Viruses

- Viruses are the smallest of all microorganisms50 times

smaller than bacteria.
- . They are not cells, but arrangements of genetic
material and protein that invade other living cells & take
over the nucleus to make more viruses.
- Most scientists class viruses as obligate intracellular
parasites because they can only exist and reproduce
as parasites only in the cells of other living organisms.
- They are all pathogenic
- They can survive dry conditions and long periods of storage.
- Very few drugs destroy viruses- to kill a virus you have to kill
the host cell too as the virus lives inside the cell. You cant treat
the flue with antibiotics
-

The Structure of Viruses: it has a protein coat and the

genetic material

They are usually geometric in shape

1-The protein coat or capsid is made up of simple repeating
protein units known as capsomeres, arranged in different
ways.
In some viruses, the genetic material and protein coat are
covered by a lipid envelope, produced from the host cell. The
presence of the envelope makes it easier for the viruses to
pass from cell to cell however

it does make them

vulnerable to substances such as ether which will dissolve the

lipid membrane.
2- Genetic material
There are two types of viruses.One which has DNA nucleic acid
and one which has RNA, nucleic acid. can be single or double
stranded.
a) Viral DNA-This is double standedthe viruses with DNA
make proteins as usual by transcription into mRNA and
then translation into proteins..
- Eg are
-

adenovirus -in the common cold or flu

- Bacterophagesthese viruses infect bacteria

b) Viral RNA- produces an enzyme called reverse
transcriptase .
This enzyme can reverse transcription. So it can make DNA
from the RNA

Eg if the mRNA is UCUGGCUAA

Then the enzyme reverse transcription can make DNA
AGACCGATT
Now the DNA can be used to make new viral proteins .
Examples are : tobacco mosaic virus and HIV virus
Viruses attach to their host cells by means of specific
proteins (antigens) known as Viral attachment particles
(VAPs) which target proteins in the host cell surface
membrane. This allows viruses to be specific on cells they
attack

1- Extremely small so can easily _______________

- Simple structure of
___________________________________________________
_________________________________________
- Has VAP _______________________________to enable
the virus to attach to specific types of cells
- VIRAL DNA - acts as a template to make new
VIRAL ________and synthesise __________ inside the
_________
- VIRAL RNA _ can produce
__________________________enzyme.
- This enzyme reverses the RNA and makes new
viral__________
- This Viral DNA can make more proteins.

2- viruses are
Like living organisms Non-living organisms

How viruses reproduce

Virus Life Cycles
Reproduction occurs only within living cells.
They infect cells in different ways:
1-Bacteriophages are virus which infect bacteriaThey inject their genome into the host bacterial cell
but the bulk of the viral material remains outside the
bacterium.
The viral DNA forms a plasmid within the bacterium.
2-The viruses that infect animals get into the cells in
by endocytosis . The Virus fuses with the membrane
and the host then digests the capsid,or protein coat ,
releasing the viral genetic material.
.
3-Plant viruses usually get into the plant cell using a
vector
(often an insect) to pierce the cellulose cell wall.

Once the virus is in the cell there are 2

routes of infection.:

2 routes of infection
- Lysogenic Pathway
- Many viruses are non-virulent when they first get
into the host cell.
- They insert their DNA into the host DNA so it is
replicated every time the host cell divides. This
inserted DNA is called a provirus.
- mRNA is NOT produced from the VIRAL DNA because
a
- repressor protein stops transcription
- During this period of lysogeny, when the virus is
part of the reproducing host cells, the virus is said to
be dormant.
This is what happens in the Lysogenic pathway
1. Bacterio phage attacts bacterium
2. BacterioPhage DNA is injected into host cell
3. Viral enzymes are transcribed from the viral DNA
4. A Viral DNA is also incorporated into host cell DNA
and is replicated each time the bacterium divides,
without causing any damage.

- Lytic Pathway
-

Sometimes the viral genetic material is replicated

independently of the host DNA straight after
entering the host.
- Mature viruses are made & eventually the host cell
bursts, releasing large numbers of new virus
particles to invade other cells.
- The virus is said to be virulent (disease causing)
& the process of replicating & killing cells is known
as the

- lytic pathway.
Lytic pathway
Or B). Phage DNA inactivates the host DNA and
takes over the cell biochemistry
5. BacterioPhage DNA is replicated.
6. New Bacteriophage particles are assembled as new
protein coats are made around phage DNA.
7. The enzyme lysozyme is produced from the viral
DNA
8. Lysis the bacterial cell bursts because of the
lysozyme , releasing up to 1000 bacteriophages to
infect other bacteria & the cycle begins again.

SOS
Lysosgenic state can be activated under
certain conditions and entre the lytic
pathway and become violent .
The amount of repressor protein decreases so
that it no longer stops the transcription of
viral DNA

RETROVIRUSES
Eg HIV causes AIDS and cancer in chickens

Retroviruses have a more complex life

cycle. Their genetic material is viral
RNA.
This cannot be used like mRNA to make
bacteria but is translated back into
DNA using reverse transcriptase.
This viral DNA now goes into the
nucleus and inserts itself into the host
DNA. Now this VIRAL DNA produces
Viral mRNA and
1.
The retrovirus attacks an animal cell
2. Viral RNA enters the host cell. This RNA
cannot be used as mRNA. (but it produces
reverse transcriptase enzyme )
3. Now Viral RNA is translated into viral DNA
by reverse transcriptase in the cytoplasm
4. Viral DNA is incorporated into the host DNA in
the nucleus. It directs the production of new
viral genome RNA, mRNA and coat proteins.
5. New viral particles are assembled and leave
the host cell by exocytosis. Viral DNA remains
in the nucleus so the process is repeated.
6. The host cell continues to function as a
virus making factory, while the new
viruses move on to infect other cells.

Bacteria
They are prokaryotic
Some are pathogenic but most are beneficial eg live in the
gut

All bacteria have a cell wall=

The cytoplasm is usually hypertonic and water moves

in by osmosis. The cell wall protects the cell from
rupture and keeps its shape
The cell membrane has a similar structure and
function to eukaryotic cells

Bacteria have no mitochondria so the membrane has

respiratory enzymes

Mesomes
Infoldings of the plasma membrane found in some
bacterial cells. In the photosynthetic bacteria, they are
where the photosynthetic pigments are housed
Capsule
The capsule or slime layer may be formed from starch , gelatine
, protein or glycolipid and protects the bacterium from
phagocytosis by white blood cells. It covers the cell marker on
the membrane so it cannot be recognised by the hosts
immune system so making them pathogenic.

-Some bacteria have a capsule but are not pathogenic and

may help them survive in dry conditions.
PILLI-some bacteria have a pilli or or fimbria which are thread
like protein projections . These pilli help to attach onto the host
and are also used forsexusl reproduction to transfer DNA.
However viruses may also entre these pilli eg bacteriphages
destroying the bacteria
-flagellum- the protein flagellum allows bacteria to rotate and
move .
DNA - bacteria have a large Circular DNA free in the
cytoplasm and several small rings called plasmids
Plasmid- plasmids code for a toxin or resistance to antibiotic
and can change the bacterial phenotype.

Bacterial cell walls

The cell wall consist of peptidoglycan- which are parallel

polysaccharide chains with short peptide cross links to form a
huge molecule with netlike structure.

There are two different types

of bacterial cell walls which
can be distinguished by
Gram Staining.
Bacteria are colourless
without the stain. When you
add a stain some bacteria
stain purple and some stain
red.
Gram positive bacteria
have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan containing chemicals called teichoic
acid.
The crystal violet in the stain binds to the acid & resists
decolouring, leaving the positive PURPLE/BLUEin
colour.
Gram negative bacteria have a thinner layer of
peptidogylcan with no teichoic acid.

Any crystal violet which does bind is readily

decolourised & replaced with red safranine in the stain,
so the cells appear RED in colour

Classifying
Bacteria
We can classify
bacteria
according to
1-Grandstaining a) gram positive and b) gram
negative
2-by shape
Cocci (spherical)
Bacilli (rod
shaped)
Spirilla (twisted/spiral)
Vibrios (comma shaped)
3-By respiratory requirements
a)
Obligate aerobes they need oxygen for
respiration
b)
Obligate anaerobes respire with out
oxygen
c)Facultative anaerobes use oxygen if it is
available but can survive without it

Name 3 ways we can classify bacteria

By
By
By

Animal
Size

Genetic
material

Outer layer

Bacteria

Virus

Main inclusion

Movement

Reproduction of Bacteria
Bacteria can reproduce in two main ways.

Asexual and

sexual
Asexual reproduction
The most common is Asexual Reproduction (binary fission)
splitting into two.
One the bacterium reaches a certain size, the DNA is replicated
and the old cell wall begins to break
down around the middle of the cell
. Enzymes break open the circular
piece of DNA allowing the strands to
unwind and be replicated.
The plasmids also divide

New cross walls form

Sexual reproduction
Another form of reproduction is Sexual
reproduction. In very rare conditions,
bacteria can reproduce using what
appear to be different forms of sexual
reproduction.

There are 3 ways in which genetic material from one bacterium

cab be taken in and used as part of the DNA of another
bacterium.
1-Transformation
A short piece of DNA is released by a donor and actively taken up by
a recipient where it replaces a similar piece of DNA. Only occurs in
certain types of bacteria.

2-Transduction
Takes place when a small amount of DNA is transferred from one
bacterium to another by a bacteriophage virus.
Bacteriophage attaches to the bacterial cell wall. Enzymes are
released to break down the cell wall. New bacteriophage forms and
some bacteria DNA is included by mistake

3-Conjugation genetic information is

transferred from one bacterium to another by
direct contact.
The donor cell is similar to a male cell and this
produces a sex pillus, a cytoplasmic bridge
between the two cells through which DNA is
transferred to the recipient cell, similar to the
female cell

Transformation was proved by Frederick

R- bacteria are harmless
s- bacteria cause death
he killed s- bacteria and put it into mouse- the mouse lived
when he put dead s- bacteria together with harmless R-type ,
the DNA of R- was transferred into S bacteria.

1- A) asexual reproduction is
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B)_________________________________________________________
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2A)______________________________________________________________
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-B)______________________________________________________________
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Bacteria do not cause disease in the same way as viruses.

Viruses entre the host cell and

________________________________________________________________
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Bacteria however entre the body and grow in localised area. If
they get into the blood then they will spread all around the
body.
They release toxins which they produce as a by product of their
metabolism. They can be classed as
Endotoxins
exotoxins

Endotoxins
- endotoxins are Lipopolysaccharides which is part of the
outer layer of gram negative bacteria
- they are Rarely fatal
- thet Tend to cause symptoms such as fever, vomiting &
diarrhoea
- E.g. Salmonella in eggs & E.coli
- However symptoms may indirectly lead to death by
dehydration
Exotoxins
- Exotoxins are Soluble proteins produced & released into
the body by bacteria as they metabolise and reproduce.
- There are many different types of exotoxine .
- some damage cell membranes causing internal bleeding,
- some act as competitive inhibitors to neurotransmitters,
- whilst others directly poison cells.
- They Rarely cause fevers but so include some of the most
dangerous bacterial diseases.

- E.g. Clostridium botulinum produces one of the most

toxic substances known, botulinum toxin . 1 mg of pure
toxin could kill a million pigs
Bacterial meningitis is a very serious disease.
The bacteria affect the membranes of the braib called
meninges.
If bacteria get into the blood the toxins damage the walls of the
blood vessels so blood leaks out under the skin.
This produces a rash which does not disappear if a glass is
pressed against it as blood is trapped there.

BENEFICIAL BACTERIA
- Many bacteria in the body are beneficial, helping to break
down food and
- keeping pathogens at bay by outcompeting them.
- The normal growth of bacteria on your skin or in your gut
is referred to as the skin flora or gut flora
-

Probiotic drinks and foods contain cultures of these good

bacteria to help support the normal healthy bacterial flora of
the gut.

- Bacteria also play a vital role in the ecosystems of the

natural world. The majority of bacteria are decomposers.
- They break down organic material to produce simple
inorganic molecules such as CO2 and water.
- They release inorganic nitrogen which returns to the
soil in the nitrogen cycle, and also sulphur compound
which returns to the soil or water.
- Another important aspect of bacteria is in the carbon cycle
is the fact that some microorganisms produce the
enzyme cellulase.
- This enzyme breaks down the cellulose produced in plant
cell walls to give sugars which can then be used as food
by a wide range of other microorganisms.

Draw the nitrogen cycle

1
Viruses cause diseases by entering the cell and produce
new viruses, The host cell is usually destroyed by lysis as
millions of new viruses replicate and release lysozymes
enzymes which digest the cell ,

-bacteria cause disease by their toxins they make as they

metabolise and reproduce
Endotoxins are liposaccahrides on the outer layer of Gram
negative Bacteria .
They cause fever ,diahorrea and sickness
Exotoxins are usually soluble toxins produced by bacteria as
they metabolise .
They have special effects on the host causing disease.
2-

INVADING THE BODY

How are pathogens transmitted?
Pathogens are transmitted in a
variety of ways:
- Vectors - a living organism that
transmits infection from one host
to another E.g. Insects Malaria
- Fomites
- objects that carry pathogens from
one host to another E.g. Hospital
towels & bedding
- Direct Contact many sexual
diseases are spread by direct
contact of genital organs E.g.
Gonorrhoea or Syphilis
- Inhalation coughing, sneezing, &
talking release droplets which contain
pathogens E.g Tuberculosis &
Influenza
- Ingestion Contaminated food the
risk is greatest in raw or undercooked food E.g. Salmonella
- Inoculation directly through a break in
the skin either through contaminated
medical instruments or shared needles
in drug abuse.
- An infected animal may also bite or lick
you. E.g. H.I.V or Rabies

10 Describe the major routes pathogens may take when

entering the body and explain the role of barriers in protecting
the body from infection, including the roles of skin, stomach
acid, gut and skin flora.
Ways pathogens enter the body include:

Vectors (live organisms carry the pathogen);

Fomites (inanimate objects) ; direct contact;
inhalation (tiny droplets of bacteria inhaled);
Ingestion (contaminated food); inoculation(break in the skin)

Barriers to entry of pathogens .

The first barrier is the skin
Skin
it contains keratin , a fibrous protein which makes it tough.
It forms a physical barrier between pathogens and the body.
It Contains sebum which inhibits the growth of microorganisms.
Natural skin flora prevent disease by competing successfully for a
position on the skin & produce substances that inhibit the growth
of other microorganismsso they outcompete pathogens
GUT
- Saliva in the mouth has bacterial properties. Some polypeptides
produced in the salivary glands destroy bacteria while others slow
down bacterial growth.
Stomach Acid Low pH destroys the majority of microorganisms
ingested
Mucus produced in the epithelial layer contains lysozymes.
Lysozymes destroy microbial cell walls causing the cell to lyse
- Lysozymes are also present in tears, the secretions produced to
keep the eyes moist & to protect them from the entry of pathogens.
- Part of the non-specific defence of the body

- VOMITING is effectively removing many of the microorganisms

physically from the system when the body is infected.

THE SPECIFIC RESPONSE TO INFECTION

The immune system enables the body to recognise anything
that is non-self and to remove it from the body as efficiently as
possible. Each organism carries its own unique
antigens or the cell surface membrane.
There are 2 main types of White blood cells
involved in the immune systems;
- Lymphocytes are agranulocytes, made
in the white bone marrow. They are
involved in recognising the foreign
antigens
- Macrophages are also agranulocytes
which move freely through the tissue
after leaving the bloodstream

The immune system has 4 characteristics

1. It can distinguish non- self form self
2. It is specific when it responds to foreign cells
3. It is diverse- it can regognnise 10 million different antigens
4. It has immunological memory- so it remembers once a
pathogen entres so it can respond again

There are2 main kinds of lymphocytes in the immune system

KINDS OF LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes

B Cells

T Cells
Killer Cells

B cells
- are made in the bone
marrow
- found in lymph glands &
free in the body
- the B-cells have
membrane bound
globular receptor
proteins on their cell
surface membrane
which are identical to
the antibodies they will
later produce
- all antibodies are known
as immunoglobulins or (IgM)

Helper Cells

T cells
- made in the bone marrow but mature and become active
in the thymus gland
- Surface of each T cell displays thousands of identical T-cell
receptors.
- There are 2 main types of T-cells;
- T killer cells produce chemicals that destroy
pathogens

T helper cells involved in the process which produces

antibodies against the antigens on particular pathogen.

The working of these cells depend on special proteins

known as major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
proteins, which display antigens in the cell surface
membranes