Collins COBUILD Key WordsHarperCollins Publishers Entered words that we have reason Westerhill Road tobelieve constitute trademarks Bishopbriggs have been designated as such. Glasgow However, neither the presence nor G642QT absence of such designation should be regarded as affecting the legal Firstedition20n status of any trademark, Reprint 10 987654322 Editorial staff ‘© HarperCollins Publishers 20. Senior editor ISBN 978-0-00-736547-0 Julie Moore Collins ® isaregistered tademarkof Project manager HarperCollins PublishersLimited Lisa Sutherland ‘woww.collinslanguage.com Contributors Sandra Anderson A catalogue record for this bookis JamieFlockhart available from the British Library Lucy Hollingworth Virginia Klein ‘Typeset by Davidson Publishing Claire Newton Solutions, Glasgow _~ Cerwyss O'Hare kate Wild Printed in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, Stlvesple For the publishers Lucy Cooper Kerry Ferguson Alltights reserved. No part of, Gavin Gray this book may be reproduced, Elaine Higgleton stored ina retrieval system, or transmittedinanyformorbyany Computing support ‘means, electronic, mechanical, ‘Thomas Callan photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior The publishers would like to thank permission in writing of the the following fortheir invaluable Publisher.Thisbookis soldsubject_ _ contribution tothe series: tothe conditions that it shall Sharon Chalmers not, by way of trade or otherwise, Rachael Clarke belent,re-sold, hired out or Jane Cursiter otherwise circulated without the Patrick Hubbuck publisher's prior consent in any Martin Jenkins, form of binding or cover other than that in which itis published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser,Introduction Pronunciation guide Guide to entries Wordlists Sciences Social sciences Arts Multi-disciptine Academic study Academic word list KeywordsA-Z contents, 67 10 5 19 a 28 29 3B4 introduction Collins COBUILD KeyWords for IELTS: Book3Advancedis the final book inthe KeyWords for IELTS series. Itcovers the words and phrases that will help you toraisethe level of your English toachieve the high IELTS scorerequired by some universities for more challenging courses and postgraduate study. Mastering the vocabulary in this book will give you the skills youneed to confidently use Academic English in an English-medium university context. The first section of the book consists of word lists organized by subject and topic area. You can use these lists to help you revise sets of vocabulary or when preparing for writing tasks. The words re grouped into academic subject areas, such as Scienceand History, common topics suchas social issues and the environment, as wellas according tofunetions, suchas talking about cause and effect or describing trends. ‘The second section of the book contains alphabetically ordered dictionary- style entries for key words and phrases. The vocabulary items have been chosen tofully prepare you for the kind of language found in the IELTS exam. ‘The words and phrases regularly appear in the most common IELTS topics, and are clearly labelled by subject area. More formal vocabulary has been included so that you can feel confident using a more sophisticated style in IELTS writing tasks andacademicessays. Each word is illustrated with examples of natural English taken from the Collins corpusand reflects the style of language used in IELTS texts. As well as definitions and examples, entriesinclude additional information about collocations, as well as usage notes to help you putthe vocabulary you have learnt into practice Words from the same root, for example. coincide, coincidence, coincidental, are shown together to help you make these vital links between words. By understanding how these words relate to each other, you will beable to vary the way you express your ideas, which will help improve your writing and speaking skills. - ‘Thereare synonyms and antonyms at each entry tohelp you widen your range of vocabulary and create more varietyin your writing style. ‘The Extend your vocabulary boxes help you understand the differences between sets of similar words, so you can be surethat your Englishis accurate and natural We hope you enjoy preparing for IELTS using Collins COBUILD KeyWords for IELTS. The vocabulary in these books will help you to not only achieve the IELTS score youre aiming for, but will equip you for success in the futurePronunciation guide 5 We have used the International Phonetic Alphabet (|PA) to show how the words are pronounced. IPA Symbols Vowel Sounds Consonant Sounds a: calm,ah b bed, rub 2 act, mass a done, red at dive, cry fj Atif aia fire, tyre 9 9004, dog av out, down h hat, horse ava_—__flour, sour i yellow, you e met, lend, pen k king, pick er say, weight 1 lip, bil © fair, care m mat, ram 1 fit. win n not, tin z seem, me P pay, lip 1B near, beard r run, read > lot, spot s soon, bus ev note, coat t talk, bet 2: claw, more v van, love ot boy, joint w win, wool 8 could, stood x loch uw you, use 2 200, buzz va sure, pure J ship, wish = turn, third 3 measure, leisure fund, must 3 sing, working a the first vowel in about y cheap, witch 6 thin, myth a then, bathe 43 Joy, bridge Notes Primaryand secondary stress are shown by marks above and below the line, in frontof the stressed syllable, For example, in the word abbreviation, /abri:vi'erfan/, the second syllable has secondary stress and the fourth syllable has primary stress. ‘We do not normally show pronunciations for compound words (words which are made up of more than one word). Pronunciations for the words that make up the compounds are usually found at their entries in other parts of the book. However, compound words do have stress markers.6 guide to dictionary entries Headwordsare ‘abelstellyou ‘Words from lorganizedin moreabout how the Academic alphabetical andwhenthe Word tistare order. wordisused highlighted <— atftain joven, tion seagate Eleven mr] syovapeathsometnng yougainitorachieetotenateralotof for: fromuat] othebest way to atin the objectives four strategy Business has eto otan esol tas has cther counties ‘Youcantakabout reaching ocaenieving something ike 2 goalora level 2 Teterpeature reached he required level >There are Simpler ways ofecheving the same rest _Atsain sa more formal verb, used especialy totalkabout getting toahighorrespectedlevel, 2aboakthetintime tained hestatusof ‘close atitainiment /srenmany qammene oun [vote atinmentofindepencence >theredtionaeteinments ttanmeet sone [eeanetion| eatarmentotaveal boxes help ‘educational/academic2tginments increase your > sewonrus: achievement size understanding > anronte ature Jofthe word ss Jandwhento allocations Synonymsand) [labelsshow | Se! _] helpyouput lantonymshelp | [common thewordinto ‘expand your ‘grammatical practice vocabulary Patternsguide to dictionary entries 7 (Subjectareas arehighlighted andtinkthe word to the hematicword (Pronunciation es Word classes are shown for ‘every meaning ofthe word Multrijent /njuctriont, axe ‘nu:-/ (masters) qm ‘oun Nutrients are substances that hep plantsand animals to grow thereof wegtabefibes, tains, nero anda esentil tents Suerte teed nents lds sora. ely > couoghrions: beptbysupply/contain/lack nutients spfential/vea/oaslemportane nutrients nos: vitamin, mineral TELTS-style Definitions ‘examples show explain what how the word theword isusedin meansin context simpte language8 guide to grammatical labels Allthewordsin the dictionary section have grammar information given about ‘them. For each word, its word class is shown after the headword. The sections below show more information about each wordclass. ADJECTIVE Anadjectiveis a word that is used for telling you more about a person or thing, You would use an adjective to talk about appearance, colour, size, or other qualities, e.g. He has been absent from his desk fortwoweeks ADVERB Anadverbisa word that gives more information about when, how, or wheresomething happens, e.g. The costs ofeach port ofthe process can be measured fairly accurately. COMBINING FORM Acombining formis word thatisjoined with another word, usually witha hyphen, to form compounds, e.g. the most injury-prone rider onthecircuit. CONVENTION Aconventionisa word ora fixed phrase thats usedina specific situation, for example when greeting someone, apologizing or replying, €.9, hello NOUN Anounisaword that refers toa person, a thing, ora quality. In this book, the label nouns given toall countablenouns.A countable nounis used for talking about things that can be counted, and that have both singular and plural forms, e.g. Sheturned her head away, difficult nancial situations. PHRASALVERB Aphrasal verb consists of a verb and one or more particles, €.9. Allexperiments were carried out by three psychologists. PHRASE Phrasesare groups of words which are used together and which have ameaning oftheir own, e.g. Most schoolsare unwilling tocut down on staffin order. tacut costs. PLURALNOUN Apluralnounis always plural, andit s used with plural verbs, e.g. Hecalled the emergency services and they arrived within minutes. PREPOSITION Apreposition is aword suchas by. with, or from whichis always followed bya noun group or the -ing form ofa verb, e.g. Thethemes are repeated ‘throughout the film. PRONOUN Apronounisa word that youuse instead ofa noun, when youdo not need or want to name someone or something directly, e.g. Noone drug will suit everyone and sometimes several may haveto be trie. QUANTIFIER quantifier comes before ofanda noun group. e.g. the bulk of thetext. UNCOUNTABLENOUN Anuncountablenounis used for talking about things that are not normally counted, or that we do not think of as single items. Uncountable nouns donot havea plural form, and they are usedwith a singular verb, eg. Thereport hasinevitably been greeted with scepticism VERB Averbisaword thatis used for saying what someone or something does, orwhat happens to them, or to give information about them, e.g. Theethibtion [aces the history of graphic design.Word ListSCIENCES “General science biochemistry (uncount) biochemical (adj) biochemist (noun) biotechnology (uncount) biotechnologist (noun) Scientific research apparatus uncount) gauge (verb. noun) laser (noun) Petri dish (noun) telescope (noun) test tube (noun) vacuum (noun) Scientific processes accelerate (verb) acceleration (uncount) activate (verb) activation (uncount) combustion (uncount) condense (verb) condensation (uncount) conduct (verb) ‘conduction (uncount) conductive od) conductivity (uncount) conductor (noun) contaminate (verb) contaminated (aj) contamination (uncount) contaminant (noun) contract (verb) contraction (noun) dehydrate verb) dehydrated (aj) dehydration (uncount) deplete (verb) depletion (uncount) dilute (verb, ad)) dilution (uncount, noun) disperse (verb) dispersal (uncount) dissolve (verb) evaporate (verb) evaporation (uncount) extract (verb) extraction (uncount) filter (verb, noun) harness (verb) synthesize verb) synthetic (ad) synthetically (adv) yield (verb, noun) Substances & qualities constituent (noun, adj) debris (uncount) dense (adj) density (noun) fibre (noun) permeable (ad) porous (adi) radioactive (adi) radiation (uncount) rawiad)) staple(adj, noun) The environment biodiversity (uncount) ecosystem (noun) fossil fuel noun) landfill (ancount) refuse (uncount) unspoiled (adi) Chemistry agent (noun) atom (noun) atomic (ad) chain reaction (noun) compound (noun) crystal (noun) dilute (verb. ad) dilution (uncount, noun) insoluble(ad) molecule noun) molecular (ad) periodic table (noun)| Physics | hydraulic (aa aa hydraulically (adv) atom (noun) hydraulics (uncount) ‘atomic (adj) hydroelectric (adj) electron (noun) hydroelectricity (uncount) neutron (noun) laser (noun) particle(noun) lens(noun) optical ad) prototype (noun) dynamic (adj, noun, plural, uncount) force (noun) iT hydraulic (adj) default (adj, uncount) hydraulically (adv) erase (verb) hydraulics (uncount) icon noun) hydroelectric (adj) interactive (adj) hydroelectricity (uncount) interface (noun, verb) kinetic(ad)) protocol (noun) momentum (uncount) silicon chip (noun) motion (uncount) ‘state-of-the-art (adj) propel (verb, comb) Maths | acoustic (uncount, adj) ——— analogue (adj) gonstant (noun) electrode (noun) deduct (verb) lens (noun) deduction (noun, uncount) optical (adj) integer (noun) reflect (verb) mean (noun) reflection (uncount) median (ad)) sonic (ad) power (noun) spectrum (noun) prime number (noun) terminal (adj, noun) theorem (noun) three-dimensional adi) a two-dimensional (adj) | Applied sciences | Engineering | Biology & medicine | analogue (adj) propel verb, comb) ‘Anatomy audio (ad) anatomy (uncount, noun) automate (vero) anatomical adj) automation (uncount) anatomically (adv) conduct (verb) artery (noun) ‘conduction (uncount) arterial (adj) conductive (adj) aural (adj) conductivity (uncount) cardiovascular (ad)) conductor (noun) cognitive ad) embryo (noun)hemisphere noun) Plants & animals immune (ad) amphibian (noun) jimmunity (uncount) amphibious (od)) immune system (noun) carnivore (noun) nervous system (noun) carnivorous (ad)) neural ad) colony (noun) neurology (uncount) colonial (ad) neurologist (noun) colonialism (uncount) oral (ad)) colonialist (ad, noun) orally (adv) colonize verb) pathology (uncount) fauna (noun) pathologist (noun) food chain (noun) skull noun) fossil noun) spine (noun) herbivore (noun) spinal (ad)) herbivorous (ad) vein (noun) hibernate (verb) hibernation (uncount) Biological processes host (noun) research hybrid (noun, adj) decay (verb, uncount) Jarva (noun) dormant (aaj) mammal noun) exhale (verb) marine (adj) exhalation (noun) migrate (vero) fertilize vero) migration (noun) fertilization (uncount) omnivorous (adi) inhale(verb) ‘omnivore (noun) inhalation (uncount) parasite (noun) reproduce vero) parasitic (ad) reproduction (uncount) pesticide (noun) respiration (uncount) predator (noun) respiratory (od)) predatory (ad) suppress (verb) prey (uncount, vert) suppression (uncount) reptile (noun) clone (noun, verb) biodiversity (uncount) DNA(uncount) ecosystem (noun) gene (noun) flourish (verb) Genetics (uncount) flourishing (aaj) genetic (a) indigenous (ad) genetically cav) ‘geneticist (roun) microbiology (uncount) ‘microbiological (od) microbiologist (noun)SCIENCES flora (uncount) immunize (vero) germinate (vert) immunization (noun) germination (uncount) pathology (uncount) nutrient (noun) pathologist (noun) photosynthesis (uncount) pharmaceutical adj, plural) pollen (noun) pharmacology (uncount) pollinate (verb) pharmacological (od)) pollination (uncount) pharmacologist (noun) unspoiled (adi) physiotherapy (uncount) vegetation (uncount) physiotherapist (noun) practitioner (noun) Psychiatry (uncount) adolescent (adj, noun) psychiatric oa) adolescence (uncount) psychiatrist (noun) breed (noun, verb) remedy (noun) mate (noun, verb) therapy (uncount, naun) maternal (ad) therapist (noun) ‘maternity (od) therapeutic (ad) nurture (verb, uncount) transplant (noun, verb) paternal adj) transplantation (uncount) vaccine (noun) Health vaccinate (verb) appetite (noun) vaccination (noun) blood pressure (uncount) carbohydrate (noun) Mines immune (adj) acute(ad) immunity (uncount) addict (noun) immune system (noun) ‘addiction (noun) intake noun) ‘addictive (ad) posture (noun) allergy (noun) postural (aj) allergic (od)) protein (noun) chronic(ad) chronically (adv) Healthcare deficient (adj, comb) administer (verb) deficiency (noun) anaesthetic (noun) dehydrate (verb) ‘anaesthetize (verb) dehydrated (ad) ‘anaesthetist (noun) dehydration (uncount) antibiotic (noun) epidemic (noun) antiseptic (noun, adi) obese (adj) dilute (verb, adj) ‘obesity (uncount) dilution (uncount, noun) overweight (adj) donate (vert) stroke (noun) donation (noun) syndrome noun) donor (noun, adj) terminal (adj, noun) dose (noun) ‘transmit verb) dosage noun) transmission (uncount) ‘trauma (uncount)Geography } equator (noun) ———— hemisphere (noun) ‘Astronomy latitude noun, ad) galaxy (noun) fongitude (noun, ad) unar(ad)) terrestrial ad) orbit (noun, verb) solar system (noun) arid (ad) Physical geography biodiversity (uncount) condense (verb) crater (noun) condensation (uncount) ecosystem (noun) cyclone (noun) fauna (noun) evaporate (verb) flora (uncount) evaporation (uncount) glacier (noun) hurricane (noun) marine (ad) meteorology (uncount) porous (adi) monsoon (noun) summit (noun) temperate (ad)) volcano (noun) tide (noun) volcanic (ad)) tidal (adi) typhoon noun)| Sociology | People & fa adolescent (adj, noun) adolescence (uncount) feminine (ag)) marital status (uncount) maternal adi) maternity (adi) paternal (ad)) eer (noun) ritual (noun) upbringing (uncount) Population census (noun) Civilian noun, ad) demography (uncount) demographic (aj, plural, noun) indigenous (adj) migrate verb) ‘migration (noun) opinion poll (noun) ‘overpopulation (uncount) per capita (adj. adv) Social difference deprived (adi) elite noun) elitist (od)) elitism (uncount) inequality (noun) material (adj) ‘materially (odv) multicultural ag) multiculturalism (uncount) privilege (noun, uncount) privileged (dj plural) prosperous (adj) prosperity (uncount) redistribute verb) redistribution (uncount) underprivileged (adj, plural) Social issues addict (noun) addiction (noun) addictive (adi) burden (noun) catastrophe (noun) catastrophic (ad) Catastrophically (av) see note at comply » COLLOCATIONS: abide by a ruleflaw/restriction abide bya ceasefire/agreement > synonyms: observe, obey, adhere to > aNToNYM: disobey ab|nor|mal /ztns:mat/ ADJECTIVE Someone or something that isbnormalis unusual, especially inaway that is worrying. [ForMat] »abnormal heart rhythms and high cnvietyevels >a child with an abnormal fear of strangers 2 Nothing abnormal was detected > coutocarions: abnormal bleeding/cells/behaviour an abnormal heartbeat/rhythm/smear/mammogram > svNonyes: aberrant, deviant, irregular, unusual > awronyM: normal abjnor|mallly /xbnomati ‘ovens. abnormally high level of lucose This stops the cells fom growing cbnormaly, >» coLLocarions: abnormally high/low/large/thin grow/behave/develop abnormally > symonn unusually > awTonvet: normally abstract /ettekt/ ae) ID CI oun Anabstract ofan antici, document or speechisa shortpece ofabundant | 36 writing that gives the main points of it. o[+ of] Mony scientists only have enough timeto read the abstracts of papers. >[+ of] Some indetes also have abstracts or summaries of orticls. > cOLLocaTiON an abstract of something anabstractof a paper/article read/write/review/submit an abstract » SYNONYMS: summary, précis ‘AcADeMic wRITING: Academic summaries ‘Asummary isa general word fora short piece of writing ora spoken account that gives the main points of something longer. You can talk abouta summary in ots of different contexts. »Each manager receives ‘summary of this information, © This article provides a brief summary of some ofthe main evidence available. Précisis a more formal word for a short piece of writing ora spoken account giving only the main points of alonger text. > George gives a ‘succinct oral précis of Fernando Joao's novel. ‘Anabstractisa summary of an academic paper that appearsat the beginning of the paper so that readers can see the main points and Gecide whether to read the full text. it can also bea written summary of an academic presentation, for example, ata conference.An abstract usually hasa set structure and length. oWereviewed all abstracts and selected relevant, research-based articles, abun|dant /ebandenty Apjective Something that is abundant is present in large quantities. © Theres an abundant supply of cheap labour. o Birds are dbundant in the tall vegetation, o Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. » coLtocavions: abundant wildlife/evidence/resources anabundant supply/element » synonym: plentiful > awtonya: sparse abun|dant|ly /sbanaantii/ Apveaa plant that grows abundantly in the United States oll the pages are ‘abundantly illustrated with colour photographs.37 | acclimatize > coLLocarions: grow/flower abundantly abundantly documented, > synonve: plentifully > ANTONYM: sparsely lustrated/demonstrated ac|celler|ate /xk'selareit/ (accelerates, accelerating, accelerated) 1 vers Ifthe process or rate of something accelerates orif something accelerates it, it gets faster and faster. 0[+ to] Growth will accelerate to 229 percent next year. 0 The government isto accelerate ts privatisation programme. 2 vers When a moving vehicle accelerates, it goes faster and faster. > Traffic calming often created extra noise as motorists accelerated and braked «round traffic islands. o[+to] A police video showed the patrol car accelerating tonsmph > coLLocarions: acceleratetox accelerate pace/growth accelerate process/trend/timetable accelerate smoothly/gradually/rapidly/sharply acat/driver accelerates infiation/growth/dectine accelerates > svNonva: hasten > anronva: decelerate ac|cellera|tion /xkselareyon/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [+ of] He has also colled for an acceleration of political reforms. 0 [+n] the sharp acceleration in job losses > Acceleration to 60 mph takes a mere's.7 seconds. o The flexible engine provides smooth acceleration at fow speeds. > couLocarions: acceleration offin something acceleration of growth/change/cuts quick/rapid/sudden acceleration provide/show acceleration banronva: deceleration ac|climaltize /skiarmotarz/ caccimatizes, acchmatizing, accimatizes) vers When you acclimatize or are acclimatized toa new situation, place, orclimate, you become used toit. [FORMAL; in Brit, also useaccountfor | 38 acclimatise] > [+ to] Childhood eczemas caused by the body becoming ‘acclimatized to the type of diet that we now eat. o soldiers struggling to ‘acclimatize themselves © Ifyou are changing altitudes rapidly, allow timeto acclimatize, > coutocation: acclimatize to something > synonyms: adapt, adjust ac|count for /a'kaunt fa, srrons £2; (accounts for, accounting for, accounted for) 1 purasat vers Ifa particular thing accounts fora part or proportion of something, that part or proportion consists of that thing, or is used or Produced by it. 2 Computers account for 5% of the country's commercial electricity consumption. © Pension funds currently account for around a third ofall equity investment in Britain > coLLocarions: account for an amount of something account forxper cent of something accountfor a portion/proportion of something account fora third/quarter of something account for the majority/bulk of something account for half/two-thirds of something currentiy/collectively account for something 2 puRAsAL vers If something accounts for a particular fact or situation, it causes or explainsit. 0 The blood pressure in veinsis less than in arteries, «nd this accounts forthe differences in their structures. > coutocarion: account fora discrepancy/disparity/difference > sywonvu: explain 3 pRasaL vers |f you can account for something, you can explain it or give the necessary information about it. o How deyou account for the company's alarmingly high staff turnover?» Public money has tobe properly accounted for > cotLocarion: property account for something > synonym: explain ac|cu|mullate /oxju:mjulerty (accumulates, accumulating, accumulated) vers When you accumulate things or when they accumulate, they collect or are gathered over a period of time, > Households accumulate wealth across a broad spectrum of assets. > [+ in] Lead can accumulate in the39 | acknowledge body until toxic levels are reached, > coLLocaTions: accumulate in something accumulate in the body/lungs/brain/atmosphere accumulate wealth/debt/wisdom/knowledge accumulatedlosses anaccumulated deficit evidence/fluids/toxins accumulate > SYNONYMS: gather, amass ac|cu|mullaltion /axju:mjv'lerfon/ (accumulations) NOUN 9 [+ of] fechnological advance and the accumulation of scientific knowledge > [+ of] an accumulation of fluid in the lungs o No economy can sustain such a colossal rate of capital accumulation > coLtocarions: the accumulation of something the accumulation of wealth/capital/fluid/knowledge cause/prevent/increase/reduce accumulation > synonym: increase > antonyms: reduction, decrease ac|knowlledge /zknolids/ (acknowledges, acknowledging, acknowledged) 1 vere If you acknowledge a fact ora situation, you accept or admit that itis trueor that itexists. [Format] >[+ that] Itis widely acknowledged that transferring knowledge in a classroom environment is very inefficient. > Belatedly, the government has acknowledged the problem. o There isan acknowledged risk of lung cancer from radon. 2ve Ifsomeone's achievements, status, or qualities are acknowledged, they are known about and recognized by allot of people, or bya particular group of people. o[+ as] Davies is now widely acknowledged ‘sone ofthe world’ leading virtua reality artists. ° Some ofthe cleray refused to ‘acknowledge the new king's legitimacy. > coLtocarions: acknowledge someone as something acknowledge the existence/importance of something acknowledge the need for something acknowledge difficutties acknowledge a fact/contribution/mistake/debt/risk Publicly/readity acknowledgeacknowledgement | 40 widely/universally acknowledged apresident/government/official acknowledges > syNonvms: accept, recognize, grant 3 vere If you acknowledge the source of some information ina piece of academic writing, you state clearly where the information came from, > Every time you borrow the words, facts, or ideas of others, you must ‘acknowledge the source. > cottocation: acknowledgea source > RELATED worDs: reference, cite acknowlledge|ment /xknolidsmant/ (acknowledgements) alsoacknowledgment 1 Noun An acknowledgementis a statement or action which recognizes that something exists oris true. o[+ that] The President’ resignation ‘appears tobe an acknowledgment that he has lost all hope of keeping the country together. o [+ of] This isa clear acknowledgement ofthe need toimprove corporate governance. PcoLLocATIONS: anacknowledgement of something anacknowledgement of afact/need make an acknowledgement a public/official tacit/formal acknowledgement. > synonym: recognition 2 PLURAL NOUN The acknowledgements ina bookare the section in which the author thanksall the people who have helped him or her. on the acknowledgements, Weis ists five people who acted as research assistants acous|tic /o'ku:stik/ (acoustics) qa 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Acoustics isthe scientific study of sound. 9+ of] studying the acoustics of underwater volcanoes © simple laws of acoustics 2 apjective Acoustic means relating to sound or hearing. oacoustic signals oacoustic sensors used to detect promising formations for drilling offshore > COLLOCATION: an acoustic sensor/signal > RELATED woRD: aural ac{tilvate /zktvert/ activates, activating. activated) vers ifadevice or process is activated, something causesiitto start ‘working. © Video cameras with night vision can be activated by movement.a | a >avoice-octivated computer > Heat also activates enzymes which further destroy vitamins. > coLtocations: activated by something activate a system/alarm/light/gene/enzyme voice/electronically/automatically activated > synonyms: trigger, initiate ac|tilva|tion /zktrveyan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 0 [+ of] A computer controls the activation ofan air bag > Theactivation code must be entered into the computer to print copies. > coutocarions: the activation of something trigger/require activation an activation code/tee acute /okju: 1 abjgerive You can use acute to indicate that an undesirable situation or feeling is very severe or intense. o Thewar has aggravated an acute economic crisis. 0 The report has caused acute embarrassment to the government. 0 The labour shortage is becoming acute. 2 apjective Anacute illness is one that becomes severe very quickly but does not last very long. 04 patient with acute rheumatoid arthritis oan acute case of dysentery > coLLocarions: acute pain/embarrassment/symptoms/leukaemia an acute shortage/problem/iliness infection severe mild » RELATED worp: chronic ad|dict /zarkt/ (addicts) cam NOUN An addictis someone who takes harmful drugsand cannot stop taking them. 9 The finding could help understand why recovering drug addicts relapse. oalcoholics and drug addicts > couLocarions: adrug/cocaine/heroin addict arecovering/former/reformed addictaddiction | 42 adj|dicition /a'dikjan/ (addictions) NouN Addiction is the condition of taking harmful drugs and being unable tostop taking them. > model showing the transition from drug usage to drug ‘addiction > [+ to] long-term addiction to nicotine > coLtocarions: addiction to something drug/heroin/cocaine/nicotine/alcohol addiction a long-term/chronic/serious addiction cure /treat/overcome/fight against/feed an addiction an addiction problem/clinic/counsellor > synonyms: dependence, habit ad|dicitive /saikwv/ Abjective Ifa drug is addictive, people who take it cannot stop taking it Cigarettes are highly addictive. © Crack isthe most addictive drug on the market. > couLocarions: highty/potentially addictive psychologically/physically addictive an addictive drug/substance > synonym: habit-forming ad|ja|cent /odseisanty ACADEM ADJECTIVE If one thing isadjacent to another, the twothingsare next ‘toeach other. oplans to redevelop therailway station and adjacent land [+ to] surveysto monitor toxin levels in the areas adjacent to the incinerators > coutocartons: adjacent to something asite/area adjacent to something an adjacent building/neighbourhood adjacent land > svNonva \eighbouring, near ad|minlis|ter /zdministe/ (administers, administering, administered) ‘vers If someone administers something such as a country, the law, ora test, they take responsibility for organizing and supervising it. > The plan cals forthe U.N. to administer the country until elections can be held >In some states these laws are administered by state agencies, and in others they are administered on a municipal evel43 | adolescence > coLLocaTions: administered by someone/something administered by a body/agency/committee administer justice/punishment administer a rite/oath/questionnai administer alaw/country federally/centrally/jointly administered > synonyms: manage, oversee, supervise 2 vere Ifa doctor ora nurse administers a drug, they giveit to a patient. [Format] 0 Paramedics are trained to administer certain drugs. o Vitamins are ‘administered orally or by injection into the eins or muscles. > coutocarions: administer something to someone administered by someone/something administered by injection administer a dose/injection/vaccine/drug administer medication/antibiotics/morphine orally/intravenously administered > synonym: dispense adojles|cent /eda'esant/ (adolescents) Apjective Adolescents used to describe young people who are nolonger children but who have not yet become adults. It also refers to their behaviour. oan area where early marriage and adolescent pregnancy are common © Nearly percent of adolescent girls suffer from anorexia, > coLtocarion: anadolescent boy/girl/male adolescent psychiatry/sexuality adolescent angst/rebellion > svnonvas: teenage, juvenile * Anadolescentis an adolescent boy or girl. Young adolescents are happiest with small groups of close friends. o Lack of sleep in humans, especially adolescents and young adults, might exacerbate skin problems. > synonyas: teenager, young adult, youth adoljles|cence /zda'esons/ UNCOUNTABLE NouN Adolescence is the period of your lfein whiich you develop from being a child into being an adult. » The need or sleep is even greater during adolescence than at younger ages. 2 When the child reaches ‘adolescence, this bond between mother and child faces its ultimate test.advent | 44 > coutocations: in/during adolescence enter/reach/approach adolescence early/protracted/extended adolescence > syNonvas: puberty, youth adjvent /zaventy UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The advent of an important event, invention, or situation is the factof it starting or coming into existence. [FoRMat] 9 [+ of] the leap forward in communication made possible by te advent ofthe mobile phone 9 [+ of] The advent of war led toa greater austerity > couLocarions: the advent of something the advent of war/Christianity/capitalism mark/nerald/celebrate/welcome the advent of something > synonyms: beginning, arrival adjverse /zdvs:s, am ed'vsirs/ Abjective Adverse decisions, coniitions, or effects are unfavourable to You. © There were no significant adverse effects attributable to the dosage of the vitamin. o Despite the adverse conditions, the road was finished injust eight months. > couocarions: adverse conditions/findings/weather/publicity anadverse comment/effect/impact/reaction materially/potentially adverse P synonyms: negative, unfavourable >anronvus: favourable, advantageous ad|verse|ly /zavs:sli, aw ad'va:rsli/ ‘Apvere © Price changes must not adversely affect the living standards ofthe ‘people. > people who react adversely to foods PcoLtocaTions: adversely affect/impact something reactadversely > synonyms: negatively, unfavourably 5: favourably, advantageously45 | advocate ad|vo|cate caevocates,svocating advocated) Renvencwors = ‘The verb is pronounced /zedvakert/. The noun is pronounced /weavakat/. 1 vers if you advocate a particularaction or plan, yourecommendit publicly. [Format] oMrWilliams is a conservative who advocates fewer government controls on business. o the tax policy advocated by the Opposition > conocarions: advocated by someone advocate reform/legislation/viotence ‘openty/strongly/publicly advocate long advocated > synonym: advance > ANTONYM: oppose EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY If you support an idea, a plan or an action, youagree with it and think it is right. You might or might not express your views publicly. > Some ‘ministers have openly supported positive discrimination, Ifyou recommend something, you tell other people that you think it is good or that they should doit. You can recommend something to. an individual privately, or you can recommend something more formally, forexample, in an official report. 2A high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet is also recommended by many diabetes experts. Hfyouadvocate something, you strongly agree with it and you express your support publicly. 0 The center advocates the use of rehabilitation programs instead of prison. ‘Condone is usually used in negative constructions to say that you do ot support something that is morally wrong. oHe stated that he does ‘not condone violence of any kind. Endorse is used especially to talk about recommending something or someone in an advertising or political campaign. °The newspaper stopped short of endorsing either candidate. 2 noun An advocate of a particular action or planis someone who recommends t publicly. [FORMAL] o [+ of] He wasa strong advocate of free market policies and a multi-party system. o [+ of] The advocates of active Citizenship are hostile to such insttutionalized apathy.advocacy | 46 > couLocations: an advocate of something an advocate of reform/privatization/independence aleading/strong/passionate/staunch advocate aprivacy advocate > SYNONYMS: supporter, proponent > anonym: opponent ad|vo|ca|cy /zavakasi/ oun [FoRMAL] 9[+0f] the partys advocacy of reform o His advocacy helped ‘persuade the Royal Society to back the project > coLLocarions: advocacy of something advocacy of reform/rights strong/passionate advocacy > sywonvm: support PaNToNYM: opposition aes|thetlic /i:s'eetk, am es-/ Abjective Aesthetic is used to talk about beauty or art, and people's appreciation of beautiful things. [in am, also use esthetic] oproducts chosen for their aesthetic appeal as well as their durability and quality an aesthetic stance toward the reading of literature > coLtocations: aesthetic appeal/merit/considerations/sensibility an aestheticjudgement/stance/response purely aesthetic > synonvas: artistic, creative # The aesthetic ofa workof artis its aesthetic quality. o[+ of] He responded very strongly tothe aesthetic ofthis particular work, > cotLocaTions: the aesthetic of something appreciate the aesthetic > synonym: beauty aes|theti|callly /i:soetikli, am es-/ ‘Abvens [in an, also use esthetically] ° Theres nothing aesthetically pleasing about this bridge. 2 country that was aesthetically and intellectually ‘multicultural47 | aggravate » coutocarions: aesthetically pleasing/appealing aesthetically unappealing/offensive > synonyms: visually, artistically aes|thetlics /i:seeuks, au es-/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of the idea of beauty. [in am, also use esthetics) © questions of ethics and aesthetics 2 Thefact thot there are works of artis a given in aesthetics. afore|men|tioned /ato:menjond/ ADJECTIVE If you refer to the aforementioned person or subject, you ‘mean the person or subject that has already been mentioned. [FORMAL] >A declaration will be issued atthe end ofthe aforementioned U.N. conference. 2avariation of the oforementioned method usage: Very formal language ‘The word aforementioned is only used in very formal contexts, especially official and legal documents. >The aforementioned Funds may invest in convertible preferred stocks. ‘Amore neutral word thatis common in academic writing is above used to refer to something already mentioned in the text. oSeveral conclusions could be drawn from the results described above. 0 Full details ‘rein the table above. pa ae sande agent /erdyant/ (agents) ‘SUSE oun A chemical that hasa particular effect ors used fora particular purpose can be referred to as a particularkind of agent. othe bleaching agent in white flour 2a chemical agent that can produce birth defects > cottocarions: achemical/biological agent a bleaching/clotting/bonding agent ag|gralvate /zgroveit/ (aggravates, aggravating, aggravated) vers If someone or something aggravates a situation, they makeit worse. oStress and lack ofsleep can aggravatetthe situation. irritants which cause or aggravateeczemaaggregate | 48 > coLLocarions: aggravate a situation/injury/strain stress /heat/caffeine/alcohol aggravates something > synonvm: exacerbate »anTonvm: alleviate ag|gre|gate xgrgat/ Co AbJEcTIvE An aggregate amount or score is made up of several smaller amounts or scores added together. oTherate of growth of GNP will depend upon therate of growth of aggregate demand. © total ofs7investments with an aggregate value of $1.47 billion > couocarions: aggregate demand/supply/income an aggregate score/result/value > synonyms: total, combined > antonva: individual « Aggregate is alsoa noun. o earlier estimates ofthe monetary aggregates > colLocarion: monetary aggregates > synonvas: total, sum aljler|gy /z12dsi/ (atersies) CooL oun Ifyou havea particularallergy, you become ill or geta rash when you eat, smell, or touch something that does not normally make people ill. 2 Food allergies can result in an enormous variety of different symptoms. of to] Allergy toctsis one ofthe commonest causes of asthma, protecting infants against developing allergies Pcoutocarions: anallergy to something develop/diagnose/treat/trigger/cause an allergy asevere/common/serious/life-threatening allergy afood/peanut/penicillin/skin allergy allergy sufferers/symptoms > svwonvas: sensitivity, reaction alller|gic /ats:asiK/ Abjecrive 0 [+to] people with asthma who are allergic to dust mites 2 Soya milk can cause allergic reactions in some children. > coLocarion: allergicto something49 | amend anallergicreaction/response violently/severely/highly allergic ally /zla1/ (ames) 1 Noun A country’sally is another country that has an agreement to support it, especially in war. 2 Washington would not take such a step without its allies’ approval. 0 [+ of] The United States is a close ally of South Korea. o[+in] Russia has since become a key American allyin the ight against terrorism, 2 Noun If you describe someoneas your ally, you mean that they help and support you, especially when other peopleare opposing you. 9 [+ of] Heis a close aly ofthe Prime Minister. o She will regret losing aciose political ally > coutocarions: anally of someone/somewhere anallyin something anally inawar/battle/fight/struggle/campaign a former/staunch/close/long-time ally 2 powerful/political/key/war-time/coalitionally > sywonvas: supporter. friend > ANTONYMS: enemy, adversary amend /a'mend/ amends, amending, amended) pacacenic wont ‘vers If you amend something that has been written such as a law. or something that is said, you change it in order to improve itor make it more accurate. 0 The president agreed to amend the constitution and allow ‘multi-party elections. 0 the amended version of theAct » coutocarions: amend alaw/act/bill/plan/treaty amend legislation amend the constitution parfiament/government amends something EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY Ifyou change something slightly, you can say that you alter or modify it. 0 The original specification was altered/modified. You can you revise, amend or edit to talk specifically about making changes to something written. Editing is usually part of the process of creating a new text, making small changes and corrections to early drafts. o Prepare the final draft of your paper when you have edited the text.amendment | 50 ‘You use revise and amend when you go back later to make changes ‘tosomething written. Amend is used particularly to talk about laws andrules, > revise a version/edition/paragraph/guideline/proposal > amend the constitutlon/legislation/law/rules amend|ment /s'mendmant/ (amendments) NouN An amendmentis a section that is added toa law or rulein orderto changeit. o[+to] in the United States, press freedom is entrenched inthe first ‘amendment to the US. Constitution. hundreds of amendments proposed by private members > Parliament gained certain rights of amendment. >» couLocarions: an amendment to something propose/draft/introduce/table an amendment approve/adopt/pass/back an amendment aconstitutional/proposed/balanced/budget amendment the first/second amendment > synonyms: alteration, change, correction am|phibjian /em'tibien/ (amphibians) Tn oun Amphibians are animals such as frogs and toads that can live both onlandand in water. » Alligators and crocodiles may not have evolved from lizards or amphibians. > punase: reptiles and amphibians > RELATED WoRD: reptile am|phibijous /em‘ivies/ AbjEcrive ©The area teemed with birdlife and all manner of insects, otters and amphibious creatures. 2 Amphibious creatures feature prominently in ancient legends. anlaes|thet|ic /znisvetik/ canaestnetis) c= alsoanesthetic oun Anaesthetic is a substance that doctors use to stop you feeling pain. during an operation, either in the whole of your body when you are unconscious, orina part of your body when youareawake. 2 The operation is carried out under a general anaesthetic. 273 percent of women surveyed had an epidural anaesthetic administered during labour.51 | analogy > coLLocaTions: under anaesthetic ageneral/local anaesthetic inject/administer/require/use an anaesthetic anaes|the|tize /o'ni:sdotaiz/ (anaesthetizes,anaenthetzing. anaesthetized) ‘The spellings anesthetiize in American English, and anaesthetise in British English are also used. ver When a doctor or other trained person anaesthetizes a patient, they make the patient unconscious or unable to feel pain by giving them ananaesthetic. othe patient's anaesthetized lung o The operation involves anaesthetising the eye. anaes|the|tist /a'ni:soatist/ (anaesthetists) Noun An anaesthetist is a doctor who specializes in giving anaesthetics to patients. [srir: in am, use anesthesiologist] © consultant paediatric anaesthetist 0 The anaesthetist ordered premedication, which included morphine > coutocarions: aconsultant/paediatric anaesthetist ajunior/senior anaesthetist ana|logue /znalvg, am -12:9/ alsoanalog Apjecrive Analogue technology involves measuring, storing, or recording an infinitely variable amount of information by using physical quantities such as voltage. The analogue signals from the video tape are converted into digital code. o Digital television isa more efficient means of delivering high- quality sound and images than conventional analogue transmissions. > coutocarions: an analogue signal/cassette analogue recording/technology/transmission/broadcasting >anTonym: digital anallogy /2nzled3i/ analogies) oun if you make or draw an analogy between two things, you show that they are similar in some way. 0+ between] It is probably easier to make «an analogy between the courses ofthe planets, and two trains travelling in the same direction. [+ with} The term social capital was coined by analogy withanalogous | 52 theconventional use of the word capital to mean financial assets. > coLtocaTions: byanalogy ananalogy between things byanalogy with something make/draw/use an analogy afalse/appropriate/useful/obvious analogy > synonyms: comparison, similarity, resemblance analo|gous /snzlagas/ _abjecrive If one thing is analogous to another, thetwo things are similar in someway. [Format] o[+ to] Marine construction technology lke this is very complex, somewhat analogous to trying to build a bridge under water. 2[+ to] anew conflict situation analogous tothe one on the Korean peninsula > coLLocarions: analogous to something amannet/situation/process /position is analogous somewhat/closely/roughly/directly analogous > svNonya: similar Panton: different anato|my /enztemi/ canatomies) Cio 1 uNcouNrABLE NouN Anatomy is the study of the structureof the bodies of people or animals, o.an anatomy professor at Naples University 2. NOUN An animal's anatomy is the structure of its body. otis hard to determine whether an animal's anatomy or physiology has been altered by environmental problems. 0 [+ of] He had worked extensively on the anatomy of living animals. > coLtocarions theanatomy of something an anatomy professor/textbook/lesson/department ‘teach/study anatomy » pHrase: anatomy and physiology ana|tomilcal /znatomiel/ apjecrive ominute anatomical differences between insects othe anatomical structure of the heart > cottocarion: anatomical studies/structures an anatomical specimen/drawing/abnormality > synonym: bodily53 | anticipate ‘ADVERB ©.an anatomically correct drawing © Homo sapiens became anatomically ‘modern in Africa about 100,000 years ago. > cottocarion: anatomically correct/modern an|ces|tor /znsesta/ (ancestors) Noun Yourancestors are the people from whom youare descended. > Modern humans and great apes both descend from one common ancestor ‘Chinese traditions, including ancestor worship » cottocarions: acommon/distant/human ancestor ancestor worship > sony: forefather >awronva: descendant an|ces|try /znsestri/ ancestries) oun Your ancestry is the fact that you are descended from certain people. 01 family who could trace their ancestry back to the sixteenth century people ofJopanese ancestry > coLLocations: trace/claim ancestry matemnal/paternal ancestry Japanese/jewish/indian/mixed ancestry > synonyms: heritage, roots antilbijot|ic /entibarotik/ (antibiotics) = ‘noun Antibiotics are medical drugs used to kill bacteria and treat infections. 0 Approximately 60% of antibiotics are prescribed for respiratory infections. 0 10-day course of oral antibiatcs is the usual treatment mode for cellulitis. > cotiocarion: prescribe/administer antibiotics potent/powerful/oral/intravenous antibiotics an|tici|pate /entisrper/ co (anticipates, anticipating, anticipated) vers if you anticipate an event, you realize in advance that it may happen and you are prepared forit. Surveyors anticipate further price declines over coming months. [+ that] itis anticipated that the equivalent of 92 full-time Jobs will be lost. °[+ that] Officials anticipate that rivalry between leaders of theanticipation | 54 various drug factions could erupt into full scale war. > coLLocations: anticipate a decline/slowdown/surge/advance/rea widely anticipated > syNonye: expect an|tici|pa|tion zn,usrpeyan/ Haase If something is donein anticipation of an event, itis done because people believe that event is going tohappen.. 2 Troops in the Philippines have been put on full ler in anticipation of trouble during a planned general strike. 0 the company's ability to constantly renew itself in anticipation of future technology trends > sywonys: in advance of, in expectation of, in preparation for antilsep|tic /enti'septik/ (antiseptics) pole olentk } 1 NOUN Antisepticisa substance that kills germs and harmful bacteria Chlorine isa natural antiseptic. > coLLocaTions: a powerful/strong/natural 27*‘septic apply/contain antiseptic > synonym: disinfectant 2 apjective Something that is antiseptic kills germs and harmful bacteria. 0 These vegetables and herbs have strong antiseptic qualities. othe antiseptic properties ofeucalyptus > coocarions: an antiseptic cream/soap/mouthwash antiseptic properties/qualities > sywonvu: antibacterial apjpa|ratius /zpa'ertas, -ret-/ oa UNCOUNTABLE NUN Apparatus is the equipment, such as tools and ‘machines, which is used todo a particular job or activity. firefighters wearing breathing apparatus oa standard piece of laboratory apparatus, the spectrometer > cottocarion: breathing/electrical/underwater apparatus > synonym: equipment apjparjent /spzrent/ ZZ 1 Abjective An apparent situation, quality, or feeling seems to exist,55 | appreciable although you cannot be certain that it does exist. 0 the apparent ‘government lack of concern forthe advancement of science o There aretwo reasons for this apparent contradiction. > comocarions: an apparent contradiction/lack an apparent failure/inability an apparent reason/attempt > synonyms: seeming, supposed Panronvm: actual 2 apyective If something is apparent to you, itis clear and obvious to you. colt has been apparent that in other areas standards have held up well [+ that] It wil be readily apparent from Fig. 108a that there is alink between tthe monetary side of the economy and the real economy. 2+ from] The shrinkage of the tissues not immediately apparent. > conocarions: apparent to someone apparent from something readily/immediately/increasingly apparent syNonvus: clear, obvious Panronva: unclear ap|peltite /zprcart/ appetites cs Noun Your appetiteis your desire toeat. oHe has a healthy appetite. o Symptoms area slight fever, headache and loss of appetite. 2 stomach hormones that normally increase appetite > coLtocarions: aheatthy/nearty appetite loss of appetite > synonym: hunger > RELATED WoRD: thirst ap|pre(cijable /eprijeva1 RDEMTE WORE) ApjecTivE An appreciable amount or effectis large enough to be important or clearly noticed. [FORMAL] o/t contains less than 1 per cent fat, an appreciable amount of protein, and a high content of minerals. o This has not had an appreciable effect on production. © There was no appreciable difference in testresuls > cottocarions: an appreciable amount/proportionappreciably | 56 an appreciable effect/difference > anronya: insignificant EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY Ifaneffect ora difference is appreciable, noticeable or discernable, it is large enough to be clearly noticed. 0 This distinction makes no ‘appreciable difference in our analysis. Youcan talk about a visible effect or change, if you can physically seit. o There may be no visible signs of infection. significant change or difference is large enough to be important, Inacademic writing, we often use significant to describe a change that is large enough according toa statistical measure to be considered more than just due to chance or normal variation. >Numerous studies appear to showa statistically significant increase insisk, ap|pre|cijably /eprisovtiy ‘ADVERB © The average earnings of worn have risen appreciably since the 670 ‘Equal Pay Act. © The calculations would not change appreciably if we included future generations > coutocation: change/differ/rise appreciably > svwonvads: noticeably, significantly ap|pre|cijate /epriziey (appreciates, appreciating, appreciated) vere /f you appreciate a situation or problem, you understand it and know whatitinvolves. > Those arguing the case often do not appreciate the difference between an island nation anda continental one. o[+ tht] itis essential to appreciate that eddictive behaviour can compromise energy eves > coLLocations: appreciate the importance/significance of something appreciate the seriousness/extent of something appreciate a fact fully appreciate > synonyas: acknowledge, recognize ap|pre|ciajtion /apristeyon, appreciations) Noun An appreciation ofa situation or problemis an understanding of whatitinvolves. 2[+of] Theyhavea strongerapprecation of teimportance57 | archive ofeconomic incentives. 2[+ of] The WTO showed a deeper appreciation of the reed for environmental exemptions. > cOLLOCATIONS: appreciation of something appreciation of the importance/significance of something appreciation of the need for something show appreciation > synonyms: grasp, understanding arjbiltrary fabri, am -treri/ ~apjecrive Ifyou describean action, rule, or decision as arbitrary, you think thatitisnot based on any principle, plan, or system. Itoften seems unfair because ofthis. oArbitrary arrests and detention without tril were commen. 04 seemingly arbitrary deadiine > coLLocarions: an arbitrary arrest/imprisonment/execution anarbitrary limit/deadline/distinction/code seemingly/purely arbitrary > svwonvas: random, unfounded > aANTONYMs: logical, reasonable ar(biltrarijly /a:brtreeniis ‘ADVERB © The victims were not chosen arbitrarily. 2It would be wrong arbitrarily toexclude any particular groups of people from consideration > coLLocaTion: choose/select/decide arbitrarily > synonyms: randomly, unreasonably ar|chive /a:katv/ (archives) NOUN The archive or archives are a collection of documents and records that contain historical information. You can also use archives to refer to the place where archives are stored. 0[+of] the archives ofthe Imperial War ‘Museum 0 [+ of] The state now has an online archive of records, including birth, ‘marriage, death, census and military information. PcoLLocaTiOns: an archive of something anarchive of photographs/documents/reviews/material adigital/online/central/vast/extensive archive afilm/famity/newspaper/video archive > synonyms: collection, library, repositoryarchivist | 58 archivist /a:kivist/ ¢archivists) Noun An archivistis a person whose ob isto collect, sort. and care for historical documents and records. o.an archivist at the National Library of Medicine > sywonvem: librarian arid sena/ ~apygctive Arid lands so dry that very few plants can grow ont. onew strains ofcrops that can withstand ard conditions o the arid zones ofthe country > coLLocarions: anaridland/region /landscape/zone/desert arid conditions plains > sywonvs: dry, barren > antonvas: lush, fertile Arrest. /orest/ caress aresting, arerted) vena ifsomething or someone arrests a process, they stopt continuing [roma] ©The ufferermay have to make major changes in his or her feto arrest thedlseose. The aw could arrest the development of good researchif applied prematurely, PcoLocarion: arrest the decline/developmentof something b svNowves: stop, hinder, impede ar|te|fact /a:tifekt/ (artefacts) also artifact cao NoUN Anartefactisan ormament, tool, or other object that is made by a human being, especially one that is historically or culturally interesting. >The museum holds more than 7000 artefacts collected from the Pandora. oillegal traders in ancient artefacts > coLLocarions: a cultural /nistorical/archaeological artefact, a priceless/precious/rare/ancient artefact Roman/egyptian artefacts collect/display/recover artefacts artery /a:tari/ (arteries) co moun Arteries are the tubes in your body that carry blood from your heart tothe rest of your body. o patients suffering from blocked arteries 0a blood clot which obstructs a coronary artery59 | assertion > coLtocarions: a blocked/clogged/diseased/narrowed artery acoronary/main artery sever/obstruct/clear/widen an artery anartery blockage > neLaTED woRD: vein ar|te|rial /a:tarial/ Abjective © people with arterial disease > damage in brain cells nd arterial walls > comocarions: arterial disease/blood anarterial blockage/wall as|sert /2'ss:t/ (asserts, asserting, asserted) vere If someone asserts. fact or belief, they state itfirmly. [FORMAL] > [+ that] Mr. Helm plans to assert thatthe bill violates the First Amendment. > The defendants, who continue to assert their innocence, are expected to appeal Altman asserted, ‘We were making a political statement about western civilisation and greed > coLLocaTion: confidently/bluntiy/boldly/repeatedly assert > svwonvas: declare, state >anronva: deny ACADEMIC WRITING: Reporting beliefs and opinions Some reporting verbs are fairy neutral and simply show that. someone has said or written something. >Men were more likely to state the reason for wanting to work overseas as higher salary. o Hughes points ‘ut that this is onlya preliminary trial Reporting verbs such as assert, declare and contend show that someone is expressinga strongly held belief or position. o The “American sugar industry has repeatedly asserted that quotas ensure a ‘reliable supply of sugar. > na speech on s January 1950 Truman publicly declared that the United States would not intervene. > Critics contend that the cameras will not reduce accidents. as|serjtion /o's3:fon/ (assertions) Noun 0 [+ that] There is no concrete evidence to support assertions that the recession istruly over. 2+ that] Miedzian (19g) challenges the assertion thatassign | 60 participation in organized sports teaches children the importance of teamwork, > coLLocatio: contradict/refute/reject/challenge an assertion make/repeat an assertion arepeated/bold/confident assertion > synonyms: statement, argument »anToNve: denial as|sign /2'sam/ assigns, assigning, assigned) 1 vers if youassigna piece of workto someone, you give them the work todo. 0[+t0] The taskis sometimes jointly assigned to accounting and engineering departments. 0 Workers felt forced to work ate because ‘managers assigned them more work than they could complete in a regular shift. >When teachers assign homework, students usually fel an obligation to dit. 2.vene If youassigna particular function or valueto someone or something, you say they have it. o[+to] UnderMr. Harefs system, each business must assign a value toeachjob. Assign the letters ofthe alphabet theirnumerical values ~A equals 1, Bequals 2 etc > couocarion: assign something to someone/something assign atask/chore/duty assignhomework assigna value/score/meaning/role > syNonvus: allot, allocate as|sist /asist/ (assists, assisting, assisted) ir 1 vena if you assist someone, you help them to do a job or task by doing partofthe work for them. >[+ with] The family decided to assist mewith my chores, o DrAmid was assisted bya young Asian nurse. 2 vere If youassist someone, you give them information, advice, or money. °[+ in] The publicis urgently requested to assist police in tracing this rman. 0+ with] Foreign Office officials assisted with transport and finance problems 3 vers Ifsomething assists in doing a task, it makes the taskeasier todo. oft in] a chemical that assists in the manufacture of proteins 2+ in] an increasing number of techniques to assist people in creating successful strategies ‘Salvage operations have been greatly assisted by the good weother conditions. > couocarions: assisted by someone/something61 | assure assist someone with/in something assist in/with a search/rescue/investigation/inquiry ably/greatly/materially/financially assisted assisted suicide/living assista victim/refugee assist the police > synonyms: help. aid, back >anromvm: hinder assistance /asistons/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 0+ of} ince1976 he has been operating the shop withthe assistance of volunteers. >[+ in] Employees ae being offered assistancein finding new jobs, oa viable programme of economicessistance > cottocaTions: assistance with fin something assistance from someone assistance with/in a matter/investigation/case assistance from the community/police/government. Provide/offer/seek/receive assistance humanitarian/financial/technicaisimedical assistance emergency/disaster/development assistance anassistance package/programme > punases: advice and assistance aid andassistance with the assistance of > sewowyas: help, aid, hindrance @S|SUF@ /o'v0/ (assures, assuring, assured) cm 1 vers if you assure someone that something is true or will happen, you tellthem that itis definitely true or wll definitely happen, often in order tomake them less worried. 0 [+ that] Russia has assured us that it maintains ‘robust command and control arrangements for its nuclear weapons. 0 {+ that] ‘Assure yourself that the assertion of your paper is both clear and worth supporting, [+ of] Government officials recently assured Hindus of protection, > cotLocarion: assure someone of something assure the public > synonym: reassure 2 vere To assure someone of something means to make certain that theyassurance | 62 will getit. 0[+ of] HenryVI'sWelsh ancestry assured him ofthe warmest support inWales. 0 retraining programme toassure laid off employees new work 2 A level of selfcontainment renders us immune to criticism or disapproval, thus assuring our serenity of mind. > couocarions: assure someone of something assure the victory/success of something assure the discretion of someone > synonym: guarantee as|surance /ofvarens/ (assurances) MouN If you give someone an assurance that something is true or will happen, you say that itis definitely rue or will definitely happen, in order tomake them feel less worried. o[+ that] He would ike an assurance that ‘other forces will not moveinto the territory that his forces vacate. [+ of] He will hhave been pleased by Marshal Yazov's essurance ofthe armed forces loyalty > couLocarions: anassurance of something anassurance of safety/security/support/loyalty obtain/seek/give/receive assuiance satisfactory/repeated/written assurance > synonym: guarantee as|terlisk /zstarisk/ (asterisks) Noun Anasterisk is the sign *.Itis used especially to indicate that there is further information about something in another part of the text. An asterisk indicates.a title that is the same in both English and French editions. on Table2, those crops marked with an asterisk are sown or planted outin the summer, > coLtocarion: an asteriskindicates something atom /ztom/ (atoms) Porverstay To =] NoUN Anatom isthe smallest amount of a substance that can take partin a chemical reaction. 0A methane molecule is composed of one carbon atom attached tofourhydrogens. othe scientist who first split the atom > coLLocaTions: ‘split the atom acarbon/hydrogen/oxygen/charged atom anatombomb > svNonvm: molecule63 | attainment atomic /atomik/ 1 ajective Atomic means relating to power that is produced from the energy released by splitting atoms. ouses of atomic energy ofears about the spread of atomic weapons > coutocarions: atomicenergy/weapons the atomic bomb > synonym: nuclear 2 apjective Atomic means relating to the atoms of substances othe complex structure of atomic nuclei oa device used to study the reactions of ‘atomic particles > couocarions: an atomicnucieus/particle atomic physies > syonve: molecular attain /otem/ (attains, attaining, attained) vera If you attain something, you gain it orachieve it, often after alot of effort. [Format] othe best way toattait tie objectives of our strategy o Business has yet to attain the social status it has in other countries. > coLtocarions: attain enlightenment/perfection attaina status/rank/goal/objective ——. TS, EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY You can talk about reaching or achieving something ike a goalora level. o The temperature reached the required level. o There are simpler ways ofachieving the same result. Attain isa more formal verb, used especially to talk about getting toa high or respected level. 2 book that intime attained the status of classic ae Eee at|tain|ment /etemmant/ (attainments) NOUN 9 [+ of] the attainment of independence > their educational attainments > couocarion: the attainment of something the attainment of agoal educational/academic attainmentsattormey | 64 > synonyms: achievement, success DaANTONYM: failure at|tor|ney /o'ts:ni/ (attorneys) a Noun In the United States, an attorney or attorney at laws alawyer. a prosecuting attorney oan attorney representing families of 39 victims > coLLocarions: aprosecuting/defence attomey adistrict/court/deputy attorney anattorney represents someone anattorney argues/contends something hire/consult/appoint an attorney > synonyes: lawyer, barrister atitriblute /embju:/ (axributes, attributing, attributed) 1 vers If youattribute something to an event or situation, you think that itwas caused by that event or situation. o[+ to] Women tend to attribute their success to extemal causes uct luck. o[+ to} The rising death tll is attributed largely to the growing number of elderly people, who are especialy. vulnerable to the flu. 2 vera if you attribute a particular quality or feature te someone or something, you think that they have got it. o[+ ta] the tendency tocattrioute more positive characteristics to physically attractive people 3 vera Ifa piece of writing, a work of art, ora remarkis attributed to someone, people say that they wroteiit, created it, orsaidit. o (+ to} This, andthe remaining frescoes, are not attributed to Giotto, ‘0 [+ to] The article incorrectly attributed some quotes to evangelist Billy Graham. > cottocarion! attribute something to something/someone attributea success/rise/increase attribute a quality/characteristic incorrectly/falsely/wrongly attribute Partly/largely/directly attributed > synonyms: ascribe, assign, accredit audio /s:diav/ ~abjective Audio equipment. used for recording and reproducing sound. adigital audiotape downloadable audio files of books65 | aural > couocation: an audio cassette/tape/CD/file/recording audio equipment/footage > RELATED worD: video audit /2:d:t/ (audies, audhing, audiees) isa vers When an accountant audits an organization's accounts, he or she examines the accounts officially in order to make sure that they have been done correctly. oEach year they audit our accounts and certify them as being trueand fair 0 plans to audit the company > cotLocarion: afirm/accountant audits something audit company/account independentiy/routinely/annually audit > svNonyas: investigate, inspect # Audit isalso.a noun. o The bank first leaned of the problem when it carried out an internal audit. [+ of] an independent audit ofthe organization > couLocarion: anaudit of something conduct/carry out an audit a routine/internal/external/independent aucit an audit committee/report an audit finds /shows things > svNonvus: investigation, inspection auditor /2:d:t2/ (auditors) ‘oun An auditor is an accountant who officially examines the accounts of ‘organizations. othe company’s external auditor o The misdirected spending was uncovered by the state auditor. > coLtocarion: appoint/hire an auditor acity/state/internal/external/outside auditor anauditor finds/discovers/uncovers/reviews something aural /oxel, ‘avral/ Abjective Aural means related to the sense of hearing. o He became famous 4s an inventor of astonishing visual and aural effects. o Low's music isthe aural equivalent of a Rothko painting » RELATED WoroS: visual, oral, acousticauthentic | 66 authen|tic /rsenuiy 1 avjecrive An authentic person, object, or emotion is genuine ‘authentic Italian food 2a demand for reliable, authentic information on which to base investment decisions 2 apjective If you describe something as authentic, you mean thatit is ‘such a good imitation that it is almost the same as or as good as the original. 2 patterns for making authentic frontier-style clothing > coLtocarions: authentic cuisine anauthentic portrayal/replica/flavour ‘the authentic voice of a group of people historically authentic look/sound/feel authentic Jenuine, real fake, false, imitation, inauthentic au|then|ticlity /o:cen'tsitis UNCOUNTABLE NOUN © There are factors, however, that have cast doubt onthe statue's authenticity. 2 [+ of] effortstsdetermine the authenticity of the documents > cottocarions: the authenticity of something the authenticity of adocument/photograph/statement guarantee/lend/check/determine authenticity > anronva: artifice auto|mate /s:temet/ CED Cas (automates, automating, automated) vers To automate a factory, office, or industrial process means to put in machines which can do the work instead of people. >a initiativethat involved automating a manual process o< self-service, fully automated programme > coecarions: automate a system/process/task/function fully/highty/completely/entirely automated > svwonvs mechanize auto|majtion /2:a'merjfen/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9 In the last ten years automation has reduced the work force here by half. 0 [+f] the automation of everyday business transactions67 | axis > contocations: the automation of something inerease automation factory/design/office/marketing automation automation savings/equipment/software/technology > synonyms: mechanization, industrialization autono|my /s:tonemi/ 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Autonomy is the control or government of a country, organization, or group by itself rather than by others. >Activsts stepped up their demands for local autonomy last month. o[+ of] the increased ‘utanomy of foundation hospitals 2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Autonomy is theability to make your own decisions about what to do rather than being influenced by someone else or told what todo. [Format] 2[+ in] Each ofthe area managers enjoys considerable autonomy inthe running of his own area. 0[+ of] Consents important to respect the autonomy of mature people. > contocarions: the autonomy of someone/something autonomy in doing something local/regional/political/fiscal autonomy considerable/limited autonomy ‘grant/demand/exercise/respect autonomy an autonomy plan/package > synonyms: independence, self-rule, self-determination, self- government, freedom. > awronvm: dependence autono|mous /s:tonamas/ [ADJECTIVE 0 They proudly declared themselves part ofa new autonomous province. © the liberal idea of the autonomous individual > coutocarions: an autonomous individual an autonomous region/republic/province/unit fiercely/relatively/largely autonomous 5: independent, self-governing, self-determining axis /zksis/ (axes) oun An axisis an imaginary line through the middle of something.axis | 68 2 The reason forthe solstice is the 23.5 degrees tlt ofthe Earth's axis towards the sun, > coLLocations: the Earth's axis the principal/central axis, anorth-south/east-west axis, > synonym: pivotBb. bibjlijog|ra|phy /p1rv9r2f1/ cibtiographies) moun A bibliography is a list of the books and articles that are referred to ina particular book. Those readers interested in further readings onthe subject should referto the bibiogrophy atthe end ofthe book. 01 ave supplied ‘anextensive bibliography containing al ofthe principal sources consulted during the books preparation. > couocarions: annotate/append/compile/supply a bibliography check/consult/view/refer toa bibliography a specialized/extensive bibliogrpahy adetailed/comprehensive bibliography bio|chemlis|try /paukemistri/ qm 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Biochemistry’ the study of the chemical processes that happen in living things. o He made forays into Several areas of clinical biochemistry, o Richard Axel is professor of biochemistry and molecular biophysics at Columbia University > comocarions: study/teach biochemistry microbial/pathological biochemistry comparative/clinical biochemistry a biochemistry professor/lecturer biochemistry student/graduate/degree > PHRASES: biochemistry and biophysics biochemistry and immunology 2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The biochemistry of aliving things the chemical processes that happen init or are involved init. o [+ of] the biochemistry of cerebral ischemia [+ of] That may have been the result of lower levels of COzin the atmosphere, changing the biochemistry of photosynthesis. > couocarion: the biochemistry of something jo|chemijcal /paiav‘kemikal/ ‘Aojective Biochemical changes, reactions, and mechanisms relate to thebiochemist | 70 chemical processes that happenin living things. oIn contrast, xenoestrogens tend to move down harmful biochemical pathways that ultimately lead to the types of damage to DNA that can lead to cancer. a slight drop in internal heat can slow biochemical reactions > coLocaTions: a biochemical reaction/mechanism/function/pathway a biochemical change/imbalance/abnormality biochemical engineering/weapons/warfare bio|chemlist: /baru'kemist/ (viochemists) Noun A biochemist isa scientist or student who studies biochemistry. othe biochemist who discovered ps3, the gene that acts as a brake on cancer asacinical biochemist working in a hospitl laboratory > coLLocarions: abiochemist formulates/researches something a biochemist discovers/studies something anutritional/clinical/trained biochemist > DHRASES: abiochemist and biophysicist a biochemist and pharmacologist bioldilver|sity /paavdarva:siti/ CEE GD UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Biodiversityis the existence of a wide variety of plant and animal species living in their natural environment. oThe national environment management program encourages farmers to preserve biodiversity. 0 [+ of] We must protect the great biodiversity ofthe oceans. > coLLocarions: the biodiversity of something the biodiversity of a reef/ecosystem/ocean conserve/preserve/protect biodiversity threaten/reduce/diminish biodiversity marine/regional/global biodiversity > PHRASES: biodiversity and sustainability biodiversity and ecology bilog|ra|phy /varvarefi/ cviographies) a Noun A biography of someones an account of their life, written by someone else. 9+ of] Cassanovi’s acclaimed biography of legendary film producerSam Spiegel >a very comprehensive and thoroughly researched biography71 | biotechnologist > couLocarions: a biography of someone a definitive/acclaimed/authoritative biography anauthorized/unauthorized biography research/publisha biography abiography reveals /describes something bio|graphilcal /paragrefikaly apjecrive Biographical facts, notes, or details are concerned with the events in someone’ lf. >The book contains few biographical details. 0 The book opens with a biographical essay, > coutocarions: a biographical essay/memoir/anecdote/dictionary a biographical documentary/drama/film biographical details/material/information \tech|nollogy /paravtek'nvlodsi/ qa UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Biotechnoiogy is the use of living parts such as cells or bacteria in industry and technology. Blotech is also used in informal and spoken English. 2 This centre will provide opportunities for local biotechnology companies to benefit from itsknowledge, innovative esearch and highly developed sills and expertise. oThe second generation of agricultural biotechnology will market seeds offering benefits for farmers such as increased yields and drought resistance. > comocarions: a biotechnology company/start-up/firm/laboratory molecular/pharmaceutical biotechnology industrial/agricultural biotechnology bio|tech|nolo|gist /parvteknvladsist/ (bictechnologists) NOUN 0 biotechnolagists turning proteins into pharmaceuticals, > Agricultural biotechnologists have copied genes into seed corn to help ‘make crops resist corn borers and reduce the need for insecticides. > [+t] DrJeffrey Newman, consultant biotechnologistat Cranfield University > couLocarions: abiotechnologist with/at/from somewhere aconsultant/principal biotechnologist aplant/agricuttural biotechnologistblood pressure | 72 blood pres|sure /biad prefo/ ca UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Your blood pressures the amount of forcewith Which your blood flows around your body. ° Your doctor will monitor your blood pressure. 0 Chromium also appearsto help prevent and lower high blood pressure > coLtocaTions: high/raised/low/normal blood pressure reduce/increase blood pressure take/check/monitor someone's blood pressure blood pressure drops/stabilises/rises » unas: suffer from high blood pressure blue-collar /biu:kola/ om Apjecrive Blue-collar workers work in industry, doing physical work, rather thanin offices. © By 925, blue-collar workersin manufacturing industry had become the largest occupational group. o Industry analysts are calling fora structural shift away from blue-collar factory jobs toa value-added research and development focus. » coutocarions: blue-collar job/worker/labourer/voter a blue-collar neighbourhood/suburb/consituency > aNTONYM: white-collar boom /bu:m/ (booms, booming, boomed) Pousiness Pocononics) 1 noun If thereis a boom in the economy, there is an increase in economic activity, for example in the amount of things that are being bought and sold. o [+in] An economic boom followed, especially in housing and construction © The1980s were indeed boom yeors. othe cycle of boom and bust which has damaged us for 40 years 2 Noun Aboomin something is an increase in its amount, frequency, oF success. 0[+ in] The boom in the sport's popularity has meant more call for stricter safety regulations. o Public transport has not been able to cope ‘adequately with the travel boom. othe collapse ofthe dotcom boom » coLLocaTions: a boom in something the boom of aperiod oftime a boom in spending/tourism/travel/housing the boom of the 1960s/19905 the boom years aconsumer/economicboom73 | breed the property/dotcom/tech/telecom boom the baby boom boom collapses/subsides/peaks/ends » purase: boom and bust > antonym: slump 3 vere ifthe economy ora business is booming, the amount of things being bought or soldis increasing. 2 By 2008 the economy was booming, 2 [V-ing] « booming global consumer electronics market o[V-ing] It hasa booming tourist industry. > coLLocarions: the economy is booming business is booming sales are booming a booming market/industry/popul 1 moun A breed of a pet animal or farm animalis.a particular type of it. For example, terriers are a breed of doy." {+ of] rare breeds of cattle ‘Certain breeds are more dangerous than others. PcoLLocarions: a breed of something a breed of sheep/cattle/dog a rare/dangerous/endangered/exotic breed research/identify/recognize a breed domesticate/introduce/create a breed 2 vers if you breed animals or piants, you keep them for the purpose of producing more animals or plants with particular qualities, ina controlled way. 0 They are the first oftheir kind tobe bred successfully in captivity. o[+ for] ‘Australians must now focus on breeding sheep for three specific purposes: wool, meat and maternal traits. o[+to-inf] These dogs are bredtofight. > coLocarions: breed something for something breed animals/plants /norses/dogs bred suecessfully/selectively/artificially > punase: bredin captivity 3 vers When animals breed, they have babies. o [+ in] Frogs will usualy ‘breed in any convenient pond. o[V-ing] The area now attracts over 60 species of breeding birds. o Scientists want to establish breeding colonies of transgenic ‘monkeys with disorders such as diabetes.bulk | 74 > coLtocarions: breedima place animals/mosquitoes breed a breeding colony breed freely bulk /oaks DE ‘Quanmirien The bulk of something is most oft. o[+ of] The bulk ofthe text is essentially a review of these original documents. 0{+ of} Te vast bulk of imports «and exports are carried by sea ‘* Bulkis also pronoun. > They come from allover the world, though the bulk is {rom the ndion subcontinent. >from r992the bulk came from Bosnia > coLtocarions: the bulk of something the bulk of the population/funding the vast/main/overwhelming bulk constitute/form/comprise the bulk provide/supply the bulk. EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY You talk about the bulk or the majority of people or things ina group to refer toa large proportion or most of them. > The vast bulk/ ‘majority of peopl driving inthe city are residents. You do not use the majority when you talk about an amount or part of something. >The state provides the bulk of school funding. ‘Amajority of people or things can also refer more precisely to more than 50% of them. 2A majority of delegates voted to approve the change. bur|den /bs:dan/ (burdens) Noun If youdescribea problem ora responsibilityasa burden, yyoumean that it causes someone alot of difficulty, worry, or hard work © [+of] The developing countries bear the burden ofan enormousexternal debt > Thefinancial burden willbe more evenly shared. >[+on] Its purpose sto ease the burden on accident and emergency departments by filtering out non- emergency calls » coutocarions: the burden of something a burdenon someone/something ‘a burden on society/taxpayers/employers75 | burden the burden of responsibility/debt/disease shoulder/bear/earry a burden place/impose/shift a burden ease/lighten/alleviate a burden aheavy/financial burdenCc Cabijnet /kxzbinit/ (cavinets) qm NOUN The Cabinet isa group of the most senior ministers ina government, ‘who meet regularly to discuss policies. o The announcement came aftera three-hour Cabinet meeting in Downing Street. 2 former Cabinet Minister > contocarion! a Cabinet minister/meeting/reshuffle appoint/dissolve a Cabinet a Cabinet convenes/votes a Cabinet debates /rejects/decides something a two-tier/all-male/civic Cabinet capiltal pun|ish|ment /kzpital 'panyfmant/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Capital punishments punishment which involves the legal killing of a person who has committed serious crime such as murder. oMost democracies have abolished capital punishment, 2a majority ‘of Americans support capital punishment > coLLOcATIONS: favour/support/advocate capital punishment reintroduce/restore capital punishment abolish/oppose/reject capital punishment > synonym: the death penalty car|bo|hy|drate /ka:bouhaidreit/ (carbonysrates) = GEE Noun Carbohydrates are substances, found in certain kinds of food, that provide you with energy. Foods such as sugar and bread that contain these substances canalso be referred toas carbohydrates. Carbs is also sed in informal and spoken English. Food is made up of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. oFibreis automatically present in complex carbohydrates. > coLLocarions: digest/consume/absorb/process carbohydrates limit/restrict/eliminate carbohydrates refined/unrefined carbohydrates complex/starchy/slow-release carbohydrates > RELATED worbs: protein, fat7 | casual car|bon dajting /ka:ban ‘dertin/ cr UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Carbon dating s a system of calculating theageof a very old object by measuring the amount of radioactive carbon it contains, 2 Carbon dating indicated its age to be around 2500 years. 0 The two ‘methods widely used at present are carbon dating and potassium-argon dating, » couLocations: the carbon dating of something carbon dating reveals /indicates /confirms something carbon dating tests/methods /techniques cardio|vas|cullar /ka:diavveskjve/ CEs ~avjective Cardiovascular means relating to the heart and blood vessels. ‘9 Smoking places you at serious risk of cardiovascular and respiratory disease. oMercury may cause neurological, respiratory, cardiovascular and digestive disorders. 0 exercise contributes to cardiovascular fitness > coutocarions: cardiovascular disease/medicine/fitness cardiovascular toxicity/reactivity/mortality a cardiovascular surgeon/disorder/nrablem Carnivore ka:nivo:/ «amivores) NouN Acamivore san animal that eats meat. o The researchers conclude that wide-ranging carnivores should not be kept in captivity. oA herbivore anda carnivore may share the same habitat but their diferent feeding methods mean that they occupy different niches. > RELATED worps: herbivore, omnivore, insectivore car|nivo|rous /xa:nivares/ ADJECTIVE Snakes are camivorous. otis the carnivorous species which is of main interest tothe gardener. > couLocarion: a carnivorous animal/mammal/species > RELATED WoRDS: herbivorous, omnivorous casjual /k23val/ qu ‘Apjective Casual work is done for short periods and not on a permanent ‘or regular basis. o establishments which employ people ona casual basis, such 4s pubs and restaurants ° It became increasingly expensive to hire casual workers. > cottocarion: casual work/workerscatalogue | 78 > pHRASE: ona casual basis > syNoNvm: temporary > ANTONYM: permanent Catallogue /kzt0l09/ (catalogues, cataloguing, catalogued) vere To catalogue things means to makea listof them. [in aM, usually Use catalog] © The Royal Greenwich Observatory was founded to observeand catalogue the stars. 0 The report catalogues along list ofextreme weather patterns. >see note at document > cottocanions: catalogueitems areport catalogues things catalogue things carefully/meticulously/property > synonym: list caltas|tro|phe xo testrofi/ (catastrophes) Noun A catastrophe is an unexpected event that causes great suffering or damage. 0 Fromall points of view, war would bea catastrophe. ofthe world is to.avoid environmental catastrophe, advanced economies must undergo a profound transition, > coLLocaTiONs: ahumanitarian/environmental/economic catastrophe a major/imminent/unprecedented catastrophe avert/avoid/prevent a catastrophe trigger/cause/face a catastrophe > synonym: disaster cata|strophlic /x2w'strofiky ADJECTIVE Something that is catastrophic involves or causes a sudden terrible disaster. 0A tidal wove coused by the earthquake hit the coast causing catastrophic damage. The water shortagein this countryis potentially catastrophic, 2[+ for] The minister warned that if war broke out, it would be catastrophic for the whole world. > cotuocarions: catastrophic for someone /something potentially/environmentalty/financially catastrophic catastrophic damage/consequences repercussions a catastrophic famine/earthquake/tsunami » synonym: disastrous79 | cautiously cata|strophijcal|ly /kzto'strofkii/ ‘apvers The faulty left-hand engine failed catastrophically as the aircraft ‘approached the airport. ocatastrophically injured people > couocarion: fail catastrophically > svNonva: disastrously caultion /ksfen/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Caution is great care which you takein orderto avoid possible danger. > Extreme caution should be exercised when buying part-worn tyres. oThe Chancellor isa man of caution. > couocarions: extreme/considerable caution exercise /advocate/urge caution » synonyms: care, prudence caultious /kozas/ 11 apjective Someone whois eautious acts very carefullyin order to avoid possible danger. 0[+ about] The scientists are cautious about using enzyme therapyon humans. © Many Canadians have become overly cautious when it comesto investing 2 apyective if you describe someone's attitude or reactionas cautious, youmean that itis limited or careful. He has been seen as a champion ofa ‘more cautious approach to economic reform. o There may have been good reasons for this cautious attitude. > cotLocarions: cautious about something a cautious attitude /reaction/approach/outlook scientists /investors/analysts/experts are cautious remain/appear cautious overty/excessively/relatively/understandably cautious > synonvass: careful, circumspect PaNTONYM: rash cau|tious|ly /koJasii/ ADVERB © These borderline differences should be interpreted cautiously given the numberof outcomes examined, °1.am cautiously optimistic that anew ‘government willbe concerned and aware about the environment. 0 Rebel sources have so far reacted cautiously tothe threat. > coutocarions: cautiously optimistic/hopefulcensus | 80 proceed/react/move cautiously interpret/approach something cautiously > synonyms: circumspectly, carefully > anronyae: rashly Cen|sus /sensas/ (censuses) = Noun A census isan official survey of the population of a country that is carried out in order to find out how many people live there and to obtain details of such things as people's ages and jobs. » Population censuses in India show that the numberof gis has been falling steadily for the past 0 years. relative tothe number of boys. o1n the new study, Kaplan studied census data collected between 2007 and 2009. > coLLocations: census figures/data/statisties a population/nationwide census conduct/carry out/study a census census reveals/finds/confirms something cf. f..is used in writing to introduce something that should be considered in connection with the subject you are discussing. © Forthe more salient. remarks on the matter, cf. Isis Unveiled, Vol. |. 0 the beneficial effects of isolation from foreign capital (cf Taylor, 1975, p.225) > synonym: compare ‘ACADEMIC WRITING: Academic abbreviations ‘There are a number of Latin abbreviations that are used in academic writing cf. means compare with NBis used to drawattention to something important, especially in notes and footnotes. 2 NB The above course is subject to approval. Several abbreviations are used when giving academic references. et al. is used when a book or an article was written by several peopleto avoid repeating all the names. You write the nameof one writer, then etal. in your text and show the names of all the writers in the bibliography. oA research review byWerry etal. (1983) indicates that. You use ibid. to avoid repeating a full reference. it shows thata reference (a quotation or a paraphrase etc.) comes from the same81 | chronic source cited directly above. So or example, both of the quotations below are from Krause; the first from page 67, the second from page 70. 0”..itselfquite new” (Krause, 1983, p.67). Hecame to see America as “the land of political culture" (ibid, p.70 ) chain rejac|tion tein ri'xkjon/ (chain reactions) 1 wouN A chain reaction is a series of chemical changes, each of which causes the next. oChain reactions triggered by bromine oxide are known to destroy ozone. © damaging chain reactions caused by ree radicals 2 NOUN A chain reaction is a series of events, each of which causes: thenext. oWhenever recession strikes, «chain reaction is setinto motion. 2 [+ of] The powder immediatly ignited and set off chain reaction of explosions. > coLtocarions: achain reaction of things achain reaction of events/damage/explosions cause/set off trigger/initiate a chain reaction achainreaction occurs chronjic /kronks 1 apjective Achronicillness or disability lasts fora verylong time. 2 chronic back pain the condition is often chronic > comtocarions: chronic pain/stress/depression a chronicillness/disease/condition/disorder > PHRASES: chronic and degenerative chronic andinflammatory > synonym: long-term > RELATED WonD: acute 2 apyective A chronic situation or problem is very severe and unpleasant. o One cause of the artist's suicide seems to have been chronic poverty. 0 There sa chronic shortage of patrol carsiin this police district. > coLLocations: chronic poverty achronicshortage > SYNONYM: severechronically | 82 chronileal|ly /xroniiai apvers hospitalisation rates for chronically il patients o Research and technology are said to be chronically underfunded. > co.tocarions: chronically ill/sick/depressed/mainourished chronically underfunded/understaffed > sywonym: severely chronojlogilcal /xronatodsikaly co ~apjecrive |f things are described or shown in chronological order, they are described or shownin the order in which they happened. o Such a paper might present a chronological sequence of events. o The play isin strict chronological order, and attention is paid to demographic and statistical details. > coLtocarion: a chronological sequence/arrangement » puinase: in chronological order chrono|logi|cal|ly /krona'tvds:kli/ ‘Apvens © Theexhibition is organised civonologically. othe museum's chronologically arranged exhibit > couocarions: arrange/organize/order something chronologically display something chronologically ite /sart/ ccites,cting, ceed) vers If you cite something, you quoteit ormentionit, especially ‘asan example or proof of what you are saying. [FORMAL] © Shecites a favourite poem by George Herbert. 2 The author cites ust one example, 0[+ as] Howcan we account for the data cited as evidence for that theory? o[+ as] Spain was cited as the most popular holiday destination. » coLLocarions: cited as something cited as proof/evidence justification citea source/example/statistic/case cite a report/study/passage/poll areport/article/author/analyst cites something > synonyms: quote, mention83 | civilrights usace: cite orquote? You use both ofthese words to talk about references and sources Quote always refers to the use of the exact words from another source. In the example below, Ellis uses Harris's exact words in her article on theartcl lis quotes from Haris’ personal letters Cite can refer to the use of the exact words, a paraphrase, anidea or data from another source. In the example below, Blum uses the results of the study as evidence. o Blum cites a study done by the Galifornia Energy Commission that showed cilvillian /srviliian/ cvitians) Coen 1 NOUN Ina military situation, a civilian is anyone who is nota member of the armed forces. o The safety of civilians caught up in the fighting must be ‘guaranteed. other total disregard forthe lives ofinnocent civilians > coLLocarions: attack/target/wound/massacre civilians protect/evacuate civilians civilians march/gather/demonstr==2 Civilians flee/sutfer/die innocent/unarmed/wounded civilians anonym: soldier 2 apjective Ina military situation, eivilianis used to describe people or things that are not military. othe countrys civilian population o inevitably there were also innocent civilian casualties. oa solder in civilian clothes > coLLocations: civilian casualties /targets/deaths civilian elothes/personnel/aircraft the civilian population PanTonym: military civil rights /s1vel ‘raits/ qm. PLURAL NOUN Civil rights are the rights that people have in a society to equal treatment and equal opportunities, whatever their race sex, or ion, onew laws guaranteeing civil rights such as free expression and private business ownership o violations of civil rights > coLLocaTions: civil rights for people Grant/extend civil rights to people guarantee/protect/support/promote civil rightsclarify | 84 violate civil rights sexual/individval/black/gay civil rights a civil rights activist/lawyer/group/campaign/bill > pase: the civil rights movement clarilfy /xizerifas/ (carifies, ctaritying, carified) vers To clarify something means to makeit easier to understand, usually byexplaining itin more detail. [FORMAL] o[tis important toclarify the distinction between the relativity of values and the relativity of truth, 2A bank spokesman was unable to clarify the situation. o[+ what] you will wont to Clarify what your objectives ore > couLocarion: clarify a position/situation/remark/distinction clarify the meaning of something a statement/amendment clarifies something legislation/guidelines clarity something clarijfilca|tion /xzrifrkeyon/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 0 [+ of] The inion has written to Zurich asking for Clarification ofthe situation. o[+ on] Please provide clarification on “conflict of interest” concerning the awarding of contracts by the board of directors. > comocarion: clarification of/on something seek/ask for/request/await clarification issue/provide/obtain clarification further/additional/legal clarification clarity wendy UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The clarity of something such asa book or argument. is its quality of being well explained and easy to understand. othe ease and Clarity with which the author explains difficult technical and scientific subjects © [+ of our need as social scientists to strive for clarity of analysis > cotuocarions: Clarity of something clarity of thought/vision/purpose/Tocus clarity of argument/expression/analysis/structure bring/lend/introduce clarity to something provide/enhance/increase clarity startling/exceptional/absolute clarity > pHnases: clarity and distinctness85 | clone clarity and simplicity > synonym: lucidity Clause /xls:z/ (clauses) ED cms on 1 Noun A clauseis.a section of a legal document. o [+ in] He hasa clause in his contract which entitles him toa percentage ofthe profits. 0 complaint alleging a breach of clause 4 ofthe code > coutocarions: aclauselin something abreach/violation/amendment of aclause violate/invoke/amend/abolish a clause a clause stipulates/states/specifies something a clause permits /guarantees/prevents something acontractual/opt-out clause 2 Nouns In grammar, a clause is a group of words containing a verb, Sentences contain one or more clauses. There are finite clauses and Non-finite clauses. o In both cases it is the subordinate clause which isthe ‘governing sentence. 0A subordinate or dependent clause cannot stand by itself but must be connected to another clause. > couocarions: a main/relative/subordinate clause a dependent/independent/restrictive clause afinite/non-finite clause clone /xtaun/ (ones, cioning, cloned) qm 1 noun Alone isan animal or plant that has been produced artificially, forexampleinallaboratory, from the cells of another animal or plant. ‘Acloneis exactly the sameas the original animal or plant. oa Chicago scientist who wants to create human clones 9 [+ of] Each colony represents a clone of bacterial cells > coocarions: a clone of something breed/produce/create/generatea clone a genatic/embryonic/T-cell/human clone 2 vee To clone an animal or plant means to produce it asa clone. highly controversial proposals to clone humans 0 The scientists will clone embryos from the sin cells of motor neurone disease sufferers. > couocarions: clone aplant/animal/embryo/cell scientist clones somethingcognitive | 86 cog)niltive /xogniuv/ [ADJECTIVE Cognitive means relating to the mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things. [FORMAL] oAS children ‘grow older, their cognitive processes become sharper. o Vygotsky's theory of Cognitive development > cottocarions: cognitive development/dissonance/therapy/impairment cognitive errors/processes/skills cognitiveneuroscience/psychology co|herjent /xov‘hiarent/ Apjective If something is coherent, it is well planned, so thatiit islear ‘and sensible and all its parts go well with each other. 2 He has failed to work outa coherent strategy for modernising the service, oThe President's policy is perfectly coherent. > COLLOcATIONS: a coherent strategy/policy/plan a coherent vision/approach a coherent presentation/nesr=tive/theory/critique intellectually/perfectly coherent > syNonvu: cohesive col|herjence /kav'thiarons/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN >The compaign was widely criticised for making tactical ‘mistakes and fora lack of coherence. 0 The three interlocking narratives achieve an overall coherence. >The onthology has asurprising sense of coherence > coLocarions: the coherence of something lack/possess /achieve coherence lend/oring coherence to something stylistic/thematic/logical/structural coherence > PHRASES: a sense of coherence coherence and consistency » synonym: cohesion COIN. /koIN/ (coins, coining, coined) ‘vers If you coin a word ora phrase, you are the first person to sayit. ‘Jaron Lanier coined the term virtual reality and pioneered its early87 | coincidental development. 0 Simone de Beauvoir first coined the phrase women's liberation’ inher book, The Second Sex. > couocarions: coined by someone coin aterm/phrase/word/name/expression first/originally coined awriter/academic/scientist coins something colin|cide /xaum'saia/ Com (coincides, coinciding, coincided) vere ifone event colncides with another, they happen at the same time. o [+ with] Although his mental illness had coincided with his war service it ‘had not been caused by it. 0 The beginning ofthe solar and lunar years coincided every years. 2 vers Ifthe ideas or interests of two or more people coincide, theyare the same. a case in which publicand private interests coincide o [+ with] He gave great encouragement to his students, especially if their passions happened to coincide with his own. » couocarions: coincide with something broadly/convenientiy/trequently coincide rarely coincide colin|ci|dence /rov'insidans/ (coincidences) NOUN A coincidence is when two or more similar or related events occur atthe same time by chance and without any planning, otis, ofcourse, {a mere coincidence that the author of this pieces also a pathologist. o tis no coincidence that so many of the romantic poets suffered from tuberculosis. > coLLocaTioNs: byccoincidence pure/mere/sheer/no coincidence a happy/remarkable/strange coincidence colin|cijdentjal /xoumsraentai/ ApJective Something that is coincidental the result ofa coincidence andhas not been deliberately arranged. Any resemblance to actual persons, places or events is purely coincidental. o [+ that}! think that it isnot Coincidental that we now have arguably the best bookshops in the world » couLocarions: timing is coincidental purely/entirely coincidentalcollaborate | 88 Colllabojrate /ca'zbarert/ (cotaborates, collaborating, collaborated) ‘vera When one person of group collaborates with another, they work ‘together, especially on a book or on some research. o[+ with] He collaborated with his son Michael on the English translation of text on food production. o [+ in] a place where professionals and amateurs collaborated in the making of music © [+ on] Kodak and Chinon will continue to collaborate on the engineering and development of digital cameras and scanners. » coLLocarions: collaborate with someone collaboratein/on something scientists /architects/engineers collaborate universities /researchers/organizations collaborate collaborate closely/extensively/effectively coljlabo|ra|tion /xazbe'rerfan/ (coltaborations) 1 noun Collaboration is the act of working together to produce apiece cof work, especially a book or some research. 0 + with] Thereis substantial collaboration with neighbouring departments. 2 [+ between] Close collaboration between the Bank and the Fund isnot merely desirable, itis essential, oscientificcollaboratiors"2[+ with] Drummond was working ona ‘book in collaboration with Zodiac Mindwarp. 2 Noun A collaboration is piece of work that has been producedas the result of people or groups working together. 0+ with] He was alsoawriter of beautiful stories, some of which are collaborations with his fiancee. oone of their collaborations from the second album > coutocario collaboration with someone in collaboration collaboration between people/things collaboration on something promote /encourage/promote collaboration a scientific/technical/musical collaboration colllabojra|tive /xizberatv, am -reit-/ “ADJECTIVE A collaborative piece of workis done by two or more people ‘or groups working together. [FoRMAL] 00 collaborative research project This workis a collaborative effort with other health care workers, including poediatricians, physiotherapists, and nurse. > coLLocaTIONS: a collaborative project/partnership/process/effort collaborative working/learning/research highly collaborativeCOl|late /ra'leit/ (coltates, collating, collated) ‘vers When you collate pieces of information, you gather them all together and examine them. © Roberts has spent much of his working life collating the data on which the study was based. > They have begun tocollate their own statistics on racial abuse. > coLocarions: collate information/data collate figures/statistics coljlajtion /xa'teyen/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9+ of] Many countries haveno laws governing the collation of personal information. 2 The completed surveys are now with Queensland Transport for a more thorough collation and analysis. > coLtocarion: the collation of something colo|ny /kolani/ (colonies) Ca ch cs 1 Noun Acolonyis a country which is controlled bya more powerful ‘country. ©1n France's former North African colonies, anti-French feeling is growing, ° Puerto Rico, though it calls itse'?.= Commonwealth, i really 0 self-governing American colony, » coutocarions: aformer/Dutch/Portuguese/British colony found/establish/administer/govern a colony annex/invadea colony 2 Noun A colony of birds. insects, oranimalsisa group of them that, live together. 2 [+ of] The Shetlands are famed for ther colonies of sea birds. > Thecaterpillars feed in large colonies. > coLtocarions: a colony of something acolony of bacteria/bats a penguin/ant/seal colony a colony inhabits/nests/breeds/grows alarge/breeding colony collojnial /'aunialy 11 apjective Colonial means relating to countries that are colonies, or to colonialism. © the 3st anniversary of jamaica's independence from British colonial rule, 0 the colonial civil service > cottocarion: colonial rule/power/occupation 2 apjective A Colonial building or piece of furniture was built or made inacolonii m | 90 style that was popular in America in the 17th and 18th centuries. [mainly aM] co the white colonial houses on the north side of the campus oThere is alot of old colonial architecture left and itis well preserved. > coLLocaTions: colonial architecture/furniture acolonial house/mansion collo|nijaljism /xauniatizam/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Colonialism is the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources toincreaseits own power and wealth. othe bitter oppression of slavery and colonialism o tis interesting to reflect why European colonialism ended > coLtocarion: Western/1gth-century/European colonialism > punases: colonialism and imperialism slavery and colonialism Collo|nijaljist /xalaunialist/ (cotoniatists) 11 apjective Colonialist means relating to colonialism. o Earlier, the Cuban {government had accused the Spanist Foreign Minister of colonialist attitudes. © the European colonialist powers 2 noun Acolonialistisa person who believes in colonialism or helps their country toget colonies. > rulers who were imposed on the people by the Colonialists the British colonialists were brutal in the extreme > coLocarion: a Portuguese/British/i8th-century colonialist colo|nize /koianarz/ (colonizes, colonizing, colonized) 1 vers If people colonize a foreign country, they go to live there and take control ofit. {in rit, also use colonise] © The first British attempt to colonize ireland was in the twelfth century. © Liberia was never colonised by the European powers. > coLLocarions: colonized by people colonizeatand/territory/region/isiand 2 vere When large numbers of animals colonize place, they go to live there and make it their home. [in errr, also use colonise] ifthe bats colonize a new cave, it soon becomes infested with ticks, ogolden eagles colonized the island > COLLOCATIONS: colonized by things colonize an area/island/cave91 | commentator com|bat /kambeet/ (combats, combating or combatting, combated or combatted) vers If people in authority combat something, they tryto stop it happening. © Congress has criticised new government measures to combat crime, 0.drugs used to combat infectious diseases > cottocations: combat terrorism/racism/corruption combat pollution/disease effectively/successfully combat something com|bus|tion /kom'bastfan/ qm uncounrasie Moun Combustion isthe act of burning something or the process of burning. o The energy released by combustion on the application ofa match. © The two principal combustion products are water vapor and carbon dioxide. » co.tocarions: the combustion of something a combustion product/process/plant/engine com|men|tary /omonti, AD CD AM -teri/ (commentaries) 1 NOUN A commentary is an article or book which explains or discusses Something, 0[+on] Mr Rich wil bewrtingatwice-weeRly commentary on “American society and culture. 9+ about an insightful weekly commentory aboutifein the United States P conocations: acommentary on/about something acommentary by someone an informative/insightful commentary 2 uncounTasis noun Commentary s discussion or criticism of something. 0The show mied comedy with scialcommentan. He provides virtualy continuous commentary this passengers > cottocaion: social/ironic¢/wry commentary com|men|taltor /xomenterta/ (commentator) oun A commentator is someone who often writes or broadcasts about. particular subject. 04 pottcal commentator o[+on) A.M. Babu isa commentatoronafrican affairs > cottocations: acommentator on somethingcommission | 92 apolitical/cuttural/left-wing commentator commentator notes/observes/interprets something commentator criticizes something com|mis|sion /c'ijon/ CHIE CIES {commisslons, commissioning. commissioned) 1 vans if you commission something or commission someone to do something, you formally arrange for someone to doa piece of work for You. © The Ministry of Agriculture commissioned a study into low-input farming. 0{+to-inf] You can commission them to paint something especialy foryou, © specially commissioned reports > coLtocarions: commissioned by someone commission study/report/survey commission research commission a composer/architect specialty commissioned * Commission is also a noun. 0[+to-inf] He approached John Wesley with a commission to write the screenplay ofthe film. o[+ to-inf] Armitage won a commission to design the war memorial » couocarion: gain/receive/win a commission 2 Noun Commission isa sum of money paid toa salesperson for every sale that he or she makes. Ifa salesperson is paid on commission, the amount they receive depends on the amount they sel. 0 The salesmen ‘work on commission only. 2 [+ for| He also got a commission for bringing in new clients. > couocanions: ‘oncommission commission for something 3 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Ifa bank or other company charges commission, they chargea fee for providing a service, for example for exchanging money or issuing an insurance policy. 0 [+ on] Travel agents charge percent commission on sterling cheques. Sellers pay a fixed commission ee. > coLLocarions: commission on something charge/pay commission a commission fee xper cent commission ‘4. moun Acommission isa group of people who have been appointed to find out about something or to control something. o[+ to-inf] The93 | compatibility ‘authorities have been asked to set up a commission to investigate the murders. othe Press Complaints Commission > couocarions: ‘set up/appoint a commission a complaints /independent commission a special/electoral commission com|mod|ity jomdti/ SS SS CS (commodities NOUN A commodity is something that is sold for money. ©The government {increased prices on several basic commodities like bread and meat. Unlike gold, ‘most commodities are not kept solely forinvestment purposes. > coutacarion acommodity market/exchange commodity trading/futures/prices a tradeable/marketable/valuable/rare commodity abasiccommodity com|patlible /xompzubal/ mmm 1 apjective If things, for example systems, ideas, and beliefs, are compatible, they work well together or can exist together successfully. > [+ with] Free enterprise, he argued, was compatible with Russian values and traditions. oThetwo aims arenot necessarily compatible > couocarions: compatible with something compatible aims/ideas/beliefs 2 apjective If a make of computer or equipment is compatible with another make, they can be used together and can use the same software. > [+ with] iTunesis only compatible withthe iPod while Microsoft ond Sony are offering rival technologies. o[+ with] OnlyWindows-based desktop computers less than 4 year old are compatible withthe software. > cottocarions: compatible with something compatible with a device/browser/pc/system compatible with software > antonvas: incompatible com|patiibillity /xompatrbani UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [+ with] National courts can freze any law while its compatibility with European legislation is being tested. 0+ between] thecompelling | 94 compatibility between a certain job and a candidate 0 [+ of] chapter's describes thecompatibility of reincarnation with the Christian faith > cOLLOCATIONS: compatibility with something/someone compatibility between things/people ‘the compatibility of something with something »antonya: incompatibility com|pel|ling /xam'pelin/ ADJECTIVE A compelling argument or reason is one that convinces you that something is true or that something should be done. 2 Factual and forensic evidence makes a suicide erdict the most compelling answer to the mystery ofhis death, © The evidence was so compelling that the central Government did nat have to force this change; it was willingly accepted > couocarions: compelling argument/reason/testimony compelling data/results/evidence com|pen|sate /kompanser/ (compensates, compensating, compensated) 1 vena To compensate someone for money or things that they have lost means to pay them money or give them something to replace that money or those things. o [+ for} To ease financial difficulties, farmers could be compensated for theirloss of subsidies. othe Anglican Church has pledged to fully compensate sex abuse victims in South Australia > coLLocarion: ‘compensate someone for something financially compensated adequately/amply/generously/fully compensated 2 vane Something that compensates for something else balances it orreduces its effects. 0+ for] MPs say ts crucial thata systems found to compensate for inflation. {+ for| The drug may compensate for prostaglandin deficiency. > couLocarions: compensate for something compensate fora deficiency/imbalance compensate for aloss/absence95 | complement com|pen|sa|tion /kompon'serfon/ (compensations) UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Compensation is money that someone Who has experienced loss or suffering claims from the person or organization responsible, or fromthe state. 0+ for] He eceived one year’s salaryas compensation for lossof office. 0 The Court ordered Or Williams to pay £300 ‘compensation and £100 costs ater admitting assautt. > couocarions: compensation for something compensation for unfair dismissal/loss of earnings pay/award/grant/deny/refuse compensation demand/seek/claim/receive compensation a compensation payout/package/payment Com|pile /ram'pail/ (compites, compiting, compiled) \When you compile something such asa report. book, or programme you produce it by collecting and putting together many pieces of information. oThe book took years to comple. 2 The report was compiled by 240 scientist from 96 countries to assess the status of coral reefs worldwide. > coutocarions: compiled by someone compilea report/register/list compile adictionary/anthology compile records/data/figures/statistics com|pilla|tion /komprleyan/ (compitations) NOUN 0+ of] a compilation of essays and articles on a wide range of topics 2 [+ of] the compilation of research data > coutocations: a compilation of things a compilation of songs/clips the compilation of data/materi > synonym: collection w comiple|ment. /kompiment/ (complements, complementing, complemented) vere if people or things complement each other, they are different or do something different, which makes thema good combination. o There will bea written examination tocomplement the practical test. Theiracademic program is complemented by a wide range of sporting recreational and cultural activities.complementary | 96 PcoLLocarioNs: complemented by something complement the menu/architecture/setting perfectly complement something com|ple|men|tary /kompt'mentri/ AojEcrive Complementary things ae different from each other but make ’agood combination. [Format] 2To improve the quality of ife through work, two complementary strategies are necessary, 2 +t] He has done experiments complementary to those of Eigen. > couocarions: ‘complementary to something complementary strategies /skills complementary colours /shades usace: complement or compliment? Be careful, itis easy to confuse these two words. two things complement each other or are complementary, they combine well together. omodern design features that complement the original style of the house Hyou compliment someone, you say something nice about them; complimentary remark. oHe complimented Tania on her cooking. SS ee com|ply /xam'plai/ (complies, complying, compiled) vere if someone or something complies with an order or set of rules, they are in accordance with what is required or expected, (+ with] The ‘commander said that the army would comply with the ceasefire. o[+ with] Some beaches had failed to comply with European directives on bathing water. > coLLocarions: comply with something comply with requirements/regulations/laws fully/willingly comply [EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY You can say that someone obeys, abides by or complies with rules, regulations or thelaw, ifthey act according to them. oll employees ‘are expected to obey/abide by/comply with the rules on safety. You can say that someone obeys a rule or another person. Youcan only say that someone abides by or complies with rule. oHewas charged with failure to obey a police officer.97 | comprehend You often say that something, such as a product ora system, complies with regulations, whereas itis usually a person who obeys orabides by something. o New vehicles must comply with emission standards. com|plilance /xempiaians/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Compliance with something, for examplea law, ‘weaty, or agreement means doing what youare required or expected to ¢o. [FoRMAt] [+ with] The company says tis in full compliance with US. labor laws. 2 [+ by] The Security Council aim to ensure compliance by all sides, nce an agreements signed. > couocarions: compliance with something ‘compliance by someone compliance with requirements/regulations/laws full/strict/voluntary/non-compliance com|pound /kompauna/ qe (compounds) Noun In chemistry, a compound isa substance that consists of two or moreelements. > Organic compounds contain carbon in their molecules. [+of] Gasoline s essentially compound of carbon and hydrogen. > cottocarions: acompound of something a synthetic/organic/inorganic compound achemical/toxic compound a sulphur/nitrogen/chlorine compound com|pre|hend /komprrhend/ (comprehends, comprehending, comprehended) vers if you cannot comprehend something, you cannot understand it. [Format] oPatients may not be mentally focused enough to comprehend tne full significance ofthe diagnosis. 2Wilson did not comprehend the intricacies of this own government's policy and decision-making. > coLocarions: fully/adequately/scarcely comprehend comprehend the importance/magnitude/meaning comprehend the implications /intricacies/complexities > synonym: understandcomprehension | 98 com|pre|hen|sion /komprinenjan/ ccomprenensions) 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Comprehension is the ability to Understand something. [Format] 94 devastating and barbaric act that defies all comprehension © tis an act of cruelty beyond all human comprehension 2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Comprehension isfull knowledge and understanding of the meaning of something. [FORMAL] o They turned to one another with the same expression of dawning comprehension, surprise, and elie. >[+of] They haveno comprehension ofthe complexities of aw. > coLLocarion: comprehension of something comprehension of language/complexities comprehension of atext/passage/concept defy/facilitate/improve/enhance comprehension verbal/human/intellectual comprehension mutual/limited comprehension > PHRASE: beyond comprehension > svNoNvM: understanding com|pullso|ry /xompalsori apjective If something is compulsory, you must do itor acceptit, because its the law or because someonein a position of authority says you must. Many companies ask workers toaccept voluntary redundancy as ‘opposed to compulsory redundancy. oMany young men are trying toget away from compulsory military conscription. P coLLocation: compulsory for someone make something compulsory compulsory vaccination/voting/schooling compulsory retirement/redundancy compulsory insurance/superannuation > syNonya: mandatory com|pul|so|rilly /xampaisarili/ [ADvERs 0 Five ofthe company’s senior managers have been made compulsorily redundant. abandon plans toimpose the system compulsorily, » couLocarion: compulsorily aequire/purchase > anronva: voluntarily‘99 | conclusive con|ceive /ran'si:v/ (conceives, conceiving, conceived) 1 vere if you cannot conceive of something, you cannotimagineit or believe it. o[+ of] Western leaders could not conceive ofthe idea that there ‘might be traitors at high levels in their own governments. >[+ of] He was immensely ambitious but unable o conceive of winning power for himself 2 [+ that] We cannot conceive that hewill die at home. > coLLocarions: conceive of something not conceive of something not conceive of a circumstance/idea/situatlon/possibility 2 vere If you conceive something as a particular thing, you consider it tobe that thing. 0+ as] The ancients conceived the Earth as afloat in water. [+ of] We conceive ofthe family as being in a constant state of change. o [+ of] She cannot conceive of herself being anything ese but a doctor. > cottocarion: conceive something as something conceive of something as something con|ceivjable /xan'si:vabaly ApjECTIVE If something is conceivable. you can imagineit or believe it. ‘oWithout their support the project would not have been conceivable. 0 Through the centuries, flowers have been used for cooking in every conceivable way. > comtocarion: every conceivable something every conceivable angle/way »antonva: inconceivable con|ceiviably /xan'si:vabii/ ‘ApvERB © The mission could conceivably be accomplished within a week oA series of interest-rate rises might conceivably affect buyers’ confidence at the upper end ofthe market. con|clulsive /xon'du:siv/ facanemic wor] AbJEcTiVvE Conclusive evidence shows that something is certainly true. 2 Her attorneys claim there smo conclusive evidence that any murders took place. 0 Research on the matter is ar from conclusive. » coLocation: conclusive evidence/proof conclusiveresults/tests > antonym: inconclusiveconclusively | 100 conjclulsivelly /xaniau:swvi ovens Anew study proved conclusively that smokers de younger than non-smokers. 0By October they had conclusively established theeistence of. theantipartcle > COLLOCATIONS: conclusively prove/demonstrate conclusively determine/answer ‘ACADEMIC WRITING: Degrees of certainty Inacademic writing, itis often important to show how clear or certain somethings. You can say that evidence or the results of astudy are conclusive or definitive to mean that they are clear and there is no doubt about them, o There is as yet no conclusive/ definitive proof. Youcan say that someone or something is eredibleisif you think they can be trusted, for example based on reputation. © Thereis no Credible evidence that establishes a causal link con|curjrent /xonkarent, am “k9:7-/ apjecrive Concurrent events or situations happen atthe same time. ‘o There remains a large area of concurrent jurisdiction where a plaintiff may still sue in eithera provincial or the Federal Court. oe will actualy be serving three concurrent fve-yeor sentences. [+ with] tll-freeWeb access concurrent with paper publication > cot.ocaTions: concurrent with something concurrent sentences/events/jurisdiction concurrent symptoms/infections/medication serveconcurrent sentences con|curjrent|ly /kan’karantli, aw 7 ‘apvens oHe wos jailed or 33 months torun concurrently witha sentence he is alteady serving for burglary. 0 [+ with] Itis unethical for human trials torun concurtently with chronic toxicity tests on animals. > coLLocaTioNs: concurrently with something run/occur/exist concurrently with something101 | condensation con|demn /kan‘dem/ (condemns, condemning, condemned) vers if you condemn something, you say thatitis very bad and unacceptable. 2 Political leaders united yesterday to condemn the latest wave ofviolence. 2+ for] He publicly condemned the US for moving without the UN to invade rag. 2 + a5] a document that condemns sexism as a moral and social evi! > cottocaTions: condemn someone for something condemn something as something condemned by someone strongly/unequivocally/unreservedly/publicly condemn > synonym: denounce > anronyae: condone con|dem|na|tion /kondem'neyan/ (condemnations) oun 0+ of] There was widespread condemnation of Saturday's kilings. © f+ fiom] The raids have drawn a strong condemnation from the United Nations Security Council. > coLLocations: condemnation of something condemnation from someone international/moral/widespread condemnation condemnation of the violence/killing/attack/invasion provoke/spark/draw/incur condemnation conjdense /kan‘dens/ Gumammm (condenses, condensing, condensed) ‘vers When a gas or vapour condenses, oris condensed, it changes into aliquid. 0 [+ to-inf] Water vapour condenses to form clouds. © [+ into] The compressed gas is cooled and condenses into a liquid. 0+ out of] As the air rises It becomes colder and moisture condenses out oft. > coLtocarions: condense into/out of something condense into rain/liquid/droplets vapour/moisture/steam/gas condenses aloud condenses con|den|saltion /xondenserfon/ UNcOUNTARLE NOUN Condensation consists of small drops. water which form when warm water vapour or steam touches a cold surface such asa window. o{+ of] slicon carbide crystals are formed by the condensation of supersaturated vapourconduct | 102 > couLocations condensation on something the condensation of something condensation on awindow/windscreen/surface pravent/eliminate/avoid condensation water/steam/vapour condensation » purase: dampness and condensation con|duct /ron'dakt/ (conducts, conducting, conducted) vere If something conducts heat or electricity, it allows heat or electricity topass through itor along it. 2 Water conducts heat fasterthan lr. oThe molecule did nat conductelectricity > coLLocarion: conductheat/electricity con|duc|tion /xon'dakjen/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN © Temperature becomes uniform by heat conduction until finaly permanent state is reached. > [+ of best known for his work on the conduction of electricity by gases > cOLLOcATIONS: conduction of something conduction of electricity/energy/heat electron/electrical conduction con|duc|tive /kan‘dakuv/ ADJECTIVE A conductive substance is able to conduct things such as heat and electricity. Sait water is much more conductive than fresh water is. electrically conductive polymers > coLtocaTions: electrically conductive conductive fibres/threads con|duc|tivjity /xondakuviti/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN © 0 device which monitors electrical conductivity © [+ of] Smal electrodes are taped tothe fingers, and attached toa device which ‘monitors the electrical conductivity ofthe skin > coLLOcATIONS: the conductivity of something electrical/nydraulic conductivity103 | conform con|duc|tor /kan'dakta/ (conductors) Noun A conductor isa substance that heat or electricity can pass through or along. 0 Because this channel is an electrical conductor, it provides a place for ‘surrounding electrons to go. 0 [+ of] good conductors of heat and electricity > coLtocarions: a conductor of something a conductor of heat/electricity alightning/electrical conductor > RELATED WoRD: semiconductor confined /xsn'fama/ CUED 1 apjective ifsomethingis confined toa particular place, it exists onlyin that place. fitis confined to a particular group. only members of that group haveit. 0{+ to] The problem isnot confined to Germany. 0[+ t0] These dangers are not confined to smokers. > comocarion: confined to someone/somewhere largely/exclusively confined to someone/somewhere > svNonvas: restricted, limited 2 apjecrive A confined space or area is small and enclosed by walls. > The drill connects to al 2 volt batteries and is useful for working in confined spaces. othe confined area of the crash site made rescue operations dificult > connocarion: aconfined space/area > sywowya: enclosed con|form /xan'fo:m/ a (conforms, conforming, conformed) vere If something conforms to something such asa law orsomeone's wishes, itis of the required type or quality. >|+ to] The Night Rider lamp hhas been designed to conform to new British Standard safety requirements. [+ with] The meat market can continue only fits radically overhauled to conform with strict European standards. > couocarions: conform to/with something conform to/with requirements/standards/laws conform closely/strictly/exactly 2 vere if someone or something conforms toa pattem ortype. they are very similartoit. 0+ to] am well aware that we al conform to one stereotype or another o[+t0] Like most peacetime wars'it id nat conform to preconceived ideas.conformity | 104 > couocations: conform to something conform toa pattern/idea/stereotype/model con|formlity contami 11 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If something happens in conformity with something such as a law or someone's wishes, it happensas the law says itshould, oras the person wants it to, 0{+with] The prime ministers, in conformity withthe constitution, chosen by te president. > [+ with} Any action it takes hastobein conformity with international law. > coutacarions: in conformity with the law/constitution in conformity with the principles /ideology of something in conformity with standards/regulations/requirements » punase: in conformity with something 2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Conformity means behaving in the same way as most other people. > Excessive conformity i usualy coused by fear of disapproval. >in} Pressure appears to be mounting for conformity in how people peak English, > coLLOcATIONs: conformity offin something enforce/compel/impose conformity defy/reject/resist conformity ideological/mindless/intellectual conformity Con|gress /kongres/ = NOUN Congressis the elected group of politicians thatis responsible or making the law in the United States. Itconsists of two parts: the House of Representatives and the Senate. o Wewant to cooperate with both the ‘administration and Congress. oand became Tennessee's ist representatveto Congress > coutecaTions: Congress convenes/adjourns: Congress approves/adopts/rejects something elect/dissolve/disband Congress a biennial/triennial Congress. con|gres|sionjal /kan‘grefanal/ also Congressional apjecrive A congressional policy, action, or person relates to the United States Congress. o The president explained his plans to congressional leaders. a congressional report published on September Sth105 | consecutive > cottocarion: congressional approval/authorization a congressional report/policy/hearing a congressional leader/committ conljeciture /can‘asekt{a/ (conjectures) NOUN A conjectureis a conclusion that is based on information thatisnot certain or complete. (FoRMAt} 0 That wasa conjecture, not afact. Ozone cteation isa very large-scale natural process and the importance of human ‘generated CFCs in reducing it is largely @ matter of conjecture. see note at speculate > cottocation! amatter of/for conjecture conjecture about something fuel/spark/prompt conjecture scientific/historical conjecture > sYNoNvME: surmise con|no|ta|tion /xons'teyfon/ ccannotations) NUN The connotations ofa particular word or name are the ideas or 4ualities which it makes you think of. o In Norse mythology, Helis the realm ofthe dead, but the name does not carry the negative connotations which Christianity later placed upon i. [+ of|'Urchin; with ts connotation of mischievousness, may not be particularly apt word > comtocarion the connotations of something the connotations of aword/term negative/pejorative connotations sexvai/racist/religious connotations » SyNoNYM: association con|secultive /kon'sekjouv/ Apjective Consecutive periods of time or events happen oneafter the other without interruption. o This is the third consecutive ear that these ‘countries achieved economic growth. ° Photographs taken at the same timeon two consecutive sunny days can be quite diferent from one another. > cottocarions: consecutive days/nights/months/years the second/third/fourth consecutive day/year ‘two/three/four consecutive days/years > syNoNyM: successiveconsecutively | 105 conjsecultivelly ror'sekjouvii/ Aaovens 0 Thejudge decided yesterday thatthe sentences forthe thee murders should rn consecutively, nat concurrently as requested by te prosecution. o He ul face two farther prison sentences, totalling n years, tobe served consecutively > couLocaTion: run/serve consecutively > svnonva: successively netaTeD wono: concurrently Con|sent /xan'sent/ (consents, consenting, consented) 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If ou give your consent te something, you give someone permission to doit. [FoRMAL} {+ to] Patients must give their signed consent toan operation. Can my child be medically examined without rmyconsent? » couLocarions: consent to something with/without someone's consent seek/solicit/obtain/grant/refuse consent written/unanimous/mutual/parental consent 2 vers if you consent to somethinidj, you agree to do it or toallowittobe done. [FORMAL] 9 [+ to-inf] Doctors failed to fully inform patients before they consented to participate. 0[+ to] She had consented toa laparotomy, fibroid removal, and the reconstruction of her uterus. 2 Churchill proposed to Stalin a division of influence in the Balkan states. Stalin readily consented. > comocarions: consent to something consent to marry someone consent to allow something > synonvu: agree con|sen|sus /xan'sensas/ NOUN A consensus general agreement among a group of people ‘+ amongst} The consensus omongst the world's scientists is thatthe wold is likely to warm up over the next few decades. 0 [+ on] So far, the Australians have been unabletocometo a uniform consensuson te issue > couocarion: ‘the consensus amongst people aconsensus on/about something reach/build/achieve a consensus seek/establish a consensus ascientific/cross-party/broad/general consensus107 | constitution con|stant /konstant/ (constants) Nouw Aconstantisa thing or value that always stays the same. o[+ of] ‘The constants of nature are certain numbers that enter into the mathematical equations that describe the laws of physics. 2 Two significant constants have been found ina number of research studies > coLtocarions: a constant of something a fundamental/universal constant a mathematical/physical constant » punase: the constants of nature Con|stitulent /ron'sursuont/ constituents) 1 Noun A constituent of a mixture, substance, or system is one of the things from which it is formed. > [+ of] Caffeine is the active constituent of drinks such as tea and coffee. > The main constituents were lemon juice and ‘syrup of radish, > couocarions: aconstituent of something amajor/active constituent 2 ApjEcTive The constituent parts of something are the things from. which itis formed. [Format] >a plan to splitthe company into its constituent parts and sll them separately © These constraints force its constituent minerals to change their atomic structure. » coLtocarions: constituent part/element/atom/mineral a constituent assembly/republic con|stijtultion /konstrtj AM ~Tu:-/ (constitutions) ‘NoUN The constitution of a country or organization is the system of laws which formally states people's rights and duties. o Thetransitional authority will draft a constitution. 2 The constitution enshrined religious freedom, civil liberties and the right to form unions. > comLocarions: awritten/permanent/interim/democratic constitution draft/write/amend/ratify a constitution uphold/violate/suspend the constitution the constitution guarantees/protects something the constitution forbids/prohibits something ‘the American/Cuban/Afghan Constitutionconstitutional | 108 Noun Your constitution is your health. o He must have an extremely strong Constitution, © Cross's insulin requirements will be plotted carefully and the effect of the exercise on his constitution will be monitored. > coLLocation: a strong/hardy constitution > synonym: health con|stiltu|tion|al /xonstitjusanal, aw -tu:-/ ADJECTIVE © Political leaders are making no progress in their efforts to resolve the country’s constitutional crisis. 0A Romanian judge has asked fora Constitutional Court ruling onthe aw. > coLtocarions: constitutional court/right/amendment/change constitutional crisis con|strain /xan'strem/ (constrains, constraining, constrained) vere Toconstrain someone or something means tolimit their development or force them to behave in a particular way. [FORMAL] 2 Women aretoo often constrained ty:f2mily commitments and by low expectations. it's the opacity of those roads which is going to constrain the amount of travel by car that can take place. > cOLLocaTiONs: constrained by something constrained by limits > synonva: limit con|straint /xon'stremty (constraints) NouN Aconstraint is something that limits or controls what you can do. ‘Their decision to abandon the trip was made because of financial constraints. 0 [+ on] Water shortages inthe area will be the main constraint on development. > couLocarions: a constraint on something/someone the constraints of something financial/budgetary constraints capacity/budget constraints constraints limit something face/impose/remove/relax constraints > synonym: limitation109 | contamination Con|struc|tive /xon'straktiv/ ‘ADJECTIVE A constructive discussion, comment, or approachis useful and helpful rather than negative and unhelpful. The Americans have already praised what they call Syria’ constructive approach to ending terrorism, oAfter their meeting, both men described the talks as frank, friendly and constructive. © The Prime Minister has promised that Israel will play a constructive role. > coLocarions: constructive talks/dialogue/criticism a constructive role/comment/approach/discussion » synonym: positive > anronva: negative con|tami|nate /xn'temineity (contaminates, contaminating, contaminated) vere if something is contaminated by dirt, chemicals, or radiation, they makeit dirty orharmful. o Have any fish been contaminated in theArctic Ocean? ‘vast tracts of empty and, much of it contaminated by years of army activity » couocarions: contaminated by something contaminated by sewage/bacteria/chemical contaminate water/blood/food/land con|tami|nat|ed /xan't2mmenid/ abjecrive [+ with] Nuclear weapons plants across the country are heavily contaminated with txic wastes. More than 100,000 people could fll ill after drinking contaminated woter > couocarions: contaminated with something widely/neavily/seriousty contaminated contaminated water/blood/food/land con|tami|na|tion /entemrneifen/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9[+ of] The contamination ofthe sea around Capri ‘may bejust the beginning. o Thereisa slight danger of bacterial contamination. ‘The water that does run into the parks contaminated by chemicals. > cotLocarions: the contamination of something contamination by something contamination by sewage/bacteria/chemicals bacterial/chemical/radioactive contaminationcontaminant | 10 con|tami|nant /kon'tzemmant/ (contaminants) Noun Acontaminant is something that contaminatesa substance such aswater or food. [FORMAL] 2Contaminants found in poultry will also be found in theireggs, [+ in] We are exposed to an overwhelming number of chemical contaminants every day in our air, water and food. > coLLocaTions: acontaminantin something contaminants in food contain/removea contaminant acarcinogenic/toxic/chemical contaminant Con|tend /kan'tend/ (contends, contending, contended) vere If you contend that something is true, you state or argue that itis, true. [FORMAL] 9[+ that] The government contends that he is fundamentalist [+ that] The Government strongly contends that no student should be compelled to pay a fee to Support politcal activism. Pseenoteat assert > coLLocarions: seriously/strongly contend a prosecutor/attorney/critic/opponent contends > synonyms: state, argue con|ten|tion /kan'tenjan/ contentions) Noun Someone's contention is the idea or opinion that they are expressing nan argument or discussion. o [+ that] This evidence supports their contention that the outbreak of violence was prearranged. 0Suffcient research evidence exists to support this contention > couocarions: support/accept a contention dispute/refute/challenge a contention the prosecution's /author’s/government’s contention > synonym: claim contract /xan'rekt/ (contracts, contracting, contracted) ‘vena When something contracts or when something contracts it, itbecomes smalleror shorter. © Blood is only expelled from the heart when itcontracts. 0 New research shows that an excess of meat and salt can contract muscles.m | conversely > coLLocaTions: the throat contracts the muscles/ventricles contract contract rhythmically/rapidly > anTonyM: expand con|trac|tion /xon'trekjan/ (contractions) NouN © [+ of] the contraction and expansion of blood vessels 0 Foods and fluids ‘are mixed in the stomach by its muscular contractions » coitocarions: the contraction of something isometric/isotonic contractions uterine/muscular contractions induce/stimulate/trigger contractions Prevent/inhibit/control contractions con|verse /konvs:s/ Ga NOUN The converse of a statement sits opposite or reverse. [FORMAL] 2What you do for a living is critical to where you settle and how you live andthe converses also true. 0 imilarly, the converse applies to coming upright from a bent position with the eyes looking downward > coLLocarions: the converse of something the converse is true > syNoNvm: opposite conjverse|ly /konvsisli, kan'vaisli/ ‘ADVERB You say conversely to indicate that the situation youare about to describes the opposite or reverse of the one you have just described. [Format] of government saving is high private saving will be low. Conversely if ‘government saving is negative then private saving willbe high. o That makes Chinese products even cheaper and, conversely, makes American-made goods ‘more expensive to export. EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY Inacademic writing, you are often asked to compare and contrast ‘two things; to talk about the ways in which they are similar and the ways in which they are different.convey | 112 Tomake contrast, you can use phrases such asin contrast and by contrast to show that two things are very different. o These figures arein sharp contrast to the findings ofa similar survey in the summer. ‘© Canada's7.5%of rural land in agriculture contrasts markedly withthe situation in smaller European states. You can use conversely to introducea completely oppositeidea or situation. o They may reduce the activity of certain hormones or, conversely, they may cause excessive hormonal activity. COn|VeEY /kan'ver/ (conveys, conveying. conveyed) vena To convey information or feelings means to cause them to be known ‘or understood by someone. »Semiological analysis ses a sign as any cultural symbol which conveys a meaning. >In every one of her pictures she conveys a sense ofimmediacy. > He also conveyed his views and the views of the bureaucracy. » contocarion: convey a sense/impression of something convey the meaning of something convey something vividty/powerfully/accurately convey information/emotion convey amessage Con|vict /kan'vikt/ (convicts, convicting, convicted) ww vers If someoneis convicted of a crime, they are found guilty of that crime in a law court. 0(+ of] In 2007 he was convicted of murder and sentenced to ifeimprsonment, 0 There was insufficient evidence to convict him. o a convicted drug dealer > cotLocaTions: corvict someone of something convict someone ona charge/count a convicted elon/murderer/rapist ajury/juror/magistrate/court convicts someone wrongly/falsely/unfairty convicted con|vic|tion /xan'vikjen/ (convictions) ‘Noun |f someone has a conviction, they have been found guilty of a crime. inacourtof law. o He will appeal against his conviction. oTheman was known to the police because of previous convictions. > coLLocarions: a conviction for something13 | copyright a criminal/wrongful/previous conviction appeal/quash/overtum aconviction uphold/secure a conviction con|vince /xn'vins/ (convinces, convincing, convinced) vers If someone or something convinces you of something, they make you believe that itis true or that it exists. o [+ of] We remain tbe convinced ofthe validity of some ofthe research. 0+ that] The waste disposal industry is finding it difficut to convince the public that its operations are safe. > coutocarions: convince someone of something convinced by something/someone convinced by the argument/evidence convinced ofthe merit/importance convince the public/electorate/jury con|vincling /xanvinsm ~ajective If you describe someone or something as convincing, you mean that they make you believe that a’particular things true, correct, ‘orgenuine. oScientists say thereis ro convincing evidence that powerlines hhave anything todo with cancer. >The first explanation appears more convincing > couocarion: convincing evidence aconvincing argument/explanation sound/look/appear/seem convincing » awtonva: unconvincing copy|right /kopiratt/ (copyrights) ap Noun If someone has copyright ona piece of writing or music itisillegal to reproduce or perform it without their permission. To ordera book one first had to get permission from the monastery that held the copyright. 0 She threatened legal action against the Sun for breach of copyright > coLtocarions: a copyright on something a copyright infringement/violation copyright protection/law infringe/violate a copyright hold/protect a copyright > unase: breach of copyrightcore | ng Ore /rs:/ ore) 1 NouN The core ofan object, building, or citys the central part oft, othe earth's core © [+ of] The core of the city is a series of ancient squares. > coutocarions: the core of something thecity’s/planet's core > primase: the earth's core synomvu: centre 2 NOUN The core of something such asa problem or an{ssueis the par of itthat has tobe understood or accepted before the whole thing can be Understood or dealt with. [+f] the ability to get straight tothecore ofa problem oof At he core ofthis ideology was an ethnic nationalism PcouocaTions: the core of something the core of a theory/dispute/problem b sywowva heart 3 Moun The core businesses or the care activities ofa companyor organization are their mostimportantones.oThe cre actives oflcal authorities were eogarised. > Theyroup plans to concentrate on sire businesses. © [+ of] However, the main core of the company performed eutstandingly PeotLocaTions: the core of something the core activities/businesses/areas Correlate /koretert, au Ko:r/ (corvettes correlating, correlate) vens if one thing correlates with another, theres close similarity or connection between them, often because one thing causes the other. You can also saythat two things correlate, [roRwat] 2[+ with Obesity corrlateswith increased sk for hypertension and stroke. The political opinions of spouses corelate more closely than their heights. 0 (+to]Theloss ofrespect for British scence scoreated to reduced funding. oA the highest executive levels earnings and performance aren't avays correlated >» coULocaTiOns: something correlates with/to something inversely/negatively correlated correlate closely/strongly cor|rella|tion /xorstesjen, av ko:-/ (corretations) NOUN A correlation between things is a connection or ink betweenng | counterpart them. [FoRMAt] o[+ between] the correlation between smoking and disease [+ between] Studies have shown thar there isa direct correlation between poor education and disposition tocrime. > coLLocations: a correlation between two things astrong/direct/negative correlation find/establish a correlation Coun|ter /kaunte/ (counters, countering, countered) vers if you do something to counter a particular action or process, you do something which has an opposite effect toit or makes it ess effective > The leadership discussed a plan of economic measures to counter the effects of such a blockade. ot should alow international observers to monitor them, to counterclaims that the ballots are rigged. o {+ by] Sears then countered by fling an ontitrus lawsuit. > coLLocarions: counter with something counter by doing something countera threat/accusation/clalm /argument counter the effect of something counteract /kauntarekt/ (counteracts, counteracting, counteracted) vers To counteract something means to reduce its effect by doing something that produces an opposite effect. o My husband has to take several pillsto counteract high blood pressure. © The vitamin counteracts the harmful effect of allergens inthe body. > cottocarions: counteract stress counteract the effects of something counter|part /kauntapa:t/ (counterparts) NOUN Someone's or something's counterparts another person or thing that hasa similar function or position ina different place. oThe Foreign ‘Secretary telephoned his ialian counterpart to protest. >[+ in] The Finnish organization was very different from that ofits counterparts inthe rest ofthe ‘Nordic region. > cottocarions: someone's/something’s counterpart in somewhere someone's counterpart ina country a male/continental/European counterpartcoup | 16 COUP /Ku:/ (oop Noun When thereisa coup, a group of people seize power ina country. Semiltar/coup > They wete sentenced 0 death ortheirpart in Apri’ coup atempt. Peottoearions: amilitary/attempted/talled bloodless coup acoup overthrows/ousts/topples something stage/plot/mount/provoke a coup crajter /kreita/ (cater Noun Acraterisa very large hole in the ground, which has been caused by something hitting it orby an explosion. o Experts calculate that a3km asteroid could gougea crater 6okm across, and destroy an area te sizeof ‘Mexico. oAn ancient gigantic volcanic crater provides the perfectly shaped circle of Simpson Harbour. > cottocarions: avoleani¢/deep/shallow crater gouge/blast/leave a crater credible /kreaibais ADJECTIVE Credible means ableto be trusted or believed. >[+to] Baroness Thatcher's claims seem credible to many. o But in order tomaintain a credible threat of intervention, we have to maintain a credible alliance. >see note at conclusive > coLLocaTIONS: credible to someone appear/look/sound credible actedible threat/claim/witness/theory scarcely credible > synonym: plausible credlibillity /xearburciy UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If someone or something has credibility, people believe in them and trust them. [+ as] He cast doubt on MrZimet's credibility asa witness. The president will have to work hardto restore his credibility. > conocarions: the credibility of something someone's credibility as something117 | €ross-examination someone's credibility as a witness /leader lose/gain/maintain credibility enhance/damage someone's credibility Credijtor /kredita/ (creditors) Som NOUN Your ereditors are the people who you owe money to. The company ‘aid it would pay in full all its creditors. o. consortium of Korean creditor banks > cottocarions: creditor protection/banks owe/repay/persuade creditors a creditor approves/rejects/demands something > antonva: debtor cross-examine /krosig'zemin, am kro:s/ mw (ross-examines, cross-examining, cross-examined) vers Whena lawyer cross-examines someone during atrial or hearing, he or she questions them about the evidence that they have already given. 0 The accused's lawyers will get a chance to cross-examine him. 2 [+ about] You know you are liable to be csuss-examined mercilessly about the assault > coutocarions: cross-examine someone about something cross-examined by someone a lawyer/defence counsel cross-examines someone cross-examine a witness/victim/defendant cross-examination /kros 19zzmrnerjan, am kro:s/ (cross-examinations) NOUN 0 [+ of] during the cross-examination of @ witness in @ murder case Under cross-examination, he admitted the state troopers used more destructive ‘ammunition than usual. > comocaTions: cross-examination of/by someone under cross-examination cross-examination of a witness cross-examination by a lawyer/prosecutor face cross-examination > PHRASES: testimony and cross-examination evidence and cross-examination cross-examination in courtcross-section | 18 cross-section /krossekjan/ (cross-sections) also cross section 1 Noun if you refer toa cross-section of particular things or people, you mean a group of them that you think is typical or representative of all of them. 0 [+of] For most research projectsitsnecessarytotalk toa cross-section of the public - people from all walks of life and all ages. o[+ of] He also said it ‘was important that the study was done on a broad cross-section of children. > couvecarions: across-section of people/things cross-section of society/humanity a cross-section of the public/electorate/population abroad/wide cross-section 2 woun Across-section of an object is what you would see if you could cut straight through the middle of it. 0 {+ of] across-section ofan airplane o The hail is square in cross-section. > couocation: cross-section of something imcross-section crulcial /kru:fol/ i Apyecrive If you describe something as erucial, you mean itis extremely important. oHe had administrators under him but took the crucial decisions himself. othe most crucial election campaign for years © {+ to] Improved consumer confidence is crucial toan economic recover. > coLLocaTiONs: crucial to/for something crucial for survival/development a crucial decision/role/point/question a crucial difference/distinction/ acrucial element/aspect/factor EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY You describe something as crucial or eritical ifthe success of something depends on it. oIntellectuat-property law is crucial to ‘economic success. o Interpersonal skills are critical forthe successful personnel manager. You say that something is essential or vital fit snecessary for something to exist or continue. o Experienceis an essential part of learning. 0 Calcium also plays a vital role in blood clottingng | curriculum crujcial|ly xrusali ‘AbveRs Chewing properly is crucially important, > Crucially, though, it failed to secure the backing of the banks. » couLocarions: crucially important ‘crucially affect something/someone erys|tal krista crysis) IED CEES NOUN A crystal isa small piece of a substance that has formed naturally intoa regular symmetrical shape. osalt crystals 2icecrytals o[+of]a singlecystal of silicon > couecations: a crystal of something asalt/ice/quartz crystal form/grow crystals curb /ks:b/ (curbs, curbing, curbed) vere If you curb something, you control it and keep it within limits. o The president will now enact policies to cUr® greenhouse gas emissions. > Inflation needs to be curbed in Russia. > coLtocation: curb inflation/violence/emissions » synonyms: check, restrain * Curbisalsoa noun. [+ on] He called for much stricter curbs on immigration. 9 [+ on] the government's plans to introduce tough curbs on dangerous dogs > coLLocATIONS: acurbonsomething acurb on immigration/advertising impose/propose/introduce a curb curfricujlum /a'nkjolam/ curicuumsoreuricuay ETS NOUN A curriculums all the different courses of study that are taught ina school, college, or university. o[+in] There should be a broader curiculum in schools for post-16-yeor-old pupils. Russian isthe one compulsory foreign language on the schoo! curriculum. > coutocarions: fon the curriculum acurriculumin a schoo! aschool/national/core curriculum a broad/academic/balanced curriculum broaden/teach/implementa curriculumcyclone | 120 cy|clone /saikiaun/ (cyciones) = NOUN Acycione isa violent tropical storm in which the air goes round and round, 0 [+n] cyclone in the Bay of Bengalis threatening the eastern Indian states. 0 The Weather Bureau predicts more cyclones this season, oftera relatively quiet five years. > coLLocarions: a cycloneina place atropical/powerful cyclone a cyclone hits/strikes somewhere withstand/expect a cyclonedeath penjallty /deo penalti/ ww NOUN The death penalty is the punishment of death used in some countries for people who have committed very serious crimes. 2 f convicted for murder, bth youngsters could face the deoth penalty 2 Prosecutors are seeking the death penalty against him. oa special circumstance of double homicide, which could carry the death penalty upon conviction PcoLLocations: face/carry/seek/call for the death penalty ‘oppose/abolish the death penalty > synonyms: capital punishment. execution de|bris /derbri, am derbri: UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Debrisis pieces from something thathas been destroyed or pieces of rubbish or unwanted material that are spread around. 0+ from] Rescue workers routed traffic around the debris from the explosions. 0A number of people were killed by flying debris. > coLocarions: debris from something debris froma plane/shuttle/building/explosion clear/remove debris floating/flying/volcanic debris debris is scattered/strewn debris falls > svNonvas: waste, rubbish de|cay /ar'ke1/ (decays, decaying, decayed) vers When something such asa dead body, a dead plant, ora tooth decays. itis gradually destroyed bya natural process. oThe bodies buried inthe fineash slowly decayed. 0 Millipedes enjoy a diet which consists of rotting or partially decayed vegetation. > comocarions: decaying vegetation/flesh/teeth adecaying corpsededuce | 122 a body/tooth decays rapidly/slowly decay » synonyms: rot, deteriorate anonym: improve Decayisalso an uncountable noun. o When not removed, plaque causes tooth decay and gum disease. othe problem of urban decay 2 [+ of] Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of uranium. > coLLocarions: the decay of something tooth/dental decay urban/moral/physical/social decay radioactive decay gradual/rapid decay cause/prevent/reduce decay > synonyms: rot, destruction PanTonva: improvement de|duce /ardju:s, am ~du:s/ (deduces, deducing, deduced) vers if you deduce something or deduce that something is true, you reach that conclusion because of other things that you know to be true. > [+ that] The observations fed the team to deduce that the two clusters approached one another from a different direction. 2 [+ from] The date ofthe document can be deduced from references tothe Civil War. 2 The researchers have to analyse a huge amount of information inorder todeduce any conclusions. » coLLocaTion: deduce something from something deduce something from a fact/observation deducea pattern/hypothesis/conclusion deduce the existence/presence of something correctiy/logically deduce EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY You can use deduce, infer and conclude to talk about working something out from the evidence you have. you deduce something, itis usually the result of a logical process based onevidence. » The study of these patterns has been used to deduce the internal structure of the Earth.23 | deduct Ifyouinfer something, you think that tis probably correct based on the evidence you have and your own knowledge. o The reader's let to infer the meaning You use conclude to talk about your final analysis, based on all the evidence. ° The report concluded that transmission from bison to cattle in the wild was possible de|duc|tion /ardakjon/ (deductions) | Noun A deduction is a conclusion that you have reached about something because of other things that you know to betrue. oltisa natural instinct rather than a logical deduction. [+ about] Children can predict ‘other people's behavior on the basis of deductions about their belies or feelings. > cottocarions: a deduction about something alogical/rational deduction svmonvms: conclusion, inference 2 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Deduction is the process of reaching a conclusion about something because of other things that you know to be true. oa case that tested his powers of deduction o The assessment was based on rational deduction, nat hard evidence. » couocarions: powers of deduction logical/rational deduction » syNonyu: reasoning de|duc|tive /ardakuv/ apyective Deductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions logically fromother things that are already known. [FORMAL] © Theforce of deductive reasoning depends on the reliability ofthe premises. o The criteria for settling disputes in political theory are partly deductive and partly empirical > cotLocarion: deductive reasoning/logic antowym: inductive de|duct /ardakt/ (deducts, deducting, deducted) ven When you deduct an amount from atotal, yousubtractit from the total. o{¢ from] The company deducted this payment from his compensation. > [+ for] Up to5% of marks in the exams willbe deducted for spelling mistakes. > coutocarions: deduct something from/for somethingdeduction | 124 deduct something from a salary/income/amount/account deduct a cost/amount/fee/point deduct expenses/payment/tax automatically/electronically deducted > syNonya: subtract antonva: add de|duc|tion /ardakjan/ (deductions) oun A deduction isan amount that has been subtracted froma total ‘© your gross income (before tax and National insurance deductions) [+ for] ‘After deductions for war reparations, the balance would be used to buy food and humanitarian supplies > couocarion: a deduction for/from something a deduction for expenses/costs/interest ‘a deduction from someone's salary/wages/income atax/payroll deduction a corporate/charitable/standard deduction dlaim a deduction > anonym: addition de|fault /arto:it/ 1 apjective A default situation is what exists or happens unless someone orsomething changes it. >defauit passwords installed on commercial machines 0 Death, not if, isthe default state of els 2 uNcoUNTABLE NOUN In computing, the defauitisa particular set of instructions which the computer always uses unless the person using the computer gives other instructions. 0 The default is usually the setting that most users would probably choose. advising consumers to change default settings > cotLocaTions: a default password/rate/setting a default mode/state/option > synonve: standard delfer /arts:/ (deters, ceferring, deterred) vere If youdeferan event or action, youarrange foritto happen ata later date, rather thanimmediately orat the previously planned time. [+ for] Customers often defer payment fo as long as possible. 0 [+ until] Sentence wos coutocations: defer something for a period of time defer something until a time defer a payment/decision defer travel asentence is deferred defer something indefinitely > synonyms: postpone, delay delfijcient /arfyonty 1 apyective If someone or something is deficientin a particular thing, they do not have the full amount of it that they need in orderto function normally or work properly. [FoRMAt] o[+ in] adit deficient in vitamin B 2 The proposal was deficient in several respects. o.a mentally deficient child ‘Deficient. also 2 combining form. > Vegetarians can become iron-deficient 2 Abjecrive Someone or something that is deficient is not good enough fora particular purpose. [FORMAL] o deficient landing systems oSlightly deficient rainfol could be catastrophic in rain-dependent areas. > cotLocarions: deficient in something deficient in nutrients/vitamins deficient ina respect/area nutritionally/mentally/morally deficient seriously/severely deficient a deficient diet > synonyms: inadequate, lacking >anToNva: sufficient delfijcien|cy /ar'fyansi (ericiencies) oun Diseases associated with protein and carbohydrate deficiency cause many deaths among young children. o {+ of] brain damage caused by a deficiency of vitamin Biz 0+ in] a serious deficiency in our air defence > coLtocarions: adeficiencyin/of something a deficiency in/of vitamins a deficiency in/of a system/diet anutritional/dietary/structural deficiency a vitamin/iron/zinc deficiency asevere/serious/glaring/mild deficiency remedy/correct/identify a deficiencydeficte | 126 > synonyms: weakness, lack, inadequacy Pantone: sufficiency defilcit raetesit/ cenciesy NOUN A deficits the amount by which something is less than whatis required or expected, especially the amount by which the total money received is less than the total money spent. o They're ready to cut the federal budget deficit for the next fiscol year. {+ of] a deficit of 3275 billion francs The current account of the balance of payments isin deficit. > couocarions: in deficit a deficit of ex cut/reduce/overcomea deficit a deficit rises/grows/widens/narrows afiscal/federal/budget deficit atrade/current-account deficit > sywonvm: shortage > aNTONYM: surplus delfinijtive /aranituv/ ADJEcTivE Something that is definitive provides a firm conclusion that cannot be questioned. 2 The study population was too small to reach any see note at conclusive > coLtocarions: a definitive answer/agreement/statement/conclusion definitive proot > synonyms: conclusive, absolute, definite > antonya: inconclusive deffinijtivelly /artmuviy ‘ADVERB 0 The Constitution didnot definitively rule out divorce. o The research «also definitively proves that second-hand smoke causes cancer. > coLLocarions: definitively identify/establish/prove something say definitively > synonyms: conclusively, absolutely, definitely banronva: inconclusively127 | demographic de|hy|drate /di:hardrest, ~hardreit/ (detyérates, dehydrating, dehydrated) 1 ves When something is dehydrated, all the waters removed fromit, often in order to preserve it. © Normally specimens have to be dehydrated. 2 vane If you dehydrate or if something dehydrates you, you lose too much water from your body so that you feel weak oll. 0 People can dehydrate in weather lke this. > Alcohol quickly denydrates your body. > cottocarion: dehydratethebody > synonyms: drain, dry > anToNve: hydrate de|hy|dratied /di:hardreitias [ADJECTIVE 0 Dehydrated meals, soups and sauces contain alot of at. ‘During surgery, exposed tissue can become dehydrated. > coutocarions: dehydrated skin/food severely/badly dehydrated »anronvm: hydrated de|hy|dra|tion /cinarareyan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN © Cholera causes severe dehydration from vomiting and diarrhoea, > couocarions: avoid/prevent/cause/suffer from dehydration severe/mild/extreme dehydration de|mog|ra|phy /armogrofiy IE OE UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Demography is the study of the changes in numbers of births, deaths, marriages, and cases of disease ina community over a period of time. [+ of] a majorworkon the demography of preindustrial societies > cottocarion: the demography of something/somewhere de|mojgraphlic /demagrefik/ (temographics) 1 ADJECTIVE Demographic means relating to or concerning demography. ©The final impact of industrialization onthe family was demographic. o the relationship between economic and demographic change » coutocarions: a demographic change/shift/trend/transition a demographic profiledenote | 128 2 PLURAL NOUN The demographics ofa place or society are the statistics relating to the peoplewho live there. o{+of] the changing demographics of the United tates > couocario the demographics of something/somewhere changing/shifting demographics 3 NOUN In business, a demographics a group of people ina society, especially people na particularage group. oMost ofour listeners arein the 25-39 demographic. 0 well-read individuals, the target demographic ofthis newspaper section > couLocarion: the key/target/core demographic the consumer/audience/age demographic de|note /arnavt/ (denotes, denoting, 1 vera if one thing denotes another, it sa sign or indication of it [Format] 0 Red eyes denote strain and fatigue. 2+ that] a sound which denotes that a photograph has been taken 2 vers What a symbol denotes i «nati represents. [FORMAL] fn figure 4° denotes quantity demanded and’ denotes quantity supplied ‘oWewill denote the adjusted cost ofcapital by > coLocarion: anumber/symbol/sign denotes something > synonyms: indicate, show, represent dense /dens/ (denser, densest) 1 apjecrive Something that isdense containsa lotof things or people ina ‘small area. o Where Bucharest now stands, there once was a large, dense forest. > an area of dense immigrant population > couocarion: a dense forest/jungle/thicket/rainforest a dense population/crowd/area/network dense foliage/undergrowth > synonve: compressed Pantonvat: sparse 2 apjective in science, a dense substance is very heavy in relation to its volume. oa small dense star o The densest ocean wateris the coldest ond ‘most saline,129 | depiction den|sity /densiti/ (densities) 1 NOUN Density is the extent to which something is filled or covered with people or things. 2[+ of] a law which restricts the density of housing > The region has avery high population density. 2 noun in science, the density of a substance or objectis the relation of its massor weight to its volume. ojupiter’s moon fo, whose density is3.5 grams per cubiccentimetre, sal rack. 0 [+of] assessing the temperature, heat capacity, density and hardness of Mercury's surface > coLocations: the density of something population/housing/traffic density bone density high/low/maximum density > syNonyas: mass, hardness de|pict /arprkt/ (epices, depicting, depicted) 1 vers To depictsomeone or something means to show or represent themin a work of art such as a drawing or painting, o.gallery of pictures depicting Nelson's most famous battles o-in}St. Brigid is often depicted in art with a cow resting at her feet. 2 vers To depict someone or something means to describe them or give animpressionof them in writing. Margaret Atwood'snovel depicts gloomy, futuristic America. > [+ as] The character was depicted as a compulsive shoplifter. > coLtocarions: depicted as/in something a painting/photograph depicts something amural/fresco/cartoon depicts something depict a scene/landscape/character graphically/vividly/accurately depicted » synonyms: portray, represent de|pic|tion /arprkjan/ (epictions) NouN A depiction of something isa picture or a written description of it. [+ of] The lecture will trace the depiction of horses from earliest times to the present day. 0+ of] the depiction of socialists as Utopian dreamers > couocarions: the depiction of something a graphic/accurate/realistic/vivid depiction > SvNoNYMS: portrayal, representationdeplete | 130 de|plete /arpli:t/ (depletes, depleting, depicted) vere To deplete a stock or amount of something meansto reduce it [Fonmat} osubstances that deplete the ozone layer 0 Most native mammal species have been severely depleted, >seenoteat expend > comocarions: severely/seriously/rapidly depleted deplete the ozone layer deplete reserves of something > svwonvas: reduce, diminish, augment de|ple|tion /arplijan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 0 the problem of azone depletion 0 |[+of] the depletion of underground water supplies > coutocarions: the depletion of something the depletion of theozone layer the depletion of resources ‘exygen/soil depletion > synonyms: reduction, augmentation de|press /arpres/ CMD CGI (depresses, depressing, depressed) vere If something depresses prices, wages, orfigures it causes them to become less. 0 The stronger U.S. dollar depressed sales. 0 The appreciation in the value of the euro is depressing import prices. > coucesmions: depress prices/earnings/wages/demand depressamarket > svnonyas: reduce, devalue > antowya: increase de|pressed /arprest/ ADJECTIVE A depressed place or industry does not have enough business. or employment to be successful. oleislation to encourage investment in depressed areas 0 The construction industryis no longer as depressed asit was. > couocarions: ‘economically depressed depressed region/area a depressed market/sector »ANTONYMS: thriving, boomingam | derivative de|pres|sion /arprejon/ (epressions) NOUN A depressions atime when thereis very little economic activity, Which causesa lot of unemployment and poverty. 0 [+ of] He never forgot the hardships he witnessed during the Great Depression ofthe 1930s. > cottocarion: the depression of/in a period > pHRase: the Great Depression > synonyms: slump, downturn, recession > ANTONYM: recovery de|prived /arprawvay apjective Deprived people or people from deprived areas do not have thethings that people consider to be essential in life, for example acceptable living conditions or education. probably the most severely deprived children in the country othe problems associated with lifein a deprived inner city area >see note at underprivileged > coLtocarions: a deprived area/neighbourhood/community a deprived ehild/citizen a deprived childhood /background/upbringing > synonyms: underprivileged, destitute >anronvm: privileged derive /dr'raiv/ (derives, deriving, derived) vers If you say that something derives oris derived from something else, you mean that it comes from that thing. o[+ from] Some modern drugs are derived from plant medicines. 0+ from] The word Easter derives from Eostre, the pagan goddess of spring. > coutocarions: derive from something aword/name/title derives from something empirically/logically/directly/ultimately derived > synonym: originate de|riva|tive /arnvativ/ (derivatives) NOUN A derivatives something which has been developed or obtained from something else. oa poppy-seed derivative similar to heroin [+ of] synthetic derivatives of male hormones > coLtocarions: a derivative of somethingdeter | 132 a synthetic/complex/partial derivative > SYNONYM: by-product. deter /art3: «deters, detersing deterred) ~ vero To deter someone from doing something means to make them not wantto doit or continue doing it. [+ from] Supporters of the death penalty ‘argue that it would deter criminals from carrying guns. Arrests and jail sentences have done nothing todeter the protesters. 2 Far from being deterred by the regional financial crisis, the company plans to expand into Asi. > cottocarions: deter someone from something deterred by something deter terrorists /burglars/thieves deter vandals/criminals deterred by fear/weather/costs > synonym: discourage ANTONY: encourage de|terjrent /arterant, am -t3:1-/ (deterrents) NOUN A deterrent is something that prevents people from doing something by making them afraid of what will happen to them they do it. o They seriously believe that capital punishment isa deterrent. The tough new law should act as a deterrent. > cOLLOcATIONS: astrong/significant/effective deterrent provide/prove/constitute/act as a deterrent > synonym: obstacle »anronve: incentive delterio|rate /ar'tiariareit/ (deteriorates, deteriorating, deteriorated) vers if something deteriorates, it becomes worse in some way. ‘oft into] There ae fears thatthe situation might deteriorate into full-scale war. © [V-ing] Surface transport has become less and ess viable with deteriorating road conditions. > Relations between the two countries steadily deteriorated. > coLLocarions: deteriorate into something acondition/situation deteriorates someone's health deteriorates a deteriorating situation/condition deteriorating relations quickly/rapidly/sharply/steadily deteriorate133 | deviation > synonym: worsen PANTONYM: improve de|teriojra|tion /a,tiaria'rerfon/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9 [+ in] concern about the rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries o[+ of] the slow steady deterioration ofa patient with Alzheimer's disease > comtocarion: deterioration in/of sometting/someone rapid/gradual/marked/significant deterioration further/continued deterioration physical/mental/bone deterioration accelerate/reverse/prevent deterioration > synonyms: decline, decay, degeneration »antonvm: improvement de|vilate /ai:viert/ (deviates, deviating, devisees) ETI ‘vere To deviate from something means to start doing something different or not planned, especially in a*s2y that causes problems for others. 0 [+ from] They stopped you as soon as you deviated from the scnpt. [+ from] wage levels that deviate significant from international norms [+ from] behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture > couocarion deviate from something deviate from a norm/standard/path/script deviate markedly/significantly/slightly > synonym: depart Pantonym: adhere de|vialtion /di:vi'eyfon/ qeviations) Noun Deviation means doing something that s different from what is, considered to benormal oracceptable. 0 [+ from] Deviation from the norm isnot tolerated. 0 [+ in radical deviations in blood sugar level > couocaTion: deviation from/in something deviation froma norm/path/pattern/rule slight/significant deviation > synonym: departure »antowvm: adherencedevote | 134 delvote /arvovt/ (devotes, devoting, devoted) 1 vere If you devote yourself, your time, or your energy to something, you spend all or most of your time or energy ont. o [+ to] the increased time devoted to watching television 0 [+to] Spanish manufacturers are devoting greater resources to advertising and promotion campaigns. ° [+ to] She gave up her part-time ob to devote herself entirely toher art. 2 vere If you devote a particular proportion of a piece of writing or a speech toa particular subject, you deal with the subject in that amount ‘of space or time. 9 [+ to] He devoted a major section of his massive report to ‘an analysis of US. aircraft design. 0[+t0] This chapters devoted to clarifying the nature of risk > cottocarions: devote something to something devote time/space/energy/resources a chapter/page/section is devoted to something a museum/website/exhibition is devoted to something solely/exclusively/entirely devoted to something > svuonva: dedicate de|vo|tion arvevjan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9 [+10] devotion tothe cause ofthe peopleand to socialism 9 [+ to] Darwin's devotion to his studies of plants and animals > coLtocarions: devotion to something slavish/fanatical/utter/lifelong devotion > synonym: dedication dialect /aatalekt/ (dialects) cu NOUN Adialectis a form of language thatis spoken in a particular area. nthe fifties, many Italians spoke only local dialect. 0+ of] They spokea dialect of Low German. a selection of short stories written in dialect > coLLocaTIONS: adialectof something in dialect write in dialect speakadialect local/regional dialect > RELATED WoRDS: accent, language135 | differentiation dic|ta|tor /arkterta, an ‘arktert-/ (dictators) NOUN A dictator's a ruler whohas complete power ina country, especially power which was obtained by force ands used unfairly or cruelly. 0 The country descended into anarchy when its dictator was ‘overthrown. © former dictator with innocent blood on his hands > couLocarions: adeposed/toppled/former/brutal dictator oust/overthrowa dictator > synonyms: despot, tyrant dic|ta|tor/ship /arktertajip/ (eictatorsnips) NouN Dictatorship is government bya dictator. o@ new era of democracy after a long period of military dictatorship in the country 2countries which are ruled by dictatorships > cotLocarion: a military/totalitarian/brutal dictatorship > syNonvm: tyranny diffferjen|tijate /artarenfiery (Gitferentiates, differentiating, differentiates) 1 vers if you differentiate between things or if you differentiate one thing from another, you recognize or show the difference between them. 0 [+ between} A child may not differentiate between his imagination and the real world. o[+ from] At this age your baby cannot differentiate one person from another. 2 vers Aquality or feature that differentiates one thing from another makes the two things different. o[+ from] distinctive policies that differentiate them from the other parties o [+ from] features which differentiate the pygmy elephant from the forest elephant 2 [V-ing] The brand did not havea differentiating factor. > couocarions: differentiate between things differentiate something from something differentiated product/brand differentiating factor inguish dififerjen|tia|tion /<:forenjreyan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 9[+ between] The differentiation between the two product ranges will increase. 2 increased product differentiation and customization to niche markets o[+ of] the differentiation ofthe social system > synonym:dilute | 136 > couocarions: differentiation between things the differentiation of something product/brand differentiation achieve/increase/create differentiation > synonya: distincti dijlute /dariu:t/ cates, vero ifaliquid is diluted or dilutes, itis added to or mixes with water or another liquid, and becomes weaker. 2 The liquid isthen diluted. > [+ with] {liquid concentrate of nicotine sulphate which i diluted with water and applied asa spray > couocarion: dilute something with something highly/fully diluted > anonym: concentrate 2 apjective A dilute liquid is very thin and weak, usually because thas had wateradded tot. o< dilute solution of bleach dillu|tion /aariu:jen/ 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Dilution is the process or action of diluting a. liquid. o[+ of] readings significantly lower owing tothe dilution ofthe sample 2 Noun A dilution isa liquid that has been diluted with water or another liquid, so that it becomes weaker. 2 The synthetic alcohol was mixed in ‘graded dilutions. > coutocation: dilution of something »ANTONYM: concentration dilminjish /armny/ (iminishes, diminishing, diminished) vers When something diminishes, or when something diminishes it, it becomes reduced in size, importance, or intensity. 0 The threat of nuclear ‘war has diminished. o Federalism is intended to diminish the power ofthe central state. 0[V-ing] Universities are facing grave problems because of diminishing resources. ° This could mean diminished public support forthe war. > couocarions: diminish in something diminish inimportance/size/number rapidly/gradualty diminish greatly/drasticaliy/considerably diminished137 | discretion > synonyms: lessen, decrease > anonym: increase course /aisks:s/ cn UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Discourseis spoken or written communication between people, especially serious discussion of a particular subject. >a tradition of political discourse > [+ on] public discourse on crime > coLLocarions: discourse on something political/phitosophical discourse rational/feminist discourse > synonyms: communication, dialogue, debate, rhetoric dis|crete /ais‘xrity ADJECTIVE Discrete ideas or things are separate and distinct from each other. [FORMAL] oinstruction manuals that break down jobs into scores of discrete steps 0 Herbal medicine does not treat mind and body as discrete entities, but holistically a discrete entity/elemient/category separate, distinct usace: discrete or discreet? Be carefulnot to confuse these two adjectives with the same pronunciation, but different spellings and different meanings. Discretes a formal word to describe two things thatare separate fromeach other. You use discreet to describe someone whois polite and avoids embarrassing or offending anyone, or something that is small, simple and not easily noticed. >Shewas clways very discreet about their relationship. oThe hotel is discreet and stylish. Se dis|cre|tion /askxejan/ 1 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If someone in a position of authority uses their discretion or has the discretion to do something in a particular situation, they have the freedom and authority to decide what to do. [Format] 0 This committee may want toexercise its discretion to look into those charges. 0 [+ to-inf] School governors havetthe discretion to allow parents to withdraw pupils in exceptional circumstances.discretionary | 138 > couocarions: discretion in something discretion ina matter/case exercise discretion judicial/parental/ministerial discretion 2 puras If something happensat someone's discretion, it can happen only if they decide to doit or give their permission. [FORMAL] 0 We may vary the limit at our discretion and will notify you of any change. > Visits are at the discretion of the owners. > cotLocarion ‘at someone's discretion at the discretion of ajudge/court/authority dis|cre|tion|ary /ais'krefenri, au -neri/ [ADJECTIVE o Magistrates were given wider discretionary powers. The committee decided to pay small discretionary bonuses to reflect the accomplishments of key directors. > coLLocarions: discretionary authority/power a discretionary bonus/graniyiund dis|crimijmate /aiskriminenty (discriminates, diacriminating, discriminated) vers If you can discriminate between two things, you can recognize that, they are different. o[+ between] children who have difficulty discriminating between shapes o[+ between] The device can discriminate between the cancerous and the normal els. > coutocarion: discriminate between things > synonyas: distinguish, differentiate, discern dis|crimilna|tion /ais.xrmrneyjan/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Discrimination is the ability to recognize and understand the differences between two things. o colour discrimination [+ between] the system that allows a mother to make the discrimination between her own and alien lambs » coLtocarion: discrimination between things > syNonyms: discernment, differentiation dis|perse /ars'ps:s/ (éisperses, dispersing, dispersed) ‘vere When something disperses or when you disperseit, it spreads over39 | dissolve awide area. o[V-ing] The oil appeared to be dispersing. © The intense currents disperse the sewage. 0 Because the town sits ina valley, air pollution isnot easily dispersed. > coutocation: widely/quickly/slowly/easily dispersed > synonyms: spread, scatter dis|perjsal /as‘ps:sal/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Plants have different mechanisms of dispersal for their spores. 0{+ of} dispersal of ash during the hurricane season > coutocarion: dispersal of something > synonym: distribution dis|place /ais'pleis/ (aisptaces, asptacing, dsplaced) 11 vers If one thing displaces another, it forces the other thing out of its place, position, or role, and then occupies that place. position, orroleitset. © + a5] These factories have displaced tourism as the country's largest source of foreign exchange. 2 Coals to be displaced by natural gas and nuclear power. > coLtocation: displaced as/by something 2 vers Ifa person or group of people's displaced, they are orcedto moved away from the area where they live. o{n Europe alone thirty milion people were displaced. 2 Most ofthe civilians displaced by the war will be unable to eturnto their homes. othe task ofresettling refugees and displaced persons > couocarions: displaced by something displaced by fighting/war/conflict/violence displaced by a fire/flood/hurricane a displaced person/refugee/worker dis|place|ment /dis‘pleismant/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [FORMAL] >[+of] too much resistancetothe displacement of your reason by your emotions © [+ of] the gradual displacement oftheAmerican Indian o allegations of genocide, rape, and forced displacement > COLLOCATIONS: displacement of people things forced/mass/massive displacement dis|solve /arzolv/ (assowves, lsslving, dissolved) vers Ifa substance dissolves in liquid or if you dissolvet, it becomes mixed with the liquid and disappears. 0 [+ in] More substances dissolve in water than in any othe liquid. o Pumping water into an underground sale beddistort | 140 dissolves the salt to make a brine. ° organic matter that consumes all dissolved oxygen in the water > coutocations: dissolvein something gelatine/sugar dissolves ‘gradually/rapidly/completely dissolve P SYNONYM: melt dis|tort /arsto:t/ (isors.distorting.distortee) = EEE 1 vane if you distort a statement, fact, oridea, you report or represent it inan untrue way. o The media distorts reality; categorises people as all good or all bad. o allegations thatthe administration distorted scientific findings to justify political decisions 2 vere If something you can see or hear is distorted or distorts, its appearance or sound is changed so that it seems unclear. 0 painter may exaggerate or distort shapes and forms. 0{V-ing] the distorting effects of Earths atmosphere on light passing through it o This caused the sound to distort. »coLLocarions: distortthetruth distort findings/facts/meaning/reality distort a shape/image/pattern a distorting mirror/lens/effect Grossly/severely/deliberately distorted > synonym: misrepresent distor|tion /a:stoJon/ cdstortions) 1 noun Distortion is the changing of something into something that is not true or not acceptable. o[+ of]! thinkit would bea gross distortion of reality to say that they were motivated by self-interest. o He ater accused reporters of wilful distortion and bias. 2 Noun Distortion is the changing of the appearance or sound of something ina way that makes it seem strange or unclear. oAudio signals can be transmitted along cables without distortion. o symptoms including some perceptual distortions and hallucinations > couLocarions: distortion of something distortion of the truth/history/facts distorition of reality/nistory gr0ss/deliberate distortion visual/perceptual distortion141 | diversify cause/introduce/create distortion correct/eliminate/minimize/reduce distortion > synonym: misrepresentation dilverse /dar'vs:s, am di-/ facavennc woxo] 1 ajective Ifa group or range of things is diverse, itis made up of a wide variety of things. oa diverse range of habitats ©Societyis now much more diverse than ever before. 2 apyective Diverse people or things are very different from each other. © Jones has a much more diverse and perhaps younger audience. 0 Studies of diverse populations have reached similar conclusions » couLocarions: ethnicalty/cutturally diverse ‘geographically/linguistically diverse diverse backgrounds a diverse group/range/popul > synonym: varied > ANTONYM: uniform fion/society dilver|sity /aarvs:siti, aw ar-/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The diversity of somethings the fact thatit contains many very different elements. 0+ of] the cultural diversity of British society oto introduce more choice and diversity into the education system > coLLocarions: diversity of things diversity of opinions/viewpoints celebrate/promote diversity reflect/introduce increase diversity ethnic/racial/cultural/linguistic diversity rich/wide/enormous diversity > synonyee: variety >anronym: uniformity dilver|si|fy /darvs:sifar, am di-/ (éiversifies, diversitying, diversified) vers When an organization or person diversifies into other things. or diversifies their range of something, they increase the variety of things that they do or make. 0 [+ into] The company's troubles started only when it diversified into new products. © Manufacturers have been encouraged to diversify. © These firms have been given a tough lesson in the need to diversify their markets.diversification | 142 > cotLocaTions: diversify into something diversify into field/area/sector diversify the economy diversify a company/market diversify assets > synonym: expand dilver|silfijca|tion /daiva:sift’keifon, am di-/ (diversifications) NOUN 0 [+ of] The seminar was to discuss diversification of agriculture. © These strange divesifications could have damaged or even sunk the entire company. PcoLLocarions: diversification into/of something diversification intoan area promote/encourage/increase diversification international/geographic/economic diversification > syNonva: expansion divert /darvs:t, am di-/ (diverts, diverting, diverted) 1 vers Todivert something means to makeit follow different route or direction. o [+ from] a project intended to divert water from the north ofthe country to drought-prone southern and eastern states [+ to] During the strike, ambulances wil be diverted to private hospitals. o attempts to divert the lava flow o« diverted river 2 vera To divert money or resources means to cause them to be used fora different purpose. °[+ from] The government is trying to divert more public funds from west to east. 0{+ into] government departments involved in diverting resources into community care > coutocarion: divert something to/from somewhere divert something into something divert water/traffic/cars divert ariver/plane divert the flow of something divert funds/aid/money/resources ivert something elsewhere DNA /ai:en'ev/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN DNA isan acid in the chromosomes in the centreof143 | document the cells of living things. DNA determines the particular structure and functions of every cell and is responsible for characteristics being passed on from parents to their children. DNA isan abbreviation for ‘deoxyribonucleic acid’. 0 DNA profiling matches samples of body fluids left om avictim to the attackers. o techniques of extracting DNA from ancient bones » couiocarions: extract/obtain/replicate/match DNA DNA testing/fingerprinting/profiling/matching a DNAsample/test mitochondrial DNA docu|ment aokioment/ (éocuments, documenting, documented) vers Ifyou document something, you make adetalled record of it in writing or on film or tape. o The book represents theirs real attempt to accurately document the history of the entire area. 0 The effects of smoking hhave been well documented » coutocarions: document thehistory of something document instances of something well/meticulousty/extensively documented documented cases/proot/evidence EXTEND YOUR VOCABULARY Inacademic research, you often talk about writing down information about something over a period of time. Recordis a general verb to describe keeping information about something, either all the details or ust particular information. Maharashtra State recorded the highest increase in accidental deaths. Ifyou document something, you write down all the details. Colleagues documented 13 cases of unacceptable surgical outcomes. if you catalogue something, you makea list of things. 0 Pollen Botanists catalogued 66 different species of plant. if you chart something, you makea record that shows progressora trend over time, especially in the form of a graph. © Progressiis charted through rigorous annual testing.dogma | 144 dog|ma /dvgma, am‘ oun Ifyourefer toa belief ora system of beliefs as a dogma, you disapprove of it because people are expected to accept that itis true, without questioningit. 0 Their political dogma has blinded them tothe real needs ofthe country. 0 He stands for freeing the country from the grip of dogma, > couocarions: accept/question/challenge dogma ideological/religious/outdated dogma > synonvus: ideology. doctrine dog|matjic /dvg'matik, am do:9-/ ~abjective If you say that someone is dagmatic, you are critical of them because they are convinced that they are right, and refuse to consider that other opinions might also be justified. oMany writers at this time held rigidly dogmatic views. © The regime is dogmatic, and no onedares ta express personal opinions. > cottocarion: a dogmatic approach/belief/assertion > syNoNvas: opinionated, intolerant dog|matijcallly /dogmauki, am do:g-/ ‘ADVERB © He applies the Marxist world view dogmatically to all social phenomena, dog|ma|tism /dogmatizem, am 'do:9-/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN © We cannot allow dogmatism to stand in the way of progress. > synonym: intolerance » anronvus: tolerance do|main /dav'mem/ (domains) oun Adomain isa particular field of thought, activity, orinterest, especially one over which someone has control, influence, or rights. [FoRMAt] 0+ of] the great experimenters in the domain of at This information should be in the public domain. > couocarions: the domain of something the domain of science/business/art the public domain entera domain > synonva: sphere14s | dormant do|nate /dav'nert/ (donates, donating, donated) cE vers if you donate your blood ora part of your body, you allow doctors to, useiit to help someone whosill. > people who are willing to donate their ‘organs for use after death >All donated blood s screened for HIV. > contocarion: donate blood/sperm/eggs donateakidney/organ donate something anonymously dojnaltion /asv'neyjony (donations) NouM © measures aimed at encouraging organ donation routine screening of blood donations > COLLOCATION: organ/blood donation: do|nor /asune/ donors) 1 moun Adonoris someone who gives part of their body or some of their blood to be used by doctorsto help a person who sill. Doctors removed the healthy kidney from the donor. otrying to finda compatible bone marrow donor > coLtocarions: find/match/screena donor a potential/suitable/compatible donor aliving/anonymous donor ablood/kidney/organ donor a bone marrow/sperm donor 2 abjective Donor organs or parts are organs or parts of the body which people allow doctors to use to help people who ail. 0 shortage of donor 99s © Donor organs have to be matched to recipients > coLtocarion: donor ergans/eggs dorjmant /do:meny GE [ADJECTIVE Something that is dormant is not active, growing, or being used at the present time but is capable of becoming active later on, when the fong dormant volcano of Mount St Helens erupted in 1980 © The virus remains dormant in nerve tissue until activated. o [+ for] The United Nations is resuming a diplomatic effort that has lain dormant fo almost wo decodes. > conLocaTion dormant for a period of time adormant voleano adormant period/season/state lie/remain dormantdose /davs/ (doses) NOUN A dose of medicine ora drug isa measured amount of itwhich is intended to be taken atone time, [+ of] One dose of penicillin can wipe out the infection. 0 [+ for] The recommended dose for patients with cardiac arrest is 300mg > cotnocarions: dose of something the dose for people a dose of a vaccine/vitamin/medication/hormone y/recommended/double/lethal dose administer/repeat/prescribe a dose doslage /dausids/ (osages) moun Adosage!s theamount of a medicine or drug that someone takes or should take. o[+ of] He was put on a high dosage of vitamin C ‘Introduce one supplement at a time and increase the dosage gradually. > coutocarions: a dosage of something a recommended/prescribed/high dosage reduce/increase the dosage drajma /dra:ma/ (dramas) Noun Adramais a serious play for the theatre, television, or radio, Drama is the study of plays. © He acted in radio dramas. othe study of Greek drama » couocarions: a TVftelevision/radio drama Greek/Shakespearean drama adramatteacher/student/department/school study drama > synonvas: play, theatre dramaltist /dramoust/ (dramatists) oun A dramatist is someone who writes plays. 0[+ who] Tennessee Wiliams, the dramatist who wroteA Streetcar Named Desire o plays writen Jointly by several Elizabethan dramatists > couocarions: aGreek/Jacobean/Elizabethan dramatist147 | dynamic a moder/living dramatist > sywonym: playwright > RELATED WoRDS: novelist. poet dual /ajuzat, am ‘du:-/ apjective Dual means having two parts, functions, or aspects. his dual role as head of the party and head of state 2a law allowing dual nationality > coLLocarions: adualrole/purpose adualearriageway dual nationality/citizenship > synonyms: twin, double PanTonva: single dwin|dle awindal/ (éwindles,éwindting, dwindled) vere If something dwindles, it becomes smaller, weaker orlessin umber. 0[+ from/to] The factory’ workforce has dwindled from over 4,000t0 ‘few hundred. o[V-ing] a rapidly dwindling population >{V-ing] dwindling supplies of food and water > couLocarions: dwindle from/to something dwindling supplies/resources/reserves a dwindling number/population/stock dwindle rapidly/steadily/alarmingly > synonym: shrink > aNTonvms: expand, grow dy|namlic /darnemik/ ames) = EEG 1 apjective A dynamic process is one that constantly changes and progresses. 2< dynamic, evolving worldwide epidemic o Political debateis amare. > cottocarions: dynamic economy/range economically dynamic > SYNONYMS: active, progressive > anTonva: static 2 woun The dynamic of a system or process is the force that causesit to change or progress. 2{+of] The dynamic ofthe market demands constant change and adjustment. 2 Politics has its own dynamic.dynamic | 148 > coLtocarions: change/atter/create a dynamic avaried/internal/political dynamic 3 PLURAL NOUN The dynamics of a situation or group of people are the opposing forces within it that cause it to change. 9[+of] the dynamics of ‘the social system 2 The interchange of ideas aids an understanding of family dynamics. 4 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Dynamics are forces which produce power or movernent. o Scientists observe the same dynamics in luis. 5 UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Dynamics is the scientific study of motion, energy. and forces, 0 His idea was to apply geometry to dynamics. othe field of fluid dynamics > coLLocaTioNs: the dynamics of something the dynamics of asituation/relationship/process family/market/group dynamics changing/shifting/internal/undertying dynamics understand/study the dynamicsecilec|tic /rextks ApjJecTive An eclectic collection of objects, ideas, or beliefsiswide- ranging and comes from many different sources. [Format] oan eclectic collection of paintings, drawings, and prints o These theories tend tobe highly eclectic, drawing on several sociological theorists. o His musical tastes are eclectic > coLtocarions: eclectictaste/style an eclectic crowd/mix/collection/assortment. fairty/highty/extremely eclectic > sywonvas: diverse, wide-ranging ecolsysitem /ixovsistom, am‘cko/ CE (ecosystems) Noun An ecosystem is all the plants and animals that live in aparticular area together with the complex relationship that exists between them and theirenvironment. Madagascar’ ecosystems range from rainforest to semi-desert. othe forest ecosystem 0 Human ove fishing has destabilised marine ecosystems. > couecarions: amarine/forest/coastal ecosystem abalanced/fragile ecosystem alter/damage/destroy an ecosystem Preserve/protect/sustain an ecosystem elec|trode /riektraud/ (etectroses) am Noun Anelectrode sa small piece of metal or other substance that is used to take an electric current to or froma source of power, apiece of equipment, or a living body. o The patient's brain activity is monitored via electrodes taped tothe skull. osmall electrodes attached tothe scalp > couocarions: implant/attach/tape electrodes fasten/place electrodes atiny electrode » RELATED WorD: anodeelectron | 150 elec|tron /r1ektron (electrons) am NOUN An electron isa tiny particle of matter thatis smaller than anatom and hasa negative electrical charge. 2a typeof radiation that displaces ‘electrons from atoms oan electron microscope capable of viewing single atoms As these electrons are negatively charged they will attempt to repel each other. > coLtocarions: a single/unpaired/free electron an electron microscope/beam/micrograph transfer electrons charged electrons > RELATED woRDs: atom, proton, neutron elite /riis, e1-/ (eines) oun You can refer to the most powerful, rich, or talented people within a particular group, place, or society as the elite. oa government comprised imainly ofthe elite 0 [+ in] We have apolitical eitein this country. 0 [+ of] the governing elite of the 8th-century Dutch republic > coLLocarions: the elite in somewhere theelite of something a political/intellectual/wealthy/governing elite an elite dominates/rules/governs challenge/form/join an elite elitlist /riistst, e-/ ADJECTIVE Elitist systems, practices, or ideas favour the most powerful, rich, or talented people within a group, place, or society. The party leadership denounced the Bill as elitist. 0 The egal profession is starting to be less elitist and more representative > cottocarions: an elitistattitude/view/institution elitist snobbery/nonsense elitlism /rii:uzam, er/ wncounTaste NOUN Eftism is the quality or practice of being elitist o.acertain amount of cultural elitism othe stereotypes of snobbery and elitism cssocated with the institution 21 became dificult to promete exclience without being accused of elitism, > couocarions: societal/cultural/educational/academic elitism151 | embryonic condemn/oppose/end elitism Promote/foster/create elitism > punase: elitism and snobbery ellipse /rups/ cetipses) souw An ellipses an oval shape similar toa circle but longer and flatter. The Earth orbits in an ellipse. 0 Every known comet orbits the sun, although most ofthem move in extremely elongated ellipses. > couocarions: inanellipse adistorted/irregulat/elongated elipse elllip|tijcal jrupukoy Avjective [FoRMAt] othe moon's elliptical orbit 0[+ in] The stadium is elliptical in plan. o {+ in} Spirals can seem to be ellipticalin shape when viewed edge-on. > coLLocarions: elliptical in shape anelliptical orbit/trajectory/path anelliptical shape/motion em|bryo /embriav/ (embryos) Noun Anembryais an unborn animal or human being in the very early stages of development. o Theembryoives in the amniaticcavity. othe remarkable resilience of very young embryos © thecloning of human embryos forstem cel research > couLocarions: an embryo forms/grows/develops /survives clone/create an embryo ahuman/fertilized/discarded/frozen embryo em|brylonjic /embrionky ‘apjective [FoRMAt] embryonic stem-cell experiments embryonic plant ‘ells 0 How genes control this embryonic development isa central problem in biology. » coutocarions: embryonic development/tissue/biology an embryonic cell/elone/gene/experimentempire | 152 em|pire /empaia/ empires) MoUN An empireisa numberof individual nations that are all controlied by the government or ruler of one particular country, athe Roman Empire 9 The empire collapsed in 1918, o The French empire had expanded lorgely through military conquest. > coLLocarions: avast/colonial/mighty empire the Russian/British/Turkish empire an empire emerges /expands /extends an empire collapses/crumbles/disintegrates build/rulean empire em|perior /empora/ cemperors) NOUN An emperor is aman who rulesan empire oris the head of state inan empire. An Indian emperor ance proclaimed ta paradise on Earth othe legendary Aztec emperor, Montezuma 2 The eighty-three-year-old emperor was deposed in September 1574 > coLLocarions: an emperor abdicates /rules/dies an emperor proclaims/builds/urders something crown/depose an emperor aRoman/Aztec/Chinese emperor adivine/ailing/evil emperor Emperor Nero/Augustus > RELATED WoRD: empress empirical pina apjective Empirical evidence or study relies on practical experience rather than theories. oThere is mo empirical evidence to support hs thesis. oa series of important empirical studies > co.tecarions: an empirical observation/finding an empirical study/investigation empirical evidence/research/analysis/data > awronvas: theoretical empirically /m‘priaiy overs oempirically based research 2 They approached this part of their task empirically. the empirically confirmed relationship between high service levels and profitability153 | endorsement. > coLtocarions: empirically grounded/derived/based empirically confirm/verify/demonstrate something empirically supportable/verifiable/measurable >anronva: theoretically em|ploy /m'pic1/ cempioys, employing, employed) vere if you employ certain methods, materials, or expressions, you use them. o Thetactics the police are now to employ are definitely uncompromising © [+as] the language of vulgar speech employed as a political weapon o[+ in] the approaches and methods employed in the study > coLtocarions: ‘employ something as/in something ‘employ something as a weapon employ approaches/methods/techniques/tactics > SYNONYM: Use enjdorse /in'd2:s/ cendorses, endorsing, endorsed) 1 vers If you endorse someone or soniéthing, you say publicly that you support or approve of them. o/ can endorse their opinion wholeheartedly. © policies agreed by the Labour Party and endorsed by the electorate > couocarions: endorsed by someone endorsed by the electorate/parliament/state endorsea candidate/plan/idea/treaty overwhelmingly/unanimously/heartily endorse something > syonvMs: support, approve 2 vere if you endorsea product or company, you appear in advertisements forit. oThetwins endorsed a line of household cleaning products. oThe report also warned people to be wary of diets which are endorsed by celebrities. see note at advocate > cottocarions: endorsed by someone endorsed bya celebrity endorsea product/brand/company > srwonvaes: promote, advertise enjdorse|ment /indo:smanty (endorsements) 1 Noun An endorsements a statement or action which shows that you support or approve of something or someone. o[+ of] That adds up toanendure | 154 endorsement ofthe status quo. [+ for} Thisis a powerful endorsement for his softer style of government. > cotiocations: an endorsement by someone anendorsement of/for something/someone aringing/resounding/glowing endorsement > syNoNva: approval 2 Noun An endorsement for a product or company involves appearing in advertisements forit or showing support fori. 0 Fashion designers still value celebrity endorsements. > Bryant has earned millions of dollars in product endorsements > comocarions: an endorsement by someone an endorsement of/for something an endorsement of/for a produet/brand/company acelebrity/product/lucrative endorsement an endorsement deal/contract/opportunity > PHRASE: a multi-million dollar endorsement en|dure /in'djva, am -‘dur/ (endures, enduring, endured) 1 vers if you endure painful or difficult situation, you experienceitand donot avoid it or give up, usually because you cannot. oThecompany ‘endured heavy financial losses. o He endured physical pain and made many sacrifices for the benefit of others. > coLLocarion: endure pain/discomfort/suffering endure hardship/humiliation/ridicule endure a taunt/ordeal/beating stoically/bravely/patiently endure something > synonym: undergo 2 vers If something endures, it continues to exist without any lossin {quality or importance. 0 Somehow the language endures and continues to survive. 0 Whether tis fragile marriage endures remains tobe seen, > coLLocation: amyth/legend/marriage/survivor endures > svNoNvaM: persist en|durjing /mdjuarin, aw “aur/ ADJECTIVE othe start ofan enduring friendship 0 t remained one of his most ‘enduring memories. othe enduring legacy of Christianity155 | enlarge > coLtocarions: an enduring friendship/legacy/myth an enduring influence/memory > syNoNyM: lasting en|force /:n'f2:5/ centorces, enforcing, enforced) vere If people in authority enforcea law ora rule, they make sure that itis obeyed, usually by punishing people who do not obeyit. > Until now, ‘the government has only enforced the ban with regard to American ships. >The measures are being enforced by Interior Ministry troops. oA strict curfew was enforced. > cottocarion: enforced by someone strictly/aggressively/effectively enforce something enforcea taw/regulation/ban/curfew a court/regulator/law enforces something the police/army/government enforce something en|force|ment /in'fo:smanty UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If someone carries out the enforcement of an act or rule, they enforce it. 0+ of] The doctors want stricter enforcement of existing laws, such as those banning sales of cigarettes tochildren. > Interpol are liaising with allthe major aw enforcement agencies around the world. > couocarions: the enforcement of something strict/tough/effective/lax/inadequate enforcement enforcement of a law/regulation/ban/agreement law/traffic/drug enforcement an enforcement agency/authority/offi oversee/relax/tighten/strengthen enforcement enlarge /:n'ta:45/ (enlarges, enlarging, enlarges) vers When you enlarge something or when it enlarges, it becomes bigger. othe plan to enlarge Ewood Parkintoa 30,000 all-seater stadium 2Theglandsin the neck may enlarge. othe use of silicone to enlarge the breasts > coLLocarions: enlarge the breasts/penis enlarge ahole/image anenlarged heart/organ/prostate digitally/greatly/significantly enlargedenlargement | 156 enjlarge|ment n'a: UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 0 [+ of] Theres insufficient space for enlargement ofthe buildings. 0 EU enlargement isa process that isnot yet complete. ° millions of spam messages promoting penis enlargement pills > couocarions: the enlargement of something enlargement of the prostate/spleen/liver enlargement of theheart/ovaries penis /oreast/EU enlargement enjterjprise /entapraiz/ (enterprises) Noun An enterprise isa company or business, often a small one. oThere are plenty of small industrial enterprises. 0 Many small and relatively primitive enterprises flourish under laissez-faire. o one of Japan's most profitable enterprises > couocarions: acommercial/industrial/state enterprise a profitable/profit-making/loss-making enterprise an enterprise flourishes/succeeds/collapses an enterprise produces/supplies something > PHRASE: small-to-medium enterprises > synonyms: business, company eN|tiltle /n'tartal/ (emtities, entitling, entitled) 1 vers If youare entitled to something, you have the right to haveit or doit. o[+ to] ifthe warranty simited, the terms may entitle you toa replacement Correfund. 2 + to-inf] Thereis no document stating we are clearly entitled to votein this election. o [+-to-inf] tis a democracy and people are entitled to express theirviews. » couLocarions: entitle someoneto something entitled to vote/protest/participate entitled to receive/claim/express something legally/constitutionally/fully entitled 2 vers If the title of something such asa book, film, or paintings, for example, ‘Sunrise, you can say that itis entitled Sunrise’. 0 Chomsky’s review entitled Psychology and ideology”. 0a 1953 articieentitied’A Cognitive ‘Theory of Dreams’ oan essay entitled The Great Terrorism Scare’ > cOLLOCATIONS: abook/article/essay entitled something alecture/thesis entitled something provisionally entitled