Full Text 01

KTH Department of
Vehicle Dynamics
Masters Thesis
Modeling of a World Rally Championship
Car Damper and Experimental Testing of
Its Components
Author:
Richard Chahine
rchahine@kth.se
Examiner:
Lars Drugge, KTH Vehicle Dynamics
Mentor:
Erik Lnnqvist, hlins Racing AB
Project Commissioner:
Magnus Danek, hlins Racing AB
Executed at: hlins Racing AB

University:
The Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle

Engineering, Vehicle Dynamics Division
Version 6
Stockholm, June 2011
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Please note that most figures in this report are not drawn to scale or with high precision. They are
only used as an aid to make the text easier to understand.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Abstract
Rally cars are driven on many different types of surfaces. Each type of surface demands a special type
of damper setup. In order to achieve optimum performance on the snow covered and icy Swedish
roads, the gravel of the Spanish rallies and the smooth tarmac of the German rallies, a large flexibility
in the possible damper settings is required. Prodrive, a British motorsport group, has been racing two
Mini Countryman as factory team cars for BMW Mini as of Rally DItalia in Sardinia in May 2011 and
has requested that hlins Racing AB equips these cars with dampers. hlins Racing AB has been
developing a damper for rally applications called the TPX. This damper is equipped with an Active
Rebound Control system (ARC). The ARC allows for high levels of grip to be achieved together with
good chassis control.
The TPX damper with its ARC system is quite complex in structure. As there are many parts in the
damper which can be altered, optimizing the damper would require a very large number of tests. A
physical model of the TPX damper with its ARC system would reduce the time spent in the lab and
help speed up the development of the damper. Prodrive would also like to a have a model of the
damper that they can use in their model of the entire car which they use to setup the cars for races
and to develop the car.
The goal of this Masters Thesis was therefore to create a model based in MatLab Simulink that
qualitatively but not necessarily quantitatively replicated the dampers behavioral trends.
Components which are very difficult to model, such as shim stacks, needed not be modeled. Their
characteristics could be measured in the lab.
During this Masters Thesis project a model for the TPX damper was created using Simulink to model
most of the physical parts of the damper. The rest of the model including its inputs and control were
taken care of by a GUI. The model functions so simulations can be performed. Plotting the results of
the simulations together with data from experimental tests was also made easy by the GUI. The
results from comparisons between the simulated damper and the real object indicate that
refinements need to be made to the model before it can be put to use as a tool for helping in
optimizing the TPX dampers construction. Hysteresis in the form of friction as well as damper
flexibility does not seem to be negligible. The variation of the oils compressibility and the dynamic
behavior of the check valves also need to be looked into. The graphs from the simulations seem to
replicate the real dampers performance trends as intended. The numerical magnitudes of the data
produced by the simulation are however not accurate. Overall the model produced during this
masters thesis seems to be a good step forward on the path to producing a useful model. Some
suggestions for the next steps in improving the model are provided.
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Masters Thesis
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Masters Thesis
Table of Contents
1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Problem Formulation: Project definition and boundaries .............................................................. 3
TPX Construction Functioning Principles......................................................................................... 5
3.1
Rebound Stroke ....................................................................................................................... 6
3.2
Compression Stroke ................................................................................................................ 7
3.3
PDS........................................................................................................................................... 8
3.4
ARC .......................................................................................................................................... 8
3.5
Oil Reservoir ............................................................................................................................ 9
3.6
Gas Reservoir ......................................................................................................................... 10
Model Principles ............................................................................................................................ 11

4.1
Flow Restrictors ..................................................................................................................... 11
4.2
Shim Stacks ............................................................................................................................ 11
4.3
Chamber Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 14
4.4
Gas Reservoir ......................................................................................................................... 15
4.5
Interaction between parts..................................................................................................... 16
Model Construction ....................................................................................................................... 17
GUI Control .................................................................................................................................... 29
6.1
Reservoir Needle Control ...................................................................................................... 29
6.2
Low Speed Rebound Damping Control.................................................................................. 30
6.3
GUI as a Control Panel ........................................................................................................... 32
6.3.1
Controls ......................................................................................................................... 32
6.3.2
Inputs ............................................................................................................................. 32
6.3.3
Shim stacks .................................................................................................................... 33
6.3.4
Results display ............................................................................................................... 33
6.3.5
Output plots .................................................................................................................. 33
6.3.6
Error codes .................................................................................................................... 34
6.3.7
Starting a simulation...................................................................................................... 34
6.3.8
Save function ................................................................................................................. 34
6.3.9
Load function ................................................................................................................. 34
Shim Stacks Modeled vs. Shim Stacks Measured .......................................................................... 35

7.1
The Experimental Setup ........................................................................................................ 36
7.2
List of Performed Tests.......................................................................................................... 36
7.3
Validation and Analysis.......................................................................................................... 37

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Masters Thesis
ARC Implementation ..................................................................................................................... 45

8.1
Test 1: P vs. Q for the shim stack as a function of ARC chamber pressure ......................... 45
8.2
Test 2: ARC chamber stiffness: flow into the chamber versus change in ARC pressure. ...... 46
8.3
Model Implementation ......................................................................................................... 47
Conclusions.................................................................................................................................... 49
10
Suggestions for Future Work ..................................................................................................... 51
11
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 52
12
References ................................................................................................................................. 53
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Masters Thesis
1 Introduction
Rally cars are driven on many different types of surfaces. Each type of surface demands a special type
of damper setup. In order to achieve optimum performance on the snow covered and icy Swedish
roads, the gravel of the Spanish rallies and the smooth tarmac of the German rallies, a large flexibility
in the possible damper settings is required. This results in the need for dampers with many variable
parameters. In order to know how the damper behaves when each parameter is varied a large
number of tests is required.
hlins Racing AB has been developing a damper for rally applications called the TPX. Prodrive, a
British motorsport group, has been racing two Mini Countryman as factory team cars for BMW Mini
as of Rally DItalia in Sardinia in May 2011. hlins has received the order to equip these cars with
dampers. The TPX dampers have been chosen for this application. The front dampers on these cars
are equipped with Active Rebound Control (ARC); a system which causes the damping force on the
rebound stroke to be increased when the rebound chamber pressure is high for a long period of
time. This allows for high levels of grip to be achieved by having low rebound damping at frequencies
around 16 Hz. It is the motion of wheel in the 16 Hz region that has the largest effect on the cars grip.
At the same time larger rebound damping forces can be used for motional frequencies of
approximately 1.5 Hz. The cars motion in the 1.5 Hz region has the greatest affect on how the driver
perceives the car. Low rebound damping in this region would result in a feeling of the car wobbling
about. A high damping in this region would make the car feel more stable, responsive and
predictable for the driver thereby improving its chassis control. In this way the ARC system allows for
both high grip and high chassis control to be achieved.
The dampers have been tested together with the team drivers on several occasions and the results
were good. The drivers liked the new Active Rebound Control system. As there are many parameters
in the Active Rebound Control unit and the damper that can be altered, optimizing a damper with the
ARC system would require a very large number of tests. A model of the damper with the ARC would
reduce the amount of tests needed by making it possible to judge what effects certain changes to the
damper settings have. A model could therefore save considerable time in the optimization process.
This Masters Thesis was therefore commissioned by hlins Racing to create such a model that could
be used to study the dampers performance trends when it settings are altered. When a good setting
is found experimental tests can be performed with similar settings to find the best one. This way the
number of tests can be reduced.
Erik Lnnqvist, who is the mentor for this Masters Thesis, has worked on a Simulink model for a TT44
damper as his Masters Thesis dated year 2000 [1]. This report was used together with the hlins
manual for the TT44 damper [2] to understand how the model was constructed. Although the TT44
and the TPX dampers are very different both in their construction and their working principles the
basic approach to modeling the damper could be used as a start off point for building a model for the
TPX.
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
2 Problem Formulation: Project definition and boundaries

The main purpose of this Masters Thesis is to create a model that can be used to predict an hlins
TPX dampers behavior when its components parameters are altered. The boundaries set for this
Masters Thesis are as stated:
The model shall be built it MatLab Simulink.

The model shall be a qualitative and does not necessarily have to be quantitatively correct. In
other words, one should be able to read from the simulations the dampers behavioral trends
but not necessarily know how much damping one gets at a certain damper velocity.
Components which are very difficult to model, such as shim stacks, need not be modeled.
Their characteristics will be measured in the lab.
The Positional Damping System (PDS) is disregarded in this model.
The patent pending ARC valve mechanisms characteristics will be partially experimentally
attained and partially theoretically modeled.
Hysteresis (flexibility) in the damper construction will be experimentally measured not
modeled.
Hysteresis (compressibility) in the damper oil due to its constituents and air mixture will also
be taken forth experimentally.
Friction is very difficult to model in this case and will be initially disregarded. Compensation
factors may be considered further on in the project.
The secondary goal of this Masters Thesis is to provide a model that Prodrive, a British rally team,
can use in their model of the entire rally car.
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
3 TPX Construction Functioning Principles

The new TPX damper system makes use of two pistons, see Figure 1. Each piston has holes in it.
Some of these holes are blocked by a shim stack and others by a check valve. The shim stack and the
check valve are located on opposite sides of the piston. The rebound shim stack is located on the
rebound piston and the compression shim stack on the compression piston. The rebound shim stack
opens during the rebound stroke and the compression shim stack during the compression stroke. The
check valve located on the rebound piston is referred to as the rebound check valve. However this
rebound check valve opens during the compression stroke. The compression check valve which is
located on the compression piston opens during the rebound stroke.
The two piston construction divides the main structure of the damper into three parts: a rebound
chamber, a compression chamber and a middle chamber. The middle piping and the middle chamber
are connected by holes in the piston shaft. These holes are large enough for the middle chamber and
middle piping to be considered as one entity for the modeling purposes.
Compression
check valve
located here
PDS
Middle piping
(inside rod)
Compression
chamber
Compression
piston
Middle
chamber
Compression
shim stack
located here
ARC
Rebound
shim stack
Rebound
piston
Rebound
chamber
Rebound
check valve
located here
Figure 1: Overall dissected view of a TPX damper [3].

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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
3.1 Rebound Stroke

Low speed
During a low speed rebound stroke, the rebound chamber pressure is too low to force the rebound
shim stack to open. The oil from the rebound chamber can then go through a hole in the piston shaft
to the middle chamber and compression chambers, as shown in Figure 2. The holes between the
rebound chamber and middle piping and the compression chamber and middle piping act as
restrictions to the flow in between these chambers. This occurs at low damper speeds.
Figure 2: Oil flow during a Low speed Rebound stroke [3].

High Speed
If high pressures are reached in the rebound chamber during a rebound stroke, the rebound shim
stack will open allowing the damper oil to move to the middle chamber. The oil flow in this scenario
is shown in Figure 3. If the middle chamber pressure rises, the compression check valve will open
sending oil into the compression chamber. This occurs at higher damper speeds in parallel to the low
speed flow which continues to take place at high speeds.
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Figure 3: Oil flow during a High speed Rebound stroke [3].
3.2 Compression Stroke

Low speed
In a similar manner to the events during a rebound low speed stroke during a low speed compression
stroke, the compression chamber pressure is too low to force the compression shim stack to open.
The oil from the rebound chamber can then go through a hole at the top of the piston shaft to the
middle and rebound chambers as shown in Figure 4. The holes between the rebound chamber and
middle piping and the compression chamber and middle piping act as restrictions to the flow in
between these chambers. This occurs at lower damper speeds.
Figure 4: Oil flow during a Low speed Compression stroke [3].
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
High Speed
If high pressures are reached in the compression chamber during a compression stroke, the
compression shim stack will open allowing the damper oil to move to the middle chamber. If the
middle chamber pressure then rises, the rebound check valve will open sending oil into the rebound
chamber. This occurs at higher damper speeds in parallel to the low speed flow which continues to
take place at high speeds. The direction of the oil flow in such a case is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Oil flow during a High speed Compression stroke [3].
3.3 PDS
The Positional Damping System (PDS) provides extra damping when the damper is nearing its
maximum compressed position. As this system does not have an impact on how the damper
functions under normal conditions it can be disregarded in this damper model.
3.4 ARC
The ARC system, shown in Figure 6, provides high damping forces at low motional frequencies
together with low damping forces at higher frequencies of motion. The ARC chamber is a separate
chamber located within the middle chamber. A tight canal is present between the ARC chamber and
the rebound chamber. As rebound pressure increases during a rebound stroke the pressure
difference between the ARC chamber and the rebound chamber causes damper oil to flow from the
rebound chamber to the ARC chamber. A shim with a hole in it, located between the canal and the
ARC chamber, serves as the main flow restrictor. The ARC chamber has flexible walls made of shims
and o-rings. As the pressure in the chamber builds up these flex outwards. One of the shims is
connected to a disk which in turn rests on the rebound shim stack. So as the pressure in the rebound
chamber builds up, the pressure in the ARC chamber increases causing its walls to flex. One of the
ARC chambers walls in turn applies a force on to the rebound shim stack thereby increasing the
pressure difference between the middle chamber and the rebound chamber required to open the
rebound shim stack.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
ARC chamber
Figure removed at the
request of hlins Racing AB
Rebound
shim stack
Figure 6: The ARC chamber [3].
3.5 Oil Reservoir

The middle chamber is connected to the oil reservoir via a pipe located within the piston rod.
Between the middle chamber and the oil reservoir there is a low speed needle that limits the flow inbetween the two chambers. The needle position can be controlled by an external adjuster. If the
pressure in the middle chamber is high enough a shim stack between the middle chamber and the oil
reservoir opens and allows oil to flow into the reservoir. The preload, which controls the threshold
for when the shim stack first opens, can be adjusted via an external adjuster. If the pressure in the
middle chamber drops below a certain level a check valve also located between the oil reservoir and
the middle chamber opens allowing oil to flow from the oil reservoir to the middle chamber. A
picture of the oil and gas reservoirs is shown in Figure 7.
Gas Reservoir
Separator
Piston
Oil Reservoir
Figure 7: Oil and gas reservoirs [3].
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
3.6 Gas Reservoir

The gas reservoir applies a pressure onto the oil reservoir and thereby sets the base pressure for the
entire system. As mentioned earlier the oil reservoir is connected to the middle chamber which in
turn is connected to the rebound and compression chambers. This allows the gas reservoir pressure
to be applied to the entire damper. This type of construction prevents cavitations in the damper
which is a great asset. The presence of a gas reservoir allows for the compensation of the piston shaft
volume which enters the damper during a compression stroke and exits the damper during a
rebound stroke. The damper oil in itself is not compressible enough to compensate for the piston
shaft volume entering and exiting the damper. The oil displaced by the piston shaft upon it entering
the damper is indirectly sent to the oil reservoir where it causes the separator piston to move
compressing the gas in the gas reservoir. This will cause the system pressure to be slightly higher
when the piston is further inside the damper compared to when the damper is at its fully extended
position.
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Masters Thesis
4 Model Principles
Mathematical models are created for the flow restrictors, shim stacks, chamber characteristics and
the gas reservoir. Each of these mathematical models is used in several places within the Simulink
model. The data specific to each damper part is used together with a combination of these four basic
mathematical models to create the blocks that model the part.
4.1 Flow Restrictors

Flow restrictors such as the low speed holes between the rebound chamber and middle chamber and
the compression chamber and the middle chamber as well as the oil reservoir needle have their
opening areas calculated from damper drawings found in the hlins database [3]. These opening
areas are then used in the Bernoulli equation. The loss term in the generalized Bernoulli equation
corresponding to an area decrease followed by an area increase is represented by equation 1
according to a fluid mechanics handbook [4]. This equation is used to calculate the flow past a
restriction for the instantaneous difference in pressure between the two chambers that the flow
restrictor links. Turbulent flow is assumed at all times.
(1)
where:
is the flow past the restriction orifice
is the discharge coefficient, here considered at a 90 edge
is the pressure drop over the restriction orifice, in other words, the difference in pressure
between the two chambers the restriction orifice links
is the damper oils density
In the Masters Thesis report by Erik Lnnqvist [1], Erik mentions that H. Lang, in his PhD dissertation,
A Study of the Characteristics of Automotive Hydraulic Dampers at High Stroking Frequencies, at the
University of Michigan in 1977, developed analytical and empirical expressions for discharge
coefficients. The conclusion was that a model is too complex and a constant value of 0.7 resulted in
good correlation with experimental results.
4.2 Shim Stacks

The shim stacks and the check valves function in similar ways as the check valves are actually simple
shim stacks in the case of the TPX damper. The shim stack characteristics are too complex to allow
for theoretical modeling. To get the shim stacks characteristics into the model they were placed in a
flow bench and the flow past the shims was measured as a function of the pressure drop over the
shim stack. The flow was first increased and then decreased. The results from the Flow bench test
are summarized in Figure 8.
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Masters Thesis
ALL 5
2.5
Comp shims
Reb Shims ARC
Comp CV
Reb CV
Reservoir Shims
Delta Pressure [MPa]
1.5
0.5
10
20
30
40
50
Flow [l/min]
60
70
80
90
Figure 8: The flow past the shim stacks as a function of the pressure drop over the shim stacks for 5 of
the shim stacks present in the damper.
As one can see in Figure 9, the same pressure drop over the shim stack results in two different flows
past the shim stack depending on whether the flow is being increased or decreased.
Rebound Shimstack ARC
2.5
Delta Pressure [MPa]
1.5
0.5
10
20
30
40
50
Flow [l/min]
60
70
80
90
Figure 9: The flow past the rebound shim stack as a function of the pressure drop over it.
The data from the flow bench was therefore divided into two portions, one for when the flow is
increasing and one for when the flow is decreasing. The data was filtered and the red and the green
lines attained. This is shown in Figures 10 and 11, where Figure 11 is an enlarged picture of the
central portion of Figure 10. In a case in which the flow increases for a short time and then drops
again the two curves might be closer to one another. This is however not taken into consideration in
the model.
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Masters Thesis
2.5
x 10
Blue line:
Linear model
Delta Pressure [Pa]
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
Flow [m3/s]
-3
x 10
Figure 10: The flow past the rebound shim stack as a function of the pressure drop over it with the
filtered data and the linear model added. The filtered data is too close to the original data to be seen
in this figure. Therefore, an enlargement is provided in Figure 11 below.
6
x 10
Measured
data
1.6
1.55
Filtered data:
Green line
Delta Pressure [Pa]
1.5
1.45
Blue line:
Linear model
1.4
Filtered data:
Red line
1.35
1.3
Measured
data
1.25
7.1
7.2
7.3
3
7.4
7.5
-4
Flow [m /s]
x 10
Figure 11: An enlargement of a portion of Figure 10, showing the green, the blue, and the red lines.
A linear model, adapted to the data by the author, is represented by the blue line positioned in
between the red and the green ones as shown in Figures 10 and 11. When the model operator
selects, shim stacks measured in the GUI control panel either the red or the green lines are used to
decide the flow past a shim stack for a certain pressure drop over the shim stack depending on
whether the flow is increasing or decreasing. If shim stacks modeled is selected the blue line is
used to decide the flow past a shim stack for a certain pressure drop.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
This is done for all the shim stacks and check valves in the model. In the case of the check valves
which are also shim stacks only the linear model is used; this being the red line shown in Figure 12.
Both the rebound and compression check valves, not only the rebound check valve shown in Figure
12, displayed what seems to be a very dynamic behavior. This was suspected by hlins engineers.
The exact data from the flow bench measurement for the check valves was therefore not used but
the linear model shown in Figure 12 was used instead. The reservoir check valve could not be placed
in the flow bench without the construction of a special adapter. The reservoir check valve data was
set to be the slope of the line for the rebound check valve together with half the preload of the
compression check valve. This should be an acceptable temporary solution.
5
x 10
Rebound check valve (opens during compression)
3.5
Delta Pressure [Pa]
Linear model:
Red line
2.5
Measured
data
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Flow [m3/s]
1.5
-3
x 10
Figure 12: The flow past the rebound check valve as a function of the pressure drop over the check
valve.
4.3 Chamber Characteristics

The rebound, compression and middle chambers along with the oil reservoir are all modeled as fixed
volumes with flows entering and exiting them. Using the expression for fluid compressibility [5],
equation 2, the pressure in a chamber is calculated using the flows entering and exiting the chamber
together with the oils compressibility.
(2)
where:
is the change in chamber pressure
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
is the change in chambers volume
is the damper oils compressibility

is the chambers volume
The change in the chambers volume can be calculated using equation 3.
(3)
where:
t is the time
is the flow out of the chamber
is the flow into the chamber
By inserting equation 3 into equation 2 and then integrating, with the initial gas pressure set to
, the instantaneous pressure in a chamber can be calculated as shown by equation 4.
(4)
where:
is the gas pressure in the damper at the start of simulation
No tests have been performed to study the oils compressibility. The value for the oils compressibility
was taken from Erik Lnnqvists Masters Thesis report [1] and should, according to the engineers at
hlins Racing, not vary that much from the compressibility of the oil in the TPX damper. There are,
however, suspicions that the oils compressibility varies with temperature and pressure. The value
used for the oils compressibility
is
[1/Pa] and for the oils density
is
[kg/m3].
4.4 Gas Reservoir

Nitrogen gas is used to pressurize the oil in the damper. The change in gas pressure when the
damper is in motion can be modeled under dynamic conditions, according to [1], by a reversible,
almost adiabatic, polytropic process described by equation 5.
(5)
where:
is the initial gas pressure
is the initial gas volume
is the final or current gas pressure
is the final or current gas volume
is the polytropic exponent of nitrogen = 1.3
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Masters Thesis
The initial gas pressure can be used together with the oil reservoir pressure to calculate the force on
the piston which separates the gas and the oil according to equation 6.
(6)
where:
is the force on the separator piston
is the oil reservoir pressure
is the pressure in the gas chamber
is the area of the separator piston
The separator pistons velocity and position can then be calculated by integrating its acceleration
which can be calculated from the force on the separator piston according to equation 7. The initial
conditions for both the separator pistons velocity and the separator pistons position are considered
to be their values at the beginning of the simulation when the damper is standing still and can
therefore be set to zero.
(7)
where:
is the separator pistons mass
is the separator pistons acceleration
The separator pistons velocity can then be used in equation 8 to calculate the rate of change of oil
reservoir volume. This rate of change of volume is the equivalent of a flow into or out of the oil
reservoir.
(8)
where:
is the oil flow in or out of the oil reservoir
is the separator pistons velocity.
The separator pistons position can then be used to calculate the change in gas reservoir volume
which in turn can be used with equation 5 to calculate the new instantaneous gas pressure in the gas
reservoir. This process is then continuously looped to calculate the gas pressure at each point in the
simulation timeline.
4.5 Interaction between parts

Signal lines join the different parts of the model. Plenty of loops are present as pressures in different
chambers affect the flow in between them and the flow in between two chambers affects the
pressure in both chambers.
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Masters Thesis
5 Model Construction
The model of the TPX damper is built in Simulink. The different levels in the model are described
below. Figure 13 shows a tree diagram containing only the major subsystems of the model. The input
to the damper model is the damper velocity curve that the model is to follow. The main output from
the model is the damping force that the damper gives. The highest level in the simulink model is
shown in Figure 14. Figures 15 to 34 show the contents of the subsystem that is discussed in the
corresponding section.
Model
ARC Chamber
Compression
Chamber
Compression
check valve
GUI input
control
TPX with ARC
Volume
Calculations
Compontents
Pressure sum
on main
piston =>
Damping
force
Compression
low speed
Gas and oil

reservoirs
Main
Compression
Shim Stacks
Main
Rebound Shim
Stacks
Gas Reservoir
Oil Resrvoir
Reservoir
Shim Stacks
and Reservoir
Pipes
Gas Reservoir
Middle Piping
Rebound
Chamber
Rebound
check valve
Separator
Piston
Figure 13: A tree diagram showing the major subsystems of the model.
damping_force
To Workspace2
Damping force
Damper velocity curve
Damper velocity
Piston position
GUI input control
Results
TPX with ARC
position
To Workspace1
Damper_velocity
To Workspace
Figure 14: Overall model view, the highest level of the model.
17
Rebound low
speed
Richard Chahine
A
Masters Thesis
GUI input control
This subsystem contains the blocks necessary to make it possible for the GUI to control the damper
velocity input signal to the Simulink model.
GUI_input_signal
+ve sinus
1
Damper velocity curve
-ve sinus
+ve step
Multiport
Switch
-ve step
Figure 15: The contents of the GUI input control subsystem
TPX damper
This subsystem contains the blocks that make up the physical model of the damper. It contains three
of its own subsystems: Volume Calculations, Components subsystem, and Force on Main Pistons.
Clock
1
Damper velocity
Simulation time
Damper velocity= piston velocity
Cormpression volume
Compression volume dot
Rebound volume
Rebound volume dot
Piston position [m]
Volume calculations
Cormpression volume
Rebound volume
Rebound volume dot
Compression chamber oil pressure

Force
Rebound chamber oil pressure
Components
1
Damping force
Presssure sum on main piston

=> Damping force
2
Piston position
Figure 16: The contents of the TPX Damper subsystem
B.A Volume calculations

Here the damper velocity is used to calculate the main pistons position and the rebound and
compression chamber volumes as well as the rate of change of their volumes.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
5
Piston position [m]
-C-
1/s
1
Damper velocity=
piston velocity
-1
Piston Position
Initial Compression
chamber volume
-K-
Piston_area_compression
Integrator
Limited
Add
-K-
Piston Velocity
1
Cormpression volume
2
Piston_area_compression1
-CInitial Rebound
chamber volume
-KPiston_area_rebound
-1
Add1
-KPiston_area_rebound1
3
Rebound volume
4
Rebound volume dot
Figure 17: The contents of the Volume Calculations subsystem.
B.B Components
This is the main subsystem at this level. Its contents represent the dampers actual components and
include: rebound check valve, compression check valve, rebound low speed, compression low speed,
main shim stacks, compression chamber, rebound chamber, middle piping, gas and oil reservoirs, as
well as the ARC chamber.
19
20
Flow past compression check valve
Middle Piping
Figure 18: The components subsystem.
Rebound check valve
Flow to rebound chamber from middle chamber via check valve
To Workspace2
Flow past rebound check valve
Flow to middle piping from rebound chamber
Flow past rebound shim stacks to middle chamber
Flow past compression shim stacks to middle chamber
Flow to middle piping from compression chamber
Middle_chamber_pressure
Pressure in middle piping
ARC Chamber
Rebound Chamber pressure
Rebound low speed
Middle piping pressure

Compression low speed
Compression Chamber pressure

Compression Chamber pressure

Flow out to oil reservoir
Oil flow into reservoir
Gas and oil reservoir
Compression check valve
Flow to compression chamber from middle chamber via check valve
3
Rebound volume
4
Rebound volume dot
Flow to ARC
ARC Pressure
1
Cormpression volume
2
Main Compression Shim Stacks
Rebound Chamber
flow past rebound shim stack

flow to ARC
Rebound volume
Rebound volume dot
Main Rebound Shim Stacks
2
Rebound chamber
oil pressure
1
Compression chamber
oil pressure
To Workspace1
Rebound_chamber_pressure
Middle chamber pressure

Flow past rebound shim stacks
ARC pressure
To Workspace
Compression_chamber_pressure

Flow past compression shim stacks
Middle chamber oil pressure
Compression chamber

Compression volume
flow past compression shim stack
Compression check valve opens during rebound and rebound check valve open during compression!
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
B.B.A Rebound check valve

This box contains the implementation of the linear shim stack model, discussed in section 4.2 above,
for the rebound check valve.
2
Rebound
Chamber pressure
-K1/k compression cv
1
-C0
rebound cv preload
Flow is only allowed

if the preload pressure
is overcome
1
Flow to rebound chamber
from middle chamber
via check valve
Figure 19: The contents of the Rebound check valve subsystem.
B.B.B Compression check valve

This box is similar in structure to the one for the rebound check valve but here the data for the
compression check valve is implemented.
1
Compression
Chamber pressure
-K-
2
1/k compression cv
-C0
compression cv preload
Flow is only allowed

if the preload pressure
is overcome
1
Flow to compression chamber
from middle chamber
via check valve
Figure 20: The contents of the Compression Check valve subsystem.
B.B.C Rebound low speed

This subsystem contains the flow restrictor equation discussed in section 4.1. The opening area of the
restriction and other data corresponding to this specific restriction are used. The opening area of the
restriction can be varied by changing the number of clicks in the GUI control panel.
21
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
2
|u|
Add
1
-K-
Abs
Gain
Divide
Sqrt
-K-
-K-
1
Flow to middle piping
from rebound chamber
A_LS_rebound
Cd_rebound
rho_oil
rho_oil
-1
Representation of
Q=Cd*A*sqrt(2*delta_p/rho_oil)
Allows the flow to be -ve (ie reverse direction) if delta_p is negative

even though sqrt and abs are used when calculating the flow
Figure 21: The contents of the Rebound low speed subsystem.
B.B.D Compression low speed

This box is similar to the one for the rebound low speed but contains the data corresponding to the
compression low speed. The flow restrictor equation is also used here.
1
Compression
Chamber pressure
2
Add
|u|
Abs
Gain
u
Divide
Sqrt
-K-
-K-
Cd_compression
1
Flow to middle piping
from compression chamber
A_LS_compression
rho_oil
rho_oil
Representation of
-1
Figure 22: The contents of the Compression low speed subsystem.
B.B.E Rebound shim stacks

This box contains the implementation of two look up tables with the shim stack characteristics
discussed in section 4.2 as well as the linear approximation of the shim stack characteristics also
discussed in section 4.2 above. These are implemented here for the rebound shim stacks.
22
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Shimstack_measured_modeled
Lookup Table2 +
du/dt
Multiport
Switch1
Switch3
Derivative
Scope2
1
Middle chamber pressure
3
Rebound chamber
oil pressure
Lookup Table3 Add2
Add3
-C-
Divide1
Switch1
-C-
rebound preload
Slope control rebound side
ARC_on_off
2
ARC pressure
1
Flow past rebound shim stacks
Multiport
Switch2
Lookup
Table (2-D)
Figure 23: The contents of the Rebound shim stacks subsystem.
B.B.F Compression shim stacks

This box is similar to the one for the rebound shim stacks in structure but in this case it contains the
data for the compression shim stacks.
1
Compression chamber
oil pressure
2
Middle chamber oil pressure
Add2
Add
-Ccompression preload
Divide
-C-
Slope control compression side
Switch
Multiport
Switch
du/dt
Lookup Table +
1
Flow past compression shim stacks
Switch2
Derivative1
Lookup Table1 -
Figure 24: The contents of the Compression shim stacks subsystem.
B.B.G Compression Chamber

This subsystem contains the chamber characteristics described in section 4.3 above. As discussed
earlier these are used to calculate the pressure in the chamber. The data in this block is specific to
the compression chamber.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
4
2
delta_pc/dt
5
flow past compression shim stack
1
Add
3
Compression volume
Divide
1
x1/s
o
Compression chamber
Integrator
oil pressure
p_gas_initial
p gas initial
beta_oil
beta_oil
Figure 25: The contents of the Compression chamber subsystem.
B.B.H Rebound chamber

the rebound chamber.
4
Rebound volume dot
5
1
flow past rebound shim stack
6
2
flow to ARC
delta_p/dt
Add
1
xos
1
Rebound chamber
oil pressure
Integrator
Divide
p_gas_initial
p gas initial
3
Rebound volume
beta_oil
beta_oil
Figure 26: The contents of the Rebound chamber subsystem.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
B.B.I Middle piping

the middle chamber.
6
3
1
Flow out to oil reservoir
5
Flow past rebound shim stacks to middle chamber
delta_p_m/dt
Divide
4
Flow past compression shim stacks to middle chamber
p_gas_initial
middle_piping_volume
Integrator
1
Pressure in
middle piping
p_gas_initial
Middle piping volume

2
Flow past compression check valve
1
xo s
beta_oil
beta_oil
7
Flow past rebound check valve
Figure 27: The contents of the Middle piping subsystem.
B.B.J Gas and oil reservoirs

This subsystem contains the gas reservoir and oil reservoir subsystems.
Gas Reservoir volume

Oil reservoir pressure
Oil reservoir volume dot
Gas Reservoir & separator piston
Oil_reservoir_pressure
Oil reservoir volume

To Workspace
Oil Reservoir Pressure

Reservoir shim stacks

& reservoir pipes
Oil Reservoir
1
1
Figure 28: The contents of the Gas and Oil Reservoirs subsystem.
B.B.J.A
Gas reservoir and separator piston
The gas reservoir subsystem makes use of the equations presented in section 4.4 to calculate the
change in gas pressure and the rate of change of the oil reservoir volume.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
1
Gas reservoir volume

Add2

Gas presssure
Initial gas volume
gas pressure
Separator piston velocity

Net force on separator piston
Separator piston position
-K-
Add separator piston area
Separator piston
Gas reservoir
-C-
Separator piston
velocity
-K-
net force on separator piston
Separator piston
position
-1
separator piston
area2
2
Gas_reservoir_pressure
Initial gas volume
To Workspace
-Kseparator piston area1
1
Gas Reservoir volume
Add1
-CInitial oil volume
Figure 29: The contents of the Gas Reservoir and Separator Piston subsystem.
B.B.J.A.A
Gas reservoir
This subsystem contains equation 5 which depicts the change in gas pressure as a function of the
displacement of the separator piston.
2
Initial gas volume
u
Divide
1
-C-
Math
Function
Product
1
Gas presssure
polytropic exponent for Nitrogen

-CInitial gas pressure
Figure 30: The contents of the Gas Reservoir subsystem.
B.B.J.A.B
Separator piston
This subsystem contains the equations describing the motion of the separator piston as discussed in
section 4.4.
1
Net force on separator piston
separator piston
acceleration 1/s
Divide
Integrator
-C-
Separator piston mass
1
xo s
Integrator1
Figure 31: The contents of the Separator Piston subsystem.
26
1
Separator piston
velocity
2
Separator piston
position
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
B.B.J.B
Oil reservoir
The oil reservoir subsystem houses the chamber characteristics described in section 4.3. As discussed
earlier these are used to calculate the pressure in the reservoir.
2
delta_p_res/dt
3
Add
1
Oil reservoir volume
1
xos
1
Oil Reservoir
Pressure
Integrator
Divide
p_gas_initial
p_gas_initial
beta_oil
beta_oil
Figure 32: The contents of the Oil Reservoir subsystem
B.B.J.C
Reservoir shim stacks and reservoir pipes
The subsystem named Reservoir shim stacks and reservoir pipes contains a model of the reservoir
shim stacks. These shim stacks are modeled in the same way as the compression and rebound shim
stacks mentioned earlier. The reservoir low speed flow was calculated using the restriction equation
in a similar way to the compression low speed flow and the rebound low speed flow.
Shimstacks
-K-C-
reservoir preload
Constant
Switch
slope control
1
Multiport
Switch
delta_p
Lookup Table +
du/dt
Switch3
Derivative1
Scope1
2
Oilflow into reservoir past shim stacks
Lookup Table1 Bypass

|u|
Abs
Oilflow into reservoir through low speed oil reservoir piping

-KGain
u
Divide
Sqrt
-KCd_reservoir
-K-
Oilflow into reservoir via check valve

(this value is either negative or zero as the check
valve only opens to allow flow out of the reservoir)
A_LS_reservoir
rho_oil
rho_oil
-1
Check valve
both r plus since it
-1
-Cworks in the opposite direction
Reservoir cv preload
0
Constant1
-KSwitch1
1/k_reservoir_cv
Figure 33: The contents of the Reservoir Shim stacks and Reservoir pipes subsystem.
27
1
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
B.B.K ARC chamber

This block contains the information relevant to the ARC system. This will be discussed in detail later
in section 8.3.
B.C Force on main piston
The force on the main piston is calculated from the pressure executed by the compression chamber,
middle chamber and rebound chamber on the main piston. This is equal to the damping force
provided by the damper.
1
Compression chamber
oil pressure
2
Rebound chamber
oil pressure
-CAtmospheric Pressure
-KPiston_area_compression
-KPiston_area_rebound
Add
-KShaft Area
Figure 34: The contents of the Force on Main Piston subsystem.
28
1
Force
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
6 GUI Control
A MatLab GUI (graphical user interface) has been built in order to facilitate use of the model and its
initiation files as well as offer the possibility to provide additional on demand calculations for the
model. Nineteen files are used to run the model. One file is the Simulink model. Six of the files that
are used contain shim stack data. Two of the files are used to process the shim stack data. Seven of
the files process data to enable plotting of certain figures. One file contains all the dampers structural
data along with some other data needed to describe the damper. Then there are the two GUI files.
One is just a figure of the GUI and the other is a large file that is used to control all the files as well as
produce certain graphs, perform the calculations for the reservoir and rebound controls and process
other initiation data and inputs from the user.
Getting the different files of the model to interact with one another is a non-trivial task as there are
three workspaces to consider as well as the adjustment of the data vectors for plots, reading
experimental data, adjusting experimental data etc. The Simulink model usually makes use of its own
workspace. A command line integrated in the GUI but executed in the MatLab workspace makes the
Simulink model run in the BASE workspace. The GUI also makes use of its own workspace. Some of
the GUIs code is run in its own private workspace while other parts are sent to the base workspace
for execution. The data that is to enter the Simulink model is, however, always sent to the base
workspace. Simulink will also report results to the base workspace which the GUI then reads to
produce graphs of the results as well as provide result data.
Two functions that the GUI handles on its own are the Reservoir Needle Control and the Low Speed
Rebound Control. These are run in the GUIs own workspace. The GUIs control panel is shown in
Figure 38.
Figure 35: The GUI control panel.
6.1 Reservoir Needle Control

The low speed flow into and out of the oil reservoir is controlled by a needle of double cone type
as shown in Figure 36. The position of this needle can be controlled from outside the damper. A click
system allows the user of the damper to know how much the needle has moved. In the GUI control
29
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
panel the user of the model can type in the number of clicks from the fully closed position that the
reservoir needle has been placed in. The number of clicks is then used by the GUI to calculate the
opening area between the needle and the hole in which it is placed. Thereby the area that restricts
the low speed flow in and out of the oil reservoir can be calculated in the following way.
R1
R2
20
Figure 36: The double coned reservoir needle.

The area between the needle and the cylinder into which it fits is the opening area through which a
flow can pass. This area takes the shape of the surface area of a conical frustum such as the one
depicted by the dashed line in Figure 28. Using the formula for the surface area of a conical frustum,
equation 9, the area of the opening can be calculated.
(9)
where:
is the surface area of the conical frustum (excluding the flat top and bottom
surfaces).
is the radius of the circle on the upper side of the conical frustum.
is the radius of the base of the conical frustum.
is the length of the side of the conical frustum.
This opening area varies with the position of the needle which in turn varies with the number of
clicks the low speed reservoir adjustment has been set to. Equation 9 relates the needle movement
to the number of clicks.
(10)
where:
is the needle movement in mm.
6.2 Low Speed Rebound Damping Control

The low speed rebound control also makes use of a click system however in this case it is a hollow
cylinder blocking three holes in the cylinder that surrounds it. The canal that links all parts of the
damper to the middle chamber passes through the center of the cylinder. This construction can be
30
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
seen in Figure 37. The area restriction for the low speed rebound damping as a function of the
number of clicks can be calculated in the following way.
Figure 37: Conceptual figure of the low speed rebound control
The vertical movement, x, of the cylinder blocking the holes can be calculated from the number of
clicks that have been chosen by using equation 11.
(11)
The size of the area of the holes that is not covered by the cylinder needs to be determined. This is
done by regarding one hole at a time. How the open area of the hole varies with the cylinders vertical
position is then calculated using equations 12, 13 and 14 together with Figure 38.
Figure 38: One of the three holes that controls the low speed rebound flow.
(12)
where:
is the vertical distance at which the hole that is currently being regarded is positioned
from the cylinder when the cylinder is in its fully closed position.
is the vertical distance between the holes upper edge and the edge of the cylinder that is
covering the rest of the hole.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
(13)
where:
is the angle shown in Figure 38.
is the radius of the hole shown in Figure 38.
(14)
where:
is the holes area.
The area calculation can then be done for all three holes to give the total opening area of the flow
restrictor between the middle chamber and the rebound chamber.
6.3 GUI as a Control Panel

The buttons, menus, checkboxes and text lines that are found in the GUI can be divided into 10
categories.
6.3.1 Controls
Rebound Low Speed Control: Type in the number of clicks for the rebound low speed control in the
textbox.
Reservoir Needle Position: Type in the number of clicks for the reservoir needle position in the
textbox.
6.3.2 Inputs
Type of signal: Select the type of damper velocity signal to be used as input for the model. Table 1
shows the available alternatives.
Table1: The input signal alternatives
Signal
Sinus +ve
Sinus -ve
Step +ve
Step -ve
Damper velocity file
Explanation
A heave sine signal that starts at zero and goes
in the positive direction
A heave sine signal that starts at zero and goes
in the negative direction
A step signal that starts at zero and goes in the
positive direction
A step signal that starts at zero and goes in the
negative direction
A recorded damper velocity file, note: this
feature is not complete as there has been no use
for it during the projects proceedings.
Frequency: Type in the frequency of the selected sine signal.

32
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Velocity Amplitude: Type in the amplitude of the selected sine signal.

Step time: Type in the time at which the step signal is to occur.
Step velocity: Type in the maximum velocity that the step signal is to reach.
6.3.3 Shim stacks
Plot shim stack characteristics: Fill this checkbox in order to plot the characteristics of the shim stacks
that are going to be used in the simulation.
Shim stacks measured: Select this setting to use the measured shim stack characteristics, see section
4.2 for explanation.
Shim stacks modeled: Select this setting to use the modeled shim stack characteristics, see section
4.2 for explanation.
Simulation time: Type in the simulation time in seconds. If a step signal is going to be used as input
make sure that the damper will not reach its end positions (maximum compressed
position or maximum extended position).
ARC on: Select this setting to turn on the ARC function.
ARC off: Select this setting to turn off the ARC function.
6.3.4 Results display
Max position compression: The text box will display the pistons maximum position into the
compression chamber during the last simulation or the minimum
remaining stroke into the compression chamber. Make sure this
number is not near zero. At the beginning of the simulation the piston
is set to be in the middle of the dampers stroke. The simulation is not
valid if the damper reaches the end of the stroke.
Max position rebound: The text box will display the pistons maximum position into the rebound
chamber during the last simulation or the minimum remaining stroke into the
rebound chamber. Make sure this number is not near zero. At the beginning
of the simulation the piston is set to be in the middle of the dampers stroke.
The simulation is not valid if the damper reaches the end of the stroke.
Max compression pressure: At the end of the simulation this textbox will display the maximum
pressure reached in the compression chamber during the simulation.
Max rebound pressure: At the end of the simulation this textbox will display the maximum pressure
reached in the rebound chamber during the simulation.
6.3.5 Output plots
Table 2 below lists the different data from the simulation results that can be plotted. If the
checkboxes are ticked before the simulation is started the plots will be shown as soon as the
simulation ends. The checkboxes can also be ticked after the simulation is done and the graphs for
the last simulation will appear. As the GUI uses the data from the base workspace any alterations to
the data there will affect the graphs.
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Richard Chahine
Table 2: Selectable output plots
As a function of simulation time
Damping Force
Compression Chamber Pressure
Rebound Chamber Pressure
Middle Chamber Pressure
Gas Reservoir Pressure
ARC Chamber Pressure
Damper Position
Damper Velocity
Masters Thesis
As a function of damper velocity

Damping Force
Gas Reservoir Pressure
ARC Chamber Pressure
Combination: All the pressures listed above are
presented in a single graph
6.3.6 Error codes

The error codes will appear in the display window located at the top of the GUI. The error codes that
are programmed are:
Error: select shim stacks: the operator has forgotten to choose which shim stack
model to use.
Error: set ARC: the operator has forgotten to select the setting for the ARC.
Always have a look at the MatLab command window to see if any error messages pop up during the
simulation.
6.3.7 Starting a simulation
To start a simulation select the desired inputs, toggle the shim stack and ARC settings and select the
simulation time, then press the simulate button. Once the simulation starts the display window
should read running. When the simulation is complete the display window will read simulation
complete. Simulation complete will also be displayed in the command window. The first time a
simulation is run after opening MatLab it will take a little longer than usual.
6.3.8 Save function
By typing in a desired file name with the .mat extension in the text box next to the Save button
together with the .mat extension and then pressing Save the data needed to create the output
plots will be saved. The data will be saved to a file in .mat in format with the desired file name in the
current MatLab directory.
6.3.9 Load function
Saved files containing simulation data can be loaded by typing their names into the text boxes under
the results files text, filling the checkboxes next to their names and the checkboxes next to the
names of the desired plots and then pressing the Load button. Lab data results can also be added
to the plots. To do this one types the name of the lab data file including .txt extension and then fills
the checkbox next to the lab data textbox before pressing the Load button. By filling the Mean
value of test data checkbox graphs including the mean value of the test data for one cycle will be
produced. The test data that can be used as input has to be in the format produced by test cell D14
at hlins Racing AB and the number of cycles for producing mean values is ten. This is due to the way
the code searches for the starting time for the experiment and the way it detects when each cycle is
completed. The recording of the data is started before the test rig is started. The type of plots
available, are the same as those that were listed in Table 2. The color code for these graphs is
displayed in the MatLab command window.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
7 Shim Stacks Modeled vs. Shim Stacks Measured

To evaluate how the damper model behaves when the shim stacks modeled function is selected in
comparison to when the shim stacks measured function is selected the damper model was run using
the same input signal for each setting and the graphs were analyzed. The ARC system was set to the
off position and the input signal was of heave sine type. The setup is summarized by Table 3 below.
Table 3: The simulation input data.
Reservoir Clicks
Rebound low speed adjustment
Input signal
Amplitude [m/s]
Frequency [Hz]
Simulation Time
ARC
Simulation 1
30
30
Sinus +ve
0.1
1
2
OFF
Simulation 2
30
30
Sinus +ve
0.25
1
2
OFF
The difference in the results generated by the two simulations is clearest when comparing the
damping force curves. As one can see in the graphs in Figure 39 the difference in the damping force is
greatest during the rebound stroke at the lower damper velocity of 0.1 m/s. At the higher damper
velocity of 0.25 m/s the difference shrinks.
Damping Force
1000
800
Damping Force [N]
600
400
200
Modeled: 0.1 m/s

0
-200
Measured: 0.1 m/s
-400
Modeled: 0.25 m/s
-600
-800
Measured: 0.25 m/s

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Simulation Time [s]
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 39: Damping force as a function of simulation time for Simulations 1 and 2.
The reason for this can be seen in Figure 10 in section 4.2 where the line corresponding to the shim
stacks modeled function crosses the Y axis at a higher point than the one for the shim stacks
35
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
measured. A higher pressure difference between the two chambers involved is therefore required in
order for the shim stacks to begin allowing a flow past them in the case when the shim stacks
modeled function is selected in comparison to the case in which the shim stacks measured function is
selected. This occurs in the region when the shim stacks just began opening. The difference between
the damping forces at higher damper velocities is due to that the linear model and the measured
model lines in Figure 10 dont exactly overlap.
7.1 The Experimental Setup

In order to validate how well the damper model reproduces the behavior of a real damper the
experimental setup shown in Figure 40 was used.
Compression
chamber pressure
sensor
Test rig
Rebound chamber
pressure sensor
TPX damper
Middle
chamber
pressure
sensor
Oil reservoir
pressure
sensor
Figure 40: The experimental setup used in the D14 test cell at hlins Racing AB.
A special TPX damper with holes drilled for pressure sensors was used. Four pressure sensors were
positioned so that one measured the compression chamber pressure, another the rebound chamber
pressure, a third the middle chamber pressure and a fourth the oil reservoir pressure. Additional data
that could be gathered from this test rig included the damping force, the damper position and the
time elapsed during the test. Later, when files from the test cell were loaded into the GUI the
damper position was derived to obtain the damper velocity.
7.2 List of Performed Tests

Table 4 contains a list of all the tests performed using the experimental setup above. All the input
signals in the table are of the heave sine type.
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Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Table 4: List of performed tests.

Test
Damper
Frequency [Hz]
number
Velocity [m/s]
1
0.0938
1
2
0.1
10
3
0.1
30
4
0.25
10
5
0.25
30
6
0.5
10
7
0.5
30
8
0.25
3
9
0.25
10
10
0.25
3
11
0.25
10
*This is the maximum open position
Amplitude
[mm]
30
3.18
1.06
7.95
2.65
15.91
5.31
26.53
7.96
26.53
7.96
Reservoir
Needle clicks
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
15
15
41*
41*
Rebound Low
Speed clicks
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
15
15
60*
60*
7.3 Validation and Analysis

Simulations using the TPX model were performed with the same input data as in the laboratory tests,
i.e. the data given in Table 4 above. The graphs from the both the simulations and the tests
performed were loaded via the GUI and plotted. Since the number of graphs is large only test 1 has
been chosen to be displayed and discussed. The results from test number 1 is quite representative of
the results from all the cases.
The graph for the damping force as a function of simulation time is shown in Figure 41. The damping
force curve produced by the simulations is similar in shape to the one produced by the experimental
test. The opening of the shimstacks can be identified in areas near each other. Both for the case
where the simulation was run with the shim stack setting in modeled mode and in measured mode
did the compression peak for the damping force curve vary a lot from the one in the experimental
test. The rebound peak for the simulation with the shim stacks set to measured was however much
closer to the experimental test curve than the one with the simulation setting shim stacks
modeled.
Damping Force
700
600
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
500
Damping Force [N]
400
300
200
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
100
0
Test 1
-100
-200
-300
-400
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Simulation Time [s]
1.6
1.8
Figure 41: Damping force as a function of simulation time for test 1.

37
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
From the damper position curves in Figure 42 one can see that the algorithm in the GUI code that
adjusts the data gathered from the test so that both the simulation curve and the experimental test
curve have the same starting time is not perfect.
Damper position
0.03
Test 1
Damper position [mm]
0.025
0.02
Simulation:
shim stacks
modeled and
measured
(overlap)
0.015
0.01
0.005
-0.005
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Simulation Time [s]
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 42: Damper position as a function of simulation time for test 1.

Figures 43 and 44 show the rebound chamber pressure as a function of simulation time and the
compression chamber pressure as a function of simulation time respectively. In these figures it can
seen that the difference in magnitudes between the simulation cases and the test case is larger for
the rebound chamber pressure than the compression chamber pressure. This explains the damping
force curve discussed earlier. However, in both cases the pressure curves for the simulation data are
higher than the pressure curves for the experimental data. This in turn is caused by the higher system
pressure in the simulation cases compared to the experimental case. The fact that the compression
chamber pressure during the test reached lower levels than in the simulations could be due to that
the temporary curve for the reservoir check valve is not as steep as it should be. This would make it
more difficult for the oil to leave the reservoir during a rebound stroke and thereby the pressure in
the compression chamber and middle chambers reaches lower levels. This however does not explain
the variations in the oil reservoir pressure.
38
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
x 10
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
1.8
Rebound Chamber Pressure [Pa]
1.7
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
1.6
1.5
1.4
Test 1
1.3
1.2
0
0.5
1
1.5
Simulation Time [s]
Figure 43: Rebound chamber pressure as a function of simulation time for test 1.
6
x 10
1.55
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
Compression Chamber Pressure [Pa]
1.5
1.45
1.4
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
1.35
1.3
Test 1
1.25
1.2
1.15
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Simulation Time [s]
1.6
1.8
Figure 44: Compression chamber pressure as a function of simulation time for test 1.
The higher system pressure can be observed in Figures 45 and 46 which shown the oil reservoir and
middle chamber pressures respectively. The lower oil reservoir pressure in the experimental case
could be due to the inaccurate way of filling the damper with gas. So the exact pressure of the gas
the damper is filled with is a little uncertain.
39
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
6
x 10
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
and measured
(overlap)
Oil Reservoir Pressure [Pa]
1.4
1.35
1.3
Test 1
1.25
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Simulation Time [s]
1.6
1.8
2.2
Figure 45: Oil reservoir pressure as a function of simulation time for test 1.
6
x 10
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
Middle Chamber Pressure [Pa]
1.4
1.35
1.3
Test 1
1.25
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Simulation Time [s]
1.6
1.8
Figure 46: Middle chamber pressure as a function of simulation time for test 1.
When studying the damping force, compression chamber pressure, rebound chamber pressure,
middle chamber pressure, and oil reservoir pressure as a function of damper velocity as shown in
Figures 47 to 51 respectively it is clear that the curves for the experimental data are set much wider
apart than those for the simulation data. The reason for this could be flexibility in the damper and
friction between the pistons and the cylinder walls. Another source of this could be the shim stacks
surface flexibility. The shim stack surface may take different shapes during different accelerations of
the flow past the shim stack. The shim stack may also flex out and slightly without opening when the
pressure on its underside builds up.
40
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Damping force vs Damper velocity

800
Test 1
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
Damping Force [N]
600
400
200
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
-200
-400
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02 0.04
Damper Velocity [m/s]
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 47: Damping force as a function of damper velocity for test 1.
1.6
x 10
Compression chamber pressure vs Damper velocity
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
Compression chamber Pressure [Pa]
1.55
1.5
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
1.45
1.4
1.35
Test 1
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02 0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 48: Compression chamber pressure as a function of damper velocity for test 1.
41
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
6
1.9
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
Rebound chamber pressure vs Damper velocity
1.8
Rebound chamber Pressure [Pa]
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
x 10
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
Test 1
1.3
1.2
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02 0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 49: Rebound chamber pressure as a function of damper velocity for test 1.
6
1.45
x 10
Middle chamber pressure vs Damper velocity
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
and measured
(overlap)
Middle chamber Pressure [Pa]
1.4
1.35
1.3
Test 1
1.25
1.2
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02 0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 50: Middle chamber pressure as a function of damper velocity for test 1.
6
1.45
x 10
Oil reservoir pressure vs Damper velocity
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
and measured
(overlap)
Oil reservoir Pressure [Pa]
1.4
1.35
1.3
Test 1
1.25
1.2
-0.1
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02 0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 51: Oil reservoir pressure as a function of damper velocity for test 1.
42
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
An example of the graph produced when the mean function for the experimental data is selected in
the GUI is shown in Figure 52. One should still look at the original data before looking at this graph to
make sure there arent too large cycle to cycle variations which could be caused by changes in
damper temperature for example.
Damping force vs Time MEAN
800
Test 1
Damping Force [N]
600
Simulation: shim
stacks modeled
400
200
Simulation: shim
stacks measured
-200
-400
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Time [s]
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 52: Damping force as a function of damper velocity for test 1 with the mean function selected
for the experimental test data when loading it into the GUI.
43
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
44
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
8 ARC Implementation
The ARC system is a complex one and is therefore very difficult to model. The ARC chamber has
flexible walls. The flexibility of each of these walls varies from the others. In order to get the
performance of the ARC system into the model two experimental tests were devised. The aim of the
first test is to obtain the flow past the rebound shim stack, with the ARC system connected to it, as a
function of the ARC pressure as well as the pressure drop over the shim stack, i.e. between the
rebound chamber and the middle chamber. The goal of the second test is to attain a stiffness for the
ARC chamber in terms of flow into the chamber versus change in ARC pressure.
8.1 Test 1: P vs. Q for the shim stack as a function of ARC chamber
pressure
Figure 53 below shows the experimental setup for this first test. The rebound piston is placed on a
piston shaft together with the rebound shim stack and the ARC system. A gas pressurized oil
reservoir is connected to the cavity in the shaft and pressurizes it.
Gas reservoir
Separator piston
Shaft
Direction
of Oil flow
Rebound piston
Rebound shim stack

ARC
Oil reservoir
Figure 53: The experimental setup for test 1: A piston with the rebound shim stack and ARC system
immersed in the flow bench.
A hole is drilled between the cavity at the center of the piston shaft and the ARC chamber as shown
in Figure 54. The ARC channel which usually transports damper fluid from the rebound chamber to
the ARC chamber is sealed by an O- ring. This construction allows the pressure in the ARC chamber to
be almost equal to the pressure in the gas reservoir and can therefore be controlled.
45
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
Flexible
walls
Original canal between ARC

chamber and rebound chamber
blocked by O-ring
New canal leads to oil reservoir
O-rings
Figure 54: An enlargement of the ARC chamber showing the hole drilled between the shaft cavity and
the ARC chamber.
The oil reservoir has to be large in order to compensate for slight oil leakage out of the ARC chamber.
This setup can then be run in the flow bench with the flow bench running backwards so that the oil
flows in the direction shown in Figure 53. The pressure on the upper side of the piston should be
equivalent to the rebound chamber pressure and the pressure on the lower side representative of
the middle chamber pressure. Using this setup the flow past the rebound shim stack as a function of
the ARC pressure as well as the pressure drop over the shim stack should be obtained.
8.2 Test 2: ARC chamber stiffness: flow into the chamber versus change in
ARC pressure.
In this test the construction used in test 1 can be reused. The oil reservoir connection is replaced by a
cylindrical plunger as shown in Figure 55.
Cylindrical
plunger
Pressure
sensor
Figure 55: The experimental setup for Test 2: A plunger replaces the oil reservoir.
The construction with the hole drilled between the cavity in the shaft and the ARC chamber as
shown in Figure 54 is maintained. A pressure sensor that measures the pressure inside the shaft is
placed on the piston shaft. The plunger can then be moved up and down while the pressure as well
as the plungers position is recorded. Using the plungers position as a function of time one can then
determine the flow into the ARC chamber. The pressure sensor will then give the pressure inside the
46
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
shaft which should be almost equal to the pressure inside the ARC chamber if the canal joining the
two is large enough. Using the pressure as a function of the flow into the ARC chamber, a type of
stiffness for the ARC chamber represented by equation 15 can be determined.
(15)
where:
is a stiffness
is the change in pressure in the ARC chamber
is the flow into or out of the ARC chamber
By having the plunger operated using a regulator that aims to keep the pressure in the shaft constant
the oil leakage out of the ARC chamber can be determined.
8.3
Model Implementation
The ARC system has been implemented in the model by using two blocks. The first block is the ARC
chamber subsystem whose contents are shown in Figure 56.
OBS!! controllera hur det r tnkt att look up tablen ska handskas med negativa flden, dvs fld
1
flow through restrictor
ARC pressure
|u|
Add
Representation of
Abs
u
Gain
Divide
Sqrt
-K-
-K-
Cd_compression
A_LS_compression
rho_oil
rho_oil
Flow in to ARC
chamber
Pressure in ARC
1
xos
Integrator1
Lookup Table
-1
1
ARC Pressure

Initial ARC chamber pressure
ARC_on_off
2
Flow to ARC
0
Constant
temporary to run without ARC1
Multiport
Switch1
flow to ARC
Figure
56: ARC
chamber
contents.
MIddle chamber
pressure on
backside of upper Osubsystem
ring
The restriction model discussed
in section 4.1 is used to calculate the flow into the ARC chamber
Behvs den hr? kommer trycket i melan kammaren trycka p vre shimstacken med oringen i ARC kammaren?
Can i measure pressure in ARC chamber and then link that directrly to the shimstack opening via experimental tests?
or
pressure
in ARCthe
chamberARC
directly to damping
force (probably
not but could
try to find a multiplication
or addition
from difference in pressure between
chamber
and
theprobably
rebound
chamber.
A look up table
factor that is proporitonal to the ARC pressure that can be put in to get a shift in damping curve from that given by a test of a TPX without ARC)
containing the data from Test 2 in section 8.2 is used to obtain the change in ARC chamber pressure
from the flow into the ARC chamber. This change in pressure is then integrated, with the initial
pressure in the ARC chamber set to the initial gas reservoir pressure. The new ARC chamber pressure
can then be used to calculate the new instantaneous flow through the restriction. The flow to the
ARC chamber is then sent to the rebound chamber block shown in Figure 26 where it is added to the
flow out of the rebound chamber. The second portion of the ARC implementation is found in the
Main Rebound Shim Stacks subsystem shown in Figure 23. This block receives the ARC pressure
signal from the ARC chamber subsystem and uses it as input to a look up table containing the data
47
Const
temporary to run
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
from Test 1 in section 8.1. The flow past the rebound shim stacks can then be obtained as the ARC
chamber pressure and the pressure difference over the rebound shim stacks are known.
48
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
9 Conclusions
During this Masters Thesis project a model for the TPX damper was created using Simulink blocks to
represent the physical parts of the damper. The rest of the model including its inputs and control
were taken care of by a GUI. The model functions so simulations can be performed. Plotting the
results of the simulations together with data from experimental tests was also made easy by the GUI.
The results from comparisons of the simulated damper to the real object indicate that refinements
need to be made to the model before it can be put to use as a tool for helping in optimizing the TPX
dampers construction. Hysteresis in the form of friction as well as damper flexibility does not seem
to be negligible. The variation of the oils compressibility and the dynamic behavior of the check
valves also need to be analyzed in more detail. The surface flexibility of the shim stacks should also
be studied further. The graphs from the simulations seem to replicate the real dampers performance
trends as intended. The numerical magnitudes of the data produced by the simulation are however
not accurate. It looks almost like there is a scaling factor problem but that might not necessarily be
the case as no such fault has yet been found in the code. Overall the model produced during this
Masters Thesis seems to be a good step forward on the path to producing a very useful model. In
section 10 below some suggestions for the next steps in improving the model are provided.
49
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
50
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
10 Suggestions for Future Work

Some suggestions for improving this model so that it is fully usable as a tool for helping optimize the
TPX Damper include:
Produce the fixtures required to perform Tests 1 and 2 described in section 8, and fill the ARC
subsystem in the model with the data from the results of these tests.
Perform a larger number of tests with the experimental damper. Consider performing tests
with a kind of step input in order to help judge sources of error. This could be useful when
analyzing at shim stack and check valve motion.
Perform tests with the shim stacks in the flow bench with varying degrees of acceleration of
the flow and study how the shim stack characteristics vary when the flow increases and then
decreases. Do the lines move closer together than the ones shown in Figure 10?
Create a fixture or find a way to place the reservoir check valve in the flow bench in order to
obtain the
versus Q curves for it.
Find a better way to model the check valves behavior as their dynamic behavior most likely
needs to be taken into account.
Study the interaction between shim stacks.
Study the causes of the hysteresis in the damping curves, could it be due to:
o The separator piston friction.
o Flexibility in the damper construction.
o Main piston friction, what happens if the sealing ring type is changed? Do the test
curves change?
o Surface flexibility of the shim stacks.
Measure how the oil compressibility varies as a function of temperature and pressure.
After all the above have been considered, one can look again into the ARC system and
compare its performance to the data produced by the model. Run the damper in the test rig
with the ARC system in place and without it. Do the same in the model and then compare the
results.
Flow bench tests can also be performed with varied number of preload clicks for the
reservoir shim stack.
51
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
11 Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank in particular Magnus Danek, Erik Lnnqvist, Nils Gran Nygren,
Fredrik Pettersson, and David Bolander as well as the rest of the Car Division at hlins Racing AB for
their support and guidance during this masters thesis project. Thanks are also orderly due to Docent
Lars Drugge at the Department of Vehicle Dynamics at KTH for his advice concerning the thesiss
general structure.
52
Richard Chahine
Masters Thesis
12 References
[1] Lnnqvist, Erik. Masters Thesis: A Physical Model and an Experimental Comparison of Characteristics of a
High Performance Damper. Thesis. Royal Institute of Technology, 2000. Stockholm, 2000. Print.
[2] Burness B. and Nygren N-G., Inside the hlins TT44 manual, hlins Racing AB, 1999.
[3] hlins database: drawings and CAD model of the TPX44 damper, last accessed May 2, 2011.
[4] Karlsson, Arne. Formelsamling i Strmningsmekanik. Upplaga 2.11. Mekanik, KTH, 29 August
2007. Print.
[5] Young, H. D., and R. A. Freedman. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics: with Modern Physics.
11th ed. San Francisco: Pearson, Addison Wesley, 2004. 418. Print.
53

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KTH Department of

Lars Drugge, KTH Vehicle Dynamics

Erik Lnnqvist, hlins Racing AB

Magnus Danek, hlins Racing AB

Executed at: hlins Racing AB

The Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle

Problem Formulation: Project definition and boundaries .............................................................. 3

TPX Construction Functioning Principles......................................................................................... 5

Rebound Stroke ....................................................................................................................... 6

Compression Stroke ................................................................................................................ 7

Oil Reservoir ............................................................................................................................ 9

Gas Reservoir ......................................................................................................................... 10

Model Principles ............................................................................................................................ 11

Flow Restrictors ..................................................................................................................... 11

Shim Stacks ............................................................................................................................ 11

Chamber Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 14

Gas Reservoir ......................................................................................................................... 15

Interaction between parts..................................................................................................... 16

Model Construction ....................................................................................................................... 17

GUI Control .................................................................................................................................... 29

Reservoir Needle Control ...................................................................................................... 29

Low Speed Rebound Damping Control.................................................................................. 30

GUI as a Control Panel ........................................................................................................... 32

Shim stacks .................................................................................................................... 33

Results display ............................................................................................................... 33

Output plots .................................................................................................................. 33

Error codes .................................................................................................................... 34

Save function ................................................................................................................. 34

Load function ................................................................................................................. 34

Shim Stacks Modeled vs. Shim Stacks Measured .......................................................................... 35

The Experimental Setup ........................................................................................................ 36

List of Performed Tests.......................................................................................................... 36

Validation and Analysis.......................................................................................................... 37

ARC Implementation ..................................................................................................................... 45

Model Implementation ......................................................................................................... 47

Suggestions for Future Work ..................................................................................................... 51

2 Problem Formulation: Project definition and boundaries

The model shall be built it MatLab Simulink.

3 TPX Construction Functioning Principles

Figure 1: Overall dissected view of a TPX damper [3].

3.1 Rebound Stroke

Figure 2: Oil flow during a Low speed Rebound stroke [3].

Figure 3: Oil flow during a High speed Rebound stroke [3].

3.2 Compression Stroke

Figure 4: Oil flow during a Low speed Compression stroke [3].

Figure 5: Oil flow during a High speed Compression stroke [3].

Figure 6: The ARC chamber [3].

3.5 Oil Reservoir

Figure 7: Oil and gas reservoirs [3].

3.6 Gas Reservoir

4.1 Flow Restrictors

4.2 Shim Stacks

Delta Pressure [MPa]

Delta Pressure [MPa]

Rebound Shimstack ARC

Delta Pressure [Pa]

Rebound Shimstack ARC

Delta Pressure [Pa]

Rebound check valve (opens during compression)

Delta Pressure [Pa]

4.3 Chamber Characteristics

is the damper oils compressibility

4.4 Gas Reservoir

4.5 Interaction between parts