Cardiovascular System

The Cardiovascular System

The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and
nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
Transport of substances such as:
Oxygen & nutrients to cells
Wastes from cells to liver
Kidneys
& _____________
Hormones, immune cells,
clotting proteins to specific
target cells
A closed system of the heart and
blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
Blood vessels allow blood to
circulate to all parts of the body
Blood is used for delivery

Overview of the Cardiovascular System

the size of your fist

Heart
The _____________
Located in thoracic cavity
Diaphragm separates
abdominal cavity from
thoracic cavity
Size of fist
Weighs approximately
250 350 grams
Valves present for
unidirectional blood flow
Four chambers: 2 Atria
and 2 Ventricles
Blood Vessels
Blood

form relates to function

2 pumps- systemic and pulmonary
pulmonary-lungs
systemic:the entire body

1!

Properties of Cardiac Muscle

Intercalated Disks
Gap junctions: so heart contracts as a unit
Desmosomes: resist stress
Aerobic muscle
No cell division after infancy - growth by
hyertrophy
_____________
99% contractile cells
1% autorhythmic cells

The Hearts Covering

The Pericardium

uniform electrical conduction throughout the heart

workout= increase the size of the cells

provides lubrication

Pericardium is a double-walled
membranous sac surrounding heart
Serous fluid fills the space
between the layers of
pericardium
_____________
Lubricates heart decreasing
friction
Pericarditis = inflammation of
pericardium

The Heart:
4 Chambers
Right and left side act as separate
pumps
Septa
____________:
separates chambers
Interventricular septum
Separates the two ventricles
Interatrial septum
Separates the two atria
Four chambers
Atria are receiving chambers
Right atrium
Left atrium
Ventricles are discharging
chambers
Right ventricle
Left ventricle

right heart: pulmonary

myocardium thinner than left
left heart: systemic, requires alot of muscule

2!

The Heart: Valves

Allow blood to flow in only one direction to prevent backflow
Four valves
Atrioventricular (AV)
valves are between atria
and ventricles
Bicuspid (mitral) valve
(left side of heart)
Tricuspid valve (right
side of heart)
Semilunar valves are
between ventricle and
artery
Pulmonary semilunar
_____________
valve
Aortic semilunar valve

no backflow during ventricular contraction-AV

The Heart: Valves

AV valves
Anchored in place by
chordae tendineae ( heart
strings )
Open during heart
relaxation and closed during
ventricular contraction
Semilunar valves
closed
_____________
during
heart relaxation but open
during ventricular
contraction
These valves operate opposite
of one another to force a oneway path of blood through the
heart

Semi- open during ventricular contraction

heart string- gives shape to ventricle to help blood funnel out

Valves and Unidirectional Blood Flow

Pressure within chambers of heart vary with heartbeat cycle
Pressure difference drives blood flow: high pressure to low
pressure
_____________
Normal direction of flow
Veins to atria
Atria to ventricles
Ventricles to arteries
Valves prevent backward
flow of blood
All valves open passively
based on pressure gradient

3!

Blood Vessels: Vasculature

Heart Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins
Arteries are relatively large, branching
vessels that conduct blood away from
the heart
Arterioles are small branching vessels
with high resistance
Capillaries are the site of exchange
between blood and tissue
Venules are small converging vessels
Veins are relatively large converging
vessels that conduct blood to the heart
Closed system
Pressure drives blood _____________

flow

Series Flow Through the Cardiovascular

System
Parallel Flow Within the Systemic or
Pulmonary Circuit
Pulmonary circuit
Supplied by right heart
Blood vessels from heart to lungs
and lungs to heart
systemic
_____________circuit
Supplied by left heart
Blood vessels from heart to systemic
tissues and tissues to heart
Left ventricle aorta systemic
circuit venae cavae right atrium
right ventricle pulmonary artery
pulmonary circuit pulmonary veins
left atrium left ventricle

Oxygenation of Blood
Exchange between blood and tissue
takes place in capillaries
Pulmonary capillaries
Blood entering lungs =
deoxygenated blood
oxygen
_____________
diffuses from
tissue to blood
Blood leaving lungs = oxygenated
blood
Systemic capillaries
Blood entering tissues =
oxygenated blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood to
tissue
Blood leaving tissues =
deoxygenated blood

only in the capillaries

lung tissue to the blood

4!

Coronary Circulation
Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system): heart
muscle cells contract, without nerve impulses, in
a regular, continuous way
Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the
myocardium
The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system consisting of:
Coronary arteries branch from the aorta to
supply the heart muscle with oxygenated
blood
Cardiac veins drain the myocardium of blood
arteries
Coronary ______________
a large vein on
the posterior of the heart, receives blood
from cardiac veins
Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
Bypass surgery?

Differences Between Blood Vessels

Walls of arteries are the
thickest
Lumens of veins are larger
Larger veins have valves
to prevent backflow
Skeletal muscle squeezes
blood in _________
toward the heart
Walls of capillaries are
only one cell layer thick to
allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue

Blood Vessels: Microscopic Anatomy

Three layers (tunics)
1) Tunica intima: endothelium
2) Tunica ______________
Smooth muscle
Controlled by sympathetic
nervous system
Radius can be altered
may by used to control
blood flow to individual
capillary beds
Used to regulate mean
arterial pressure
3) Tunica externa is mostly
fibrous connective tissue

5!

Arteries
Rapid transport pathway, large diameter - little resistance
Walls contain elastic and fibrous tissue, under high
pressure
Smooth muscle regulates radius
Major arteries
____________: leaves left ventricle
Pulmonary arteries: leave right
ventricle

Capillaries
Site of exchange between blood and
tissue
Substances exchanged due to
concentration gradients
Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave
the cells
Walls are 1 cell layer, small diffusion
barrier
10-40 billion per body, total surface area
= 600 m2
Most cells within 1 mm of a _________
Pores between endothelial cells, protein
free plasma moves through pores

Capillary Exchange: Mechanisms

Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
Endocytosis or exocytosis
Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts), plasma
membrane not joined by tight junctions
Fenestrations (_________) of some capillaries

6!

Fluid Movements at Capillary Beds

Blood pressure forces fluid and
solutes out of capillaries
Osmotic pressure draws fluid into
capillaries
Blood pressure is higher than
osmotic pressure at the arterial end
of the capillary bed
Blood pressure is lower than
osmotic pressure at the _________
end of the capillary bed

Precapillary Sphincters
Rings of smooth muscle
that surrounds capillaries
on the arteriole end
Contract/relax in response to
local factors only
Contraction constrict
capillary decrease blood
flow
Relaxation increase blood
flow
Metabolites (__________
products) cause relaxation

Capillary Beds
Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels
Vascular shuntvessel directly connecting an arteriole to a
_____________
True capillariesexchange vessels

Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells

Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood

7!

Factors Affecting Filtration and Absorption

Across Capillaries
Kidney disease
Increase blood volume, and thus blood pressure
Decrease in plasma proteins
Heart disease ______________ edema
Liver disease Decrease in plasma proteins

Veins
Veins: A Volume Reservoir
Factors That Influence Central Venous Pressure and Venous
Return
Large diameter, but thin walls
________ allow unidirectional
blood flow

Veins Are a Volume Reservoir because of High

Compliance

elastic- returning to original shape

Compliance is a measure of how the pressure of a vessel will change

with a change in volume
Low compliance arteries: small increase in blood volume causes a
large increase in pressure
High compliance (_________):
large increase in blood volume
veins
required to produce large increase in pressure
Veins expand with little change in pressure and function as blood
reservoir
60% total blood volume in systemic veins at rest, veins hold large
volume with small pressure change due to high compliance

V2 is about 3.5 times larger than V1!

8!

The Skeletal Muscle Pump

Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
Veins use the milking action of muscles to help move blood
One-way valves in peripheral veins
Skeletal muscle contracts
squeezes
_
__________ on veins
increasing pressure
Blood moves toward heart
Blood cannot move
backwards due to valves
Skeletal muscle relaxes
Blood flows into veins
between muscles

valves prevent backflow, ensures it only goes in 1 dire

have to move to pump blood

Autorhythmic Cells
Atria contract as a unit and then ventricles contract as a unit
Atrial contraction precedes ventricle contraction
Autorhythmicity is the ability to generate own rhythm
Autorhythmic cells that provide pathway to spread
excitation through the heart
Sinoatrial node is the
pacemaker of the heart
Then the message goes to the
Atrioventricular node
Wave of _____________ through
cardiac muscle

The Heart: Conduction System

Special tissue sets the pace
Sinoatrial node = SA node
( pacemaker ), is in the right
atrium
Atrioventricular node = AV
node, is at the junction of the
atria and ventricles
Atrioventricular bundle = AV
bundle (bundle of _____), is
in the interventricular septum
Bundle branches are in the
interventricular septum
Purkinje fibers spread within
the ventricle wall muscles

9!

Spread of Excitation:
Follow the Yellow Brick Road

Control of Heart Beat by Pacemakers

Autorhythmic cells have pacemaker potentials
Spontaneous depolarization caused by closing K+ channels
and opening of cation channels
Channels that open:
+
I channels: Na moves in, net depolarization, then
f
2+ T channels: further depolarization until
Ca
threshold
2+ L channels cause the ____________ potential
Ca

Time (ms)!

Resting Membrane Potential

The resting potential is caused by the membrane s ability to maintain a
positive charge on its outer surface opposing a negative charge on its inner
surface
How does this occur?

10!

Electrical Activity in Pacemaker Cells

Depolarize to threshold with funny
Na+ channels and T type Ca2+
channels
Sodium channels can __________
without a stimulus
Open fast L type Ca2+ channelsaction potential
Repolarization: Open VG K+
channels

time (ms)!

*Steps of Excitation-Contraction
Coupling*
1) Depolarization of cardiac contractile cell to threshold via
gap junction
2) Opening of calcium channels in plasma membrane
3) Action potential (AP) travels down T tubules
4) Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum by
- Calcium-induced calcium release
- Action potentials in T tubules
5) Calcium binds to troponin
causing a shift in tropomyosin
6) Binding sites for myosin on
actin are exposed
7) _______________ cycle occurs

Cardiac Cycle
Events associated with the flow of blood through
the heart during a single complete heartbeat
2 Main periods of cardiac cycle
Systole: ventricle contraction
Diastole: ventricle relaxation
Atria contract simultaneously
Atria relax, then ventricles ______________

11!

Function of Cardiac Muscle

Rhythmic contraction and relaxation generates heart pumping
action
Contraction pushes blood out of heart into vasculature
Relaxation allows ______________to fill with blood

Heart Contractions
Tachycardia rapid heart rate over 100 beats per
minute
____________________ slow heart rate less than
60 beats per minutes

ECG (ElectroCardioGraph)
Measures the electrical activity of the heart
The P wave corresponds to atrial
depolarization
The _________ complex corresponds to
the depolarization of the ventricles
T wave represents the repolarization of the
ventricles

12!

ECG and Heart Sounds: Lub Dub

Lub sounds is atrioventricular valves closing
Dub sounds is __________________ valves closing

ECG!

ECG (ElectroCardioGraph)

Heart Rate
Determined by SA Node Firing Rate
SA node intrinsic firing rate = 100/min, so with no
extrinsic control on heart, HR = 100
SA node under control of __________ & hormones
Rest: Parasympathetic dominates, HR = 75
Excitement: Sympathetic takes over, HR increases

13!

Effects of Sympathetic Activity on Heart

Rate
Increased sympathetic activity
(epinephrine from neurons)

Beta 1 Receptors in SA Node

Increase open state of If and
calcium channels
Increase rate of spontaneous
depolarization (increases APs)
Increase heart rate

Effects of Parasympathetic Activity on

Heart Rate
Increased parasympathetic
activity (vagus nerve)
Muscarinic Cholinergic
Receptors in SA Node
Increase open state of K+
channels and closed state of
calcium channels
Decrease rate of spontaneous
depolarization & hyperpolarize
cell (decreases APs)
Decrease heart rate

Hormonal Control of Heart Rate

Epinephrine/norepinephrine have the same effect as
sympathetic nervous system (released from adrenal gland)
Glucagon - __________ heart rate

14!

The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate

What increases heart rate?
Sympathetic nervous system
Crisis
Low blood pressure
Hormones
Epinephrine
Thyroxine
____________
Decreased blood volume
What decreases heart rate?
Parasympathetic nervous
system
High blood pressure or blood
volume
Decreased venous return

Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow

and Blood Pressure
ressure Gradients in the Cardiovascular System
P
Resistance in the Cardiovascular System
Relating Pressure Gradients and Resistance in the
Systemic Circulation

Flow Rule
Flow = P/R
irculatory system = closed system
C
Pressure = force exerted by blood
Flow occurs from high pressure to low pressure
R= _____________

15!

Factors Affecting Resistance (R) to Flow

Radius of vessel: in arterioles (and small arteries) can
regulate radius called vasoconstriction or vasodilation
Length of vessel: can t really change this
_______________ of fluid = , Blood viscosity
dependent on amount of RBCs and proteins

Regulate Blood Flow by Regulating

Radius

Regulation of radius of arterioles (and small arteries)

Vasoconstriction decrease radius increase resistance
______________ increase radius decrease resistance
Pulmonary circuit less
resistance than systemic,
lower pressure gradient
required for blood flow

Other Factors Affecting Local Blood

Flow
eat - increases blood flow
H
_______ - decreases blood flow

16!

Distribution of Adrenergic Receptors

in Arterioles to Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle
Both and 2 adrenergic
receptors for sympathetic
response
Norepinephrine and
epinephrine bind to
receptors: vasoconstriction
Norepinephrine and
epinephrine bind to 2
receptors: vasodilation at 2
receptors
Epinephrine has greater
affinity for_____ receptors

This allows for localized

changes in blood flow!

The Heart: Cardiac Output

Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood pumped by
each side (ventricle) of the
heart in one minute
= ________________
Stroke volume (SV)
Volume of blood pumped by
each ventricle in one
contraction (each heartbeat)
Usually remains relatively
constant
About 70 mL of blood is
pumped out of the left
ventricle with each heartbeat
Heart rate (HR) typically ~75
beats per minute

Stroke Volume
Volume of blood ejected by the ventricle each beat
Stroke volume = end diastolic blood volume (in the _______)
end systolic blood volume (in the heart) =
130 mL 60 mL = 70 mL

17!

Ejection Fraction
Fraction of end-diastolic volume ejected during a
heartbeat

Ejection fraction = stroke volume / end diastolic volume

= 70 mL / 130 mL = 0.54

Cardiac Output and Its Control

Autonomic and endocrine input
to the heart
Factors affecting
________output:
Changes in heart rate
Changes in stroke volume
Integration of multiple factors
affect cardiac output

Cardiac Output Regulation

18!

Independent Regulation of Blood Flow

During Exercise
Cardiac output increases during exercise
Distribution of blood does not increase proportionally
LOCALIZED vasodilation to skeletal muscle and heart:
increases blood flow to these regions

_________________ vasoconstriction to GI tract and kidneys:

decreases blood flow to these regions

Pulse
Pulse: pressure wave of
______________
Monitored at pressure
points in arteries where
pulse is easily palpated
Pulse averages 7076
beats per minute at rest

Blood Pressure
Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure
in large arteries
Systolic is the pressure at the
peak of ventricular contraction
Diastolic is the pressure when
ventricles relax
Write systolic pressure first
and diastolic last
(120/80 mm Hg)
Pressure in blood vessels decreases
as distance from the heart increases
Varies with cardiac cycle and
measured with a

_____________

19!

Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure

sphygmomanometer!

Pressure Gradient Across Systemic

Circuit
Pressure gradient = pressure
in aorta minus pressure in
vena cava just before it
empties into right atrium
Pressure in aorta = mean
arterial pressure (MAP) =
90 mm Hg
Pressure in vena cava =
central venous pressure
(CVP) = 0 mm Hg
Pressure gradient =
MAP CVP = 90 0 =
_______mm Hg

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

BP is blood pressure
BP is affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body
position, emotional state
CO (cardiac output)is the amount of
blood pumped out of the left ventricle
per minute
PR is peripheral resistance, or the
amount of friction blood encounters as
it flows through vessels: narrowing of
blood vessels and increased blood
volume increases PR
BP = _____________

20!

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

Neural factors: Autonomic nervous system adjustments
(sympathetic division)
Renal factors
Regulation by altering blood volume
Renin is released from the kidney
to increase BP
_________________
Heat has a vasodilating effect
Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
Chemicals
Various substances can cause
increases (naproxen, ibuprofen) or decreases (diuretics)
alcohol
Diet: salt, water intake can alter BP

Factors Determining Blood Pressure

systemic!

Variations in Blood Pressure

Normal human range is variable

_____________

140110 mm Hg systolic
8075 mm Hg diastolic
Hypotension
Low systolic (below 110 mm Hg)
Inadequate blood flow to tissues
Often associated with illness
Fainting
Hypertension
High systolic (above 140 mm Hg)
Stress on heart and walls of blood
vessels
Can be dangerous if it is chronic

21!

Neural Control of MAP

Negative feedback loop to maintain blood pressure at
normal level
___________ = baroreceptors are stretch
receptors
Location of baroreceptors
Carotid sinus
Aortic arch
Integration Center = cardiovascular centers
in the brainstem
Controllers = autonomic nervous system
Effectors = heart and blood vessels
baroreceptors!

Baroreceptor Reflex in Response

to a Decrease in MAP

systemic!

Increase venous return!

Intrinsic Control - Frank-Starling s Law

Increase venous return
Blood filling the heart,
stretches the heart
Increase strength of
contraction (inotropy)
Increase stroke volume

22!

Blood Volume and Blood Pressure

I ncrease blood ______________ increase pressure
Decrease blood volume decrease pressure
Long-term regulation of blood pressure is through
regulation of blood volume (ADH, aldosterone)

Long-Term Regulation of Blood Pressure

Baroreceptor reflex quickly _____________ for changes in
blood pressure
It does not correct problem
Long-term regulation occurs through renal regulation of
blood volume

Thermoregulatory Responses: Other

Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes

Thermoregulation mediated through hypothalamus

Thermoregulation takes precedence over baroreceptor reflex
Chemoreceptor Reflexes (carbon dioxide, _____, and oxygen levels)!
Thermoregulatory Responses (body temperature regulation)!

23!

Developmental Aspects of the

Cardiovascular System
Aging problems associated with the cardiovascular system include
Venous valves weaken
Varicose ___________
Progressive atherosclerosis (deposits in the inner layer of the
arteries)
Loss of elasticity of vessels leads to hypertension
(arteriolosclerosis: thickening of the intima of arterioles)
Coronary artery disease results from vessels filled with fatty,
calcified deposits

Partially Hydrogenated Oil

Heart Disease
aused by reduced blood flow or blockage of coronary artery
C
_____ fats (aka partially hydrogenated oils)

24!