeys the like geodesics (the potential trajectories of test particles).
weak energy condition. Although this condition is satis- It is meaningless to say that a spacetime is expanding at
fied by all known forms of classical matter, subsequent a single point, since in the vicinity of any point one can
work has shown that it is likely to be violated by quan- always construct congruences that expand or contract at
tum effects in inflationary models [9, 10]. Such viola- any desired rate. We will see, however, that nontrivial
tions must occur whenever quantum fluctuations result consequences can result if we assume the existence of a
in an increase of the Hubble parameter H i.e., when single congruence with a positive average expansion rate
dH/dt > 0 provided that the spacetime and the fluc- throughout some specified region.
tuation can be approximated as locally flat. Such upward While the past of an inflationary model is a matter of
fluctuations in H are essential for the future-eternal na- speculation, the attractor nature of the inflationary equa-
ture of chaotic inflation. Thus, the weak energy condi- tions implies that many properties of the future can be
tion is generally violated in an eternally inflating uni- deduced unambiguously. According to the standard pic-
verse. These violations appear to open the door again to ture of inflation, all physical quantities are slowly vary-
the possibility that inflation, by itself, can eliminate the ing on the scale of H 1 . In the vicinity of any point P
need for an initial singularity. Here we argue that this is in the inflating region, we can choose an approximately
not the case. In fact, we show that the general situation homogenous, isotropic and flat spacelike surface which
2
can serve as the starting point for the standard analy- To relate this possibility to the behavior of the Hubble
sis of stochastic evolution [11]. A simple pattern of ex- parameter H, we first normalize the affine parameter by
pansion is established, in which the comoving geodesics choosing d = [a(t)/a(tf )] dt, so d/dt 1 when t = tf ,
x = const p in the synchronous gauge form a congruence where tf is some chosen reference time. Using H a/a,
with H > (8/3)G0 , where 0 is the minimum energy where a dot denotes a derivative with respect to t, we can
density of the inflationary part of the potential energy multiply Eq. (3) by H() and then integrate from some
function. This congruence covers the future light cone initial time ti to the reference time tf :
of P . While large fluctuations can drive H to negative
(tf ) a(tf )
da
Z Z
values, such fluctuations are extremely rare. Once in- H() d = 1, (4)
flation ends in any given region, however, many of the (ti ) a(ti ) a(tf )
geodesics are likely to develop caustics as the matter
clumps to form galaxies and black holes. If we try to where equality holds if a(ti ) = 0. Defining Hav to be an
describe inflation that is eternal into the past, it would average over the affine parameter,
seem reasonable to assume that the past of P is like the 1
Z tf
1
inflating region to the future, which would mean that a Hav H() d ,
(tf ) (ti ) ti (tf ) (ti )
congruence that is expanding everywhere, except for rare
(5)
fluctuations, can be defined throughout that past.
we see that any backward-going null geodesic with Hav >
For the proof of our theorem, however, we find that it is
0 must have a finite affine length, i.e., is past-incomplete.
sufficient to adopt a much weaker assumption, requiring
A similar argument can be made for timelike geodesics,
only that a congruence with Hav > 0 can be continu-
parameterized by the proper time . For a particle of
ously defined along some past-directed timelike or null
mass m, the four-momentum P m dx /d , so we can
geodesic.
write d = (m/E) dt, where E P 0 is the energy of
In Section II, we illustrate our result by showing how
the particle as measured by a comoving observer. If we
it arises in the case of a homogeneous, isotropic, and spa-
define the magnitude of the three-momentum p by p2
tially flat universe. In the course of the argument we shed
gij P i P j , where i and j are summed 1 to 3, then E =
some light on the meaning of an incomplete null geodesic p
by relating the affine parameterization to the cosmologi- p2 + m2 . For a comoving trajectory we have P i = 0,
cal redshift. In Section III we present our main, model- and therefore d = dt. For all others, p 1/a(t) [17], so
independent argument. In Section IV we offer some re- we can write p(t) = [a(tf )/a(t)] pf , where pf denotes the
marks on the interpretation and possible extensions of value of the three-momentum p at the reference time tf .
our result. Combining all this, we find
Z tf Z a(tf )
II. A simple model. Consider a model in which the metric m da
H( ) d = q
takes the form ti a(ti ) m a + p2f a2 (tf )
2 2
geodesic in the metric (2), with affine parameter , obeys vrel pf /Ef is the speed of the geodesic relative to
the relation the comoving observers at time tf . Since the integral
is bounded, the argument used for null geodesics can be
d a(t) dt. (3)
repeated, with the average taken over proper time.
Alternatively, we can understand this equation by consid- III. The main argument. In this section we show that
ering a physical wave propagating along the null geodesic. the inequalities of Eqs. (4) and (6) can be established in
In the short wavelength limit the wave vector k is tan- arbitrary cosmological models, making no assumptions
gential to the geodesic, and is related to the affine pa- about homogeneity, isotropy, or energy conditions. To
rameterization of the geodesic by k dx /d. This al- achieve this generality, we need a definition of the Hubble
lows us to write d dt/, where k 0 is the physical parameter H that applies to arbitrary models, and which
frequency as measured by a comoving observer. In an ex- reduces to the standard one (H = a/a) in simple models.
panding model the frequency is red-shifted as 1/a(t), Consider a timelike or null geodesic O (the observer).
so we recover the result of Eq. (3). We assume that a congruence of timelike geodesics (co-
From Eq. (3), one sees that if a(t) decreases
R suffi- moving test particles) has been defined along O [18], and
ciently quickly in the past direction, then a(t) dt can be we will construct a definition for H that depends only on
bounded and the maximum affine length must be finite. the relative motion of the observer and test particles.
3
What can lie beyond this boundary? Several possibil- useful comments. Two of us (AB and AHG) thank
ities have been discussed, one being that the boundary the Institute of Cosmology at Tufts University for its
of the inflating region corresponds to the beginning of hospitality. Partial financial support was provided for
the Universe in a quantum nucleation event [12]. The AB by the Research Awards Committee of Southamp-
boundary is then a closed spacelike hypersurface which ton College, for AHG by the U.S. Department of Energy
can be determined from the appropriate instanton. (D.O.E.) under cooperative research agreement #DF-
Whatever the possibilities for the boundary, it is clear FC02-94ER40818, and for AV by the National Science
that unless the averaged expansion condition can some- Foundation.
how be avoided for all past-directed geodesics, inflation
alone is not sufficient to provide a complete description of
the Universe, and some new physics is necessary in order
to determine the correct conditions at the boundary [20].
This is the chief result of our paper. The result depends [1] A. Guth, Phys. Rev. D23, 347 (1981).
[2] A. Linde, Phys. Lett. B108, 389 (1982).
on just one assumption: the Hubble parameter H has a [3] A. Albrecht and P. Steinhardt, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1220
positive value when averaged over the affine parameter (1982).
of a past-directed null or noncomoving timelike geodesic. [4] A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. D27, 2848 (1983).
The class of cosmologies satisfying this assumption is [5] A. Linde, Phys. Lett. B175, 395 (1986).
not limited to inflating universes. Of particular interest is [6] A. Linde, in The Very Early Universe, edited by G. Gib-
the recycling scenario [14], in which each comoving region bons and S. Hawking (Cambridge University Press, Cam-
goes through a succession of inflationary and thermalized bridge, UK, 1983), p. 205.
[7] P. Steinhardt, ibid., p. 251.
epochs. Since this scenario requires a positive true vac- [8] A. Borde and A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 3305
uum energyp v , the expansion rate will be bounded by (1994); in Relativistic Cosmology: The Proceedings of the
Hmin = 8Gv /3 for locally flat or open equal-time Eighth Yukawa Symposium, edited by M. Sasaki (Univer-
slicings, and the conditions of our theorem may be satis- sal Academy Press, Tokyo, 1994), p 111; Int. J. Mod.
fied. One must look carefully, however, at the possibility Phys. D5, 813 (1996); A. Borde, Phys. Rev. D50, 3392
of discontinuities where the inflationary and thermalized (1994).
regions meet. This issue requires further analysis. [9] A. Borde and A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. D56, 717 (1997).
[10] A. Guth, T. Vachaspati, and S. Winitzki (2003), in prepa-
Our argument can be straightforwardly extended to ration.
cosmology in higher dimensions. For example, in the [11] A.S. Goncharov, A.D. Linde and V.F. Mukhanov, Int. J.
model of Ref. [15] brane worlds are created in collisions Mod. Phys. A2, 561 (1987).
of bubbles nucleating in an inflating higher-dimensional [12] A. Vilenkin, Phys. Lett. B117, 25 (1982).
bulk spacetime. Our analysis implies that the inflating [13] A. Aguirre and S. Gratton, Phys. Rev. D65, 083507
bulk cannot be past-complete. (2002).
[14] J. Garriga and A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. D57, 2230 (1998).
We finally comment on the cyclic universe model [16]
[15] M. Bucher Phys. Lett. B530, 1 (2002).
in which a bulk of 4 spatial dimensions is sandwiched [16] P.J. Steinhardt and N. Turok, Phys. Rev. D65, 126003
between two 3-dimensional branes. The effective (3 + 1)- (2002).
dimensional geometry describes a periodically expanding [17] This follows from the spatial components of the geodesic
and recollapsing universe, with curvature singularities equation of motion for the particle: d(a2 P i )/d =
2
separating each cycle. The internal brane spacetimes, (m/2)i g (dx /d )(dx /d ) = 0, where p2 = a2 P i .
however, are nonsingular, and this is the basis for the [18] We do not require that this congruence be defined
claim [16] that the cyclic scenario does not require any throughout spacetime, just along O. Away from O the
initial conditions. We disagree with this claim. members of this congruence may cross or focus, but such
In some versions of the cyclic model the brane space- behavior does not affect our argument.
[19] Our definition of H in Eq. (8) can also be expressed
times are everywhere expanding, so our theorem imme- as H = u; n n , where n is a unit vector in the
diately implies the existence of a past boundary at which direction of p r . This can be shown by substituting
boundary conditions must be imposed. In other versions,
v = u 2 n into (8) and using the relations
there are brief periods of contraction, but the net result of u; u = u; u = 0. This expression shows that H de-
each cycle is an expansion. For null geodesics each cycle pends on the direction but not the speed of O, as seen
is identical to the others, except for the overall normal- in the rest frame of the comoving test particles. Further-
ization of the affine parameter. Thus, as long as Hav > 0 more, the frequently used definition H = (1/3)u; is ob-
for a null geodesic when averaged over one cycle, then tained from ours by averaging over all directions.
[20] Aguirre and Gratton [13] have proposed a model in which
Hav > 0 for any number of cycles, and our theorem would this new physics is in fact also inflation, but inflation in
imply that the geodesic is incomplete. the time-reversed sense.
We are grateful to Jaume Garriga, Gary Gibbons, An-
drei Linde, and an anonymous referee of this paper for