‘CASE STUDY History Y Roots in anthropology’, sociology” and psychology? < During 60°s & 70’s researchers looked for alternatives to standard qualitative methods < Evolved during the 80's as accepted method Sy Prominently used by physicians, historians, social workers, teachers, etc., as a learning tool: Ee Through careful examination and discussion of various cases, “[researchers] learn to identify actual problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem . .." What is a case study? Why conduct a case study? + A case study is an in-depth, examination of a single instance, event or group + In-depth analysis of topic using multiple sources of evidence + Richly descriptive, grounded in deep and varied sources of information * Good for showing how something happens/works in a real life situation / Understanding a complex issue + Explore; Describe; Explain + Acase study is an empirical inquiry‘ that + Investigetes a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when + the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not cleraly evident * When to use a CS? + Many more variables of interest than data points” + Relies on multiple sources of evidence * anthropology is the study of humankind, in parfcular the comparative study of human socities and cultures and their development. “sociology the study ofthe development, structure, and functioning of human society. tis also the study of socal problems, > psychology isthe scientific study ofthe human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given context “Empical means, \veriable by observation or experienc rather than theory or pure logic. +n stlisties, a data point or observation is a set of one or more measurements on a single member ofa stalistical population+ Benefits from prior theoretic propositions, guiding data collection and analysis. + In answering “how” and *why” questions Unit of Analysis + What is the "case? - Anindividual? = A decision? — Aprogram? + Relates to research questions and proposition = Without clear propositions, one might be tempted to cover “everything”. — Non-favoring research questions — too vague or too numerous + Different units of analysis require different research design and data collection strategy. + Case study: an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system: the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group. * Case is Bounded system: a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries Bounded system example: Qualitative study: How older people learn to use a computer Case study; How one older person leams to use a computer ~ one particular program - one classroom of learners * cases an instance ofa particular situation; an example of something occuringCase study characteristics 1. Particularistic: focuses on a particular situation, event, program or phenomenon 2. Descriptive: the end product is a rich, thick description of the phenomenon being studied 3. Heuristic’: the cases studied illuminate the reader's understanding of the phenomenon under study - Brings about the discovery of new meanings - Extend the reader’s experience ~ Confirm what is already known + Case study method is a common technique used in social science research to test theoretical propositions or questions in relation to qualitative inquiry. + The strength of the case study approach is that it facilitates simultaneous analysis and comparison of individual cases for the purpose of identifying particular phenomena among those cases, and for the purpose of more general theory testing, development or construction + A case study is a form of research defined by an interest in individual cases. It is a useful technique or strategy for conducting qualitative research. + The more the object of study is a specific, unique, bounded system, the more likely that it can be characterized as a case study. + Once the case is chosen, it can be investigated by whatever method is deemed appropriate to the aims of the study. What is it good for? + If appropriately designed, case study research will facilitate the identification of significant features of the subject not discernable within more general forms of analysis. + Gives you depth and complexity. Why case study research? 7 + The case study method is amongst the most flexible of research designs, and is particularly useful in researching issues related to sustainability and institutional systems. + Itincorporates a number of data-gathering strategies: * Heuristic means -enabling a person to discover or leam something fr themselves*Document analysis, “Surveys, «Participant or non-participant observation, *Participatory or action research’. + Case study research can serve a variety of functions: — exploratory (enabling researchers to get a feeling for potentially important variables and to describe phenomena in the appropriate contextual setting), — for testing hypotheses or theories (rclating to cause and effect in a quasi- experimental fashion), and for = policy analysis Knowledge gained is: ~ More concrete - More contextual - More developed by reader interpretation - Based more on reference populations determined by the reader Y Depends on what the researcher wants to know 1. Specific “how” and “why” questions 2. When you have less control of the events 3. When variables are so embedded in the situation that they're impossible to be identified ahead of time 4. Uniqueness of the situation TYPES OF CASE STUDIES + Most Favourable; to illustrate a theory and show it in a positive light + Exceptional: to validate or falsify a hypothesis by choosing a least favourable case * Critical Case: using a case to show the limitations of previous theories and other factors that might be operating.+ Historical: ‘The study of the development of a particular phenomenon over time Holistic analysis and description from a historical perspective ‘© Observational: The primary data collection method is participant observation supplemented with formal and informal interviews ‘* Llustrative Case Studi Primarily descriptive studies 1. Utilizes one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like 2. Tries to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question ‘* Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies: Condensed case studies performed before implementing a large-scale investigation 1. Basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation 2. Primary pitfall is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions © Cumulative Case Studies: Serves to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times The collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies © Critical Instance Case Studies: Examines one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge ahighly generalized or universal assertion 1. Useful for answering cause and effect questions + Intrinsic cases are studied because the case itself is of interest, not because it is representative of other cases or because it illustrates a more general trend or problem. Intrinsic cases are not researched for the purpose of understanding the relationship of the individual case to a larger sample or population of cases. Moreover, theory testing or building is not the purpose of carrying out the case study, although it may be a secondary function of the study once carried out. >© Instrumental case studies - The main purpose of instrumental cases is to facilitate understanding of something other than the case itself. That is, the case is mainly used to build knowledge of an issue or to challenge an existing generalisation. The case is of secondary interest to the broader goal of advancing the understanding of that other interest. + collective case study can be viewed as the extension of the instrumental case study to several cases. CAUTION... * The purpose of choosing the cases is to take advantage of comparison and simultaneous analysis of individual cases to more effectively test or build theory, or develop a better understanding of a particular phenomenon, + A common trap in multiple case designs is that of using a sampling logic rather than replication logic. That is, treating the cases as if they were a small survey sample from which findings can be extrapolated to the population at large rather than treating them as cases in which we explore the extent to which theoretical propositions are replicated. Being fairly theory driven in both research design and analysis is important to avoid this trap. Different ways of presentati = Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions = Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section + Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text + Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes = Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations = Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groupsStrengths & Weaknesses Strengths: 1. Anchored in real-life situations 2. Holistic account of the phenomenon 3. Advances a field’s knowledge base 4. Flexible 5. Contextualization of the phenomenon Weaknesses: 1. Difficult to generalize 2. Some say it’s too subjective 3. May be costly ~ hard to rationalize cost in a budget request 4, Some ethical considerations 5, Time consuming FOCUSES OF STUDY Case studies are classified according to the focus of study. This can include: + Individuals * Communities + Social groups + Organizations and institutions, and + Events, roles, relationships, and interactions. ‘TRIANGULATION There are different kinds of triangulation (ways of “trapping the answers” + Methodological (different types of research methods) * Data (different types of data, or replication) + Investigator (using more than one), and + Theoretical (using different theoretical frameworks).GENERALIZING FROM CASES = One’s ability to generalize from case studies increases with the number of case studies. However, one way to overcome the limitations of a small number of cases is to choose ones that have the greatest variety of characteristics, and that encompass a range of “extremes.” PROBLEM OF CASE STUDY RESEARCH + Ideally, one should avoid studying an issue solely from the perspective of one stakeholder. + Case study researchers are often guilty of two additional errors: 1) presenting a mass of indigestible data, or 2) only presenting the conclusions without showing the logical inferences from evidence that make those conclusions possible. + Researchers should try to be both selective and systematic. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY + This is establishing correct operational measures for the “things” being studied. To meet the test of construct validity, an investigator must be sure to + 1) select the specific types of changes that are to be studied and + 2) demonstrate that the selected measures of these changes do indeed reflect the specific types of changes that have been selected. There are a number of strategies for ensuring construct validity: + Using multiple sources of evidence to see if they “converge” + Building a solid “chain of evidence” + Circulating a case study report to key informants for them to review for accuracy. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY * Internal _validity involves establishing a causal relationship between factors or variables; causality is not the same as correlation + Extemal validity involves establishing the domain to which one’s studies can be generalized. Unless one is studying a large number of cases, the ability to generalize is based on analytical, not statistical, grounds. ~RELIABILITY Reliability involves demonstrating that the operations of a study, such as data collection procedures, can be repeated with the same results (i.e. would a different researcher, using the same methods, reach the same conclusions?) To allay concems, one documents the steps undertaken and keeps proper records — for instance, transcribing interviews and explaining how one “coded” the results. Choosing Your Case Study Unit of Analysis Methods of Analysis ( Types of Evidence) Case selected because they are: — highly effective; representative; and of special interest Documentation Interviews Direct Observation Participant Observation ..and Others (Survey, Artifacts, ete.) How to Conduct Case Studies Determine topic Determine / define research question = Good for “how” & “why” questions / limited number of events and their interrelationships Determine type of case study method used and mode of data collection - Documents rm - Archival records ~ Interviews = Direct observation ~ Participant observation - Artifacts+ Select participants - Select cases & determine data gathering / analysis techniques — nota “sampling technique” -- select to maximize what can be leamed — with multiple cases, each is a single case with conclusions contributing to the whole study + Prepare to collect data — systematic organization is key + Collect data / evaluate data + Data Analysis ~ Typically done holistically or through coding + Prepare the report Analyzing the Evidence + Before writing up your case study, you need to analyze the data -- keep focused on your research question + Pattern matching: a set of results is predicted, then compared to actual results + Explanation building: a particular explanation (e.g. theory) use to analyze the data + Time-series analysis: looks at trends over time, matching with possible explanations + Logic models: a complex chain of events and looks at relationship between independent variables (causes) and dependent variables (events) + Cross-case synthesis: findings are analyzed across cases and generalizations made + Key tips: 1. Cover all relevant evidence; 2. Focus on most significant aspects of the case 3. Analysis should cover general points from this particular case, and the implications for practice (What are your specific recommendations?) Writing Up a Case Study * Remember your reader + Use short-story writing technique (each element moves the narrative forward) 10 \Openings: grab the reader’s attention Scenes should follow a logical order and illustrate a point, concept or issue related to the problem(s) you are attempting to address = Carry the narrative forward (should not be simply a recitation of events) = Relate directly to the problems/issues you are exploring (e.g. tie in to research question) Provide relevant details Conducting In-Depth Interviews Purpose of Interviews Generate ideas Develop hypothesis Gain insight into complex issues Seek expert opinion Get people’s opinion; team how they look at the world Collect information Pre-Interview Prepare, prepare, prepare! Know your objectives and information needed. Select interviewees ~- rationale Prepare questions = Clearly worded; neutral; value of open-ended questions; possible probes/follow-up questions — But, be flexible -- take advantage of opportunities Initial contact Interview Process Face-to-face; phone Non-distracting setting (for face-to-face) Introduction/review purpose/informed consent aRedundant note taking Carefully constructed question order (more later) Be flexible (skip questions, ask probes) Closing question Post-Interview Reserve time to re-write/organize notes — Time-consuming, but essential Follow-up with interviewee Types of Interviews Informal, conversational: no predetermined questions asked (based on rough topic list you want to cover); adaptable to interviewee's nature & priorities; “go with the flow” BUT difficult to do effectively, tough to analyze/compare with others, can get off-topic quickly, can be time-consuming Standardized, open-ended interview: same open-ended questions asked to all; faster interviews; easier to analyze, less flexibility/opportunity to explore new avenues (can build in prompts to allow this) Closed, fixed-response interview: same questions and same set of pre-determined responses (like a survey) Sequence of Questions Get respondents involved in interview as soon as possible (limited time, ask only “important” questions) Start off with “easy” questions (e.g. facts rather than controversial issues) Intersperse fact-based questions throughout Make sure your “key” questions aren’t at very end Transition between major topics Importance of closing question 12Review (Interview) Research Stages Thematizing: why and what of the research Designing: plan the study Interviewing: conduct based on a guide ‘Transcribing: prepare material for analysis, Analyzing: looks for themes, key points related to research questions, compare/contrast, across interviews Verifying: assess validity of findings (multiple sources of information) Reporting: write up report using information/analysis ftom interviews Sources of Error/Bias Interviewee/Respondent Induced Bias — Memory, exaggeration, hidden agenda, misunderstand, lack of expertise, incomplete answer, courtesy Interview Induced Bias — React to response, voice inflections, desire to help, biased questions, question order, appearance Limitations of case studies Single case studies will have limited ability to provide an adequate test for a theory. Unless there is a very large sample of case studies, generally cannot draw ‘quantitative? generalizations. At best, the evidence drawn from case studies is generalizable to theoretical propositions and not to populations or other large subject groups However, case studies can be used to test whether there are exceptions to an excepted theory. ‘Theoretical generalisations can however be made. As long as researchers do not claim more for the cases than is possible methodologically, the limitations need not be an issue. Case Study Method- features Real life situation in real time 2B+ Limited in space and time + Immediate impact + Immediate relevance Research Philosophy + Ontology’: Who are you, who are you studying? Are they your equals or your subjects? What rights do you consider them to have? + Epistemology'®: What do you consider to be knowledge and how does this affect your data collection and analysis? + Validity, reliability: Have you found out what you say you found out? Can you convince others that you have done so? Can you generalise the results to another situation? Making non-science into science? + Get as many different views on the situation as possible (triangulate) + Demonstrate that the techniques and the way they will be used were decided in advance + Be scrupulously careful with recording and cataloguing all data. + Underpin your case with theory and derive theory from the case itself Case Study Methodology + Plan and chart techniques to be used + Identify site(s) for access & convenience + Schedule data collection * ontology isthe pilosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or realty, as well as the basic categories of ‘being and thelr relations, Tradtionalllsted 2s apart of the malor branch of philosophy known as metaphysis. Ontology deals with questions conceming what entifes exist or can be sald to exist, and how such enfiies can be grouped, related within biorarchy, and eubdivided according fo similarities and dierences. *° epistemology is the branch of philosophy concemed with the nature and scope of knowedge and is also referred to as “theory of knowedge". It questions what knowledge Is and how it can be acquired, and the extent fo which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected nations such as truth, bolt, and justification, 14+ Regular review Recording + Analysis is the key, so don’t gather anything until you know how you will use it + Notes vs Audiotape vs videotap Storage and cataloguing + Label, number, code + Transcribe, translate + Index, catalogue + General overview detailed along with scrutiny Considerations * Why is this a suitable situation for a case study? + Aims & objectives ‘Theoretical basis + Appropriateness of data collected + Appropriateness of data-gathering methods Credibility/validity/reliability of findings Case Study Designs + Single vs. Multiple case — Single case appropriate in certain conditions — Multiple case design better in general + Embedded vs. Holistic — Holistic = one unit of analysis, — Emdedded = several units of analysis 15or zn sIsAeUy soaun pappaqua suaisoq ase9-9/49/n1N (sishjeue jo yun ajBuis) NSHOH suBjsag aseo-aj8uis susIsaq Jo sadAy a1segSingle-case Design * rationales 1, Critical case: clear set of propositions Extreme/unique case Representative/typical case eens) Revelatory case C2 Previously inaccessible phenomena 5. Longitudinal case 1 Same things at different points in time (Assumes that conditions changes over time 6. Asapilot case for multiple case studies I Not considered as a case study of its own. Embedded vs. Holistic Designs OO Holistic design — When no logical subunits can be identified. — study might be conducted on a too abstract level — Research question slippage 1 Embedded design = Avoids slippage — Extensive analysis = Might focus too much on subunits, loses higher level (holistic) aspects. Multiple-case Designs + More robust results and compelling arguments * Require more resources + Replication rather than “sampling” logic + Each case can be holistic or embedded 7Conclusion and Advice ‘When you have a choice (and resources) choose multiple case design ~ Two cases is significatly better than a single one allows for replication, ' Drastical improvment of generalizability ! Theoretical replication even stronger argument Avoids critisism and skepticism Tf you use single case ~ Prepare to make an extremly strong argument in justifying your choice of case. 18