AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Unit 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Thermo means heat and dynamic means motion
Thermodynamics is the field of science, which deals energy
transfer (heat, work), and properties of system.
Conversion of heat energy into power plays important role. One
of the important fundamental laws is conservation of energy
principle. Therefore, the first law of thermodynamics is simply an
expression of conservation of energy.
Ex: a) A ball falling from a tower picks speed because of its potential
energy (PE) being converted to kinetic energy (KE).
b) A person eating more and working less i.e., a person who has a
greater energy input (food) than energy output (exercise) will gain
weight (store energy in the form of fat).
- Thermodynamics is a field of science, which deals,
(a) Energies possessed by gases and vapours.
(b) Conservation of energies and
(c) The relationship with properties of system.
Applications of Thermodynamics law & principles
- House hold appliances such as pressure cooker, electric heater and
shower.
- Internal combustion (I.C) engines (Deals chemical energy of a fuel
into work).
- Refrigeration and Air conditioning.
- Compressors.
- Pumps.
- Gas turbines.
- Steam and nuclear power plants.
- Gas dynamics and jet propulsion and
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- Cryogenic systems.
Types of Thermodynamics
1. Classical thermodynamic (or) Macroscopic approach
2. Statistical thermodynamic (or) Microscopic approach
Macroscopic/Classical/Engineering
Microscopic/Statistical
Approach
Approach
Macro means big.

Micro means small.

It is the overall behaviour of the system

(System is considered as whole) and
intermolecular spacing or free mean path
are negligible.

It is the individual behaviour of

the molecule in the system (The
effect of molecular motion is
considered).

It is an average approach.

It is a detailed approach for get

complete details.

Properties (p, V and T) can be sensed by Properties cannot be measured

human senses or measuring instruments. with common instruments. Ex:
Ex: Pressure and temperature.
Momentum.
To describe a system, only a few To describe a system, large
properties and simple equations are number of variables and many
required.
complicated
equations
are
required.

Both approaches used to study the behaviour of the system but

most of the
analyses are based on macroscopic approach.
Concept of Continuum

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- A continuous homogenous medium is known as continuum.

- The continuum refers to a continuous distribution of matter.
- There is no macroscopic void and cavities present.
It indicates that every part of the system is similar to the
adjacent parts.
Ideal (or) hypothetical (or)
Real Gas
Perfect gas (or) Characteristic
gas equation (or) Equation of
state (or) Ideal gas Law (or)
Equation
It is an imaginary substance that The gas which does not obey the
obey the gas laws pV = mRT at all ideal gas is called as real gas.
conditions
of
pressure
and
temperature.
No intermolecular forces between It having particle attraction.
the molecules.
Equation of state : f (p, v, T) = 0
and pV = mRT Characteristic
gas equation: pv/T = C (or) pv =
RT (or) p = RT (or) (or) pV = nRuT.

pV = ZRT (or) pV = nRT

Let,
Z =1 (Ideal gas)
Z > 1 (or) Z < 1 (Real gas).

Thermodynamic System (or) System

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- A system is a matter on which analysis (energy conversions)

studied.
- The state of a system is described by the properties (p,v &amp; T).
Types of system
1. Based on the mass and energy
i) Closed system / cycle
(or) Non flow process /
system
(or)Thermodynamic cycle
(or) Control mass (or)
Fixed mass

transfer
ii) Open system / cycle
(or) Flow process / system
(or) Control volume (or)
Control surface

The same working substance The working substance enter

is recirculated again and the system and leaves to
again and finally return to atmosphere after doing work.
initial state.
No mass transfer and only Both mass and energy (heat
energy (heat and work) and work)
transfer takes
crosses the boundary.
place.
System boundary is fixed.

System boundary
may not change.

may

or

A certain quantity of matter

(control mass) is considered. A certain region (control
volume) is considered.
Ex: Pressure cooker, cylinder
and
piston
arrangement,
Thermal
power
plant,
Refrigerator, mixture of ice
and water in a container.

Ex: I.C engines, ceiling fan,

windmill, centrifugal pump,
gas turbine, nozzle, boiler,
compressor, pV = C, p = C,
V = C and T = C.

iii) Isolated System

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- It is an imaginary system.
- No mass and no energy (heat and work) transfer i.e., No interaction
between system and surrounding.
- Total energy remains constant (E = 0).
- Ex: Universe, thermo flask and nuclear waste package.
2. Based on the composition
i) Homogeneous system
- A system has a single phase (uniform chemical composition).
- Ex: Crude oil, air in the cycle tube, mixture of air and water vapour
and water in the bottle.
ii) Heterogeneous system
- A system consists of more than one phase.
- Ex: Water + steam, water + oil, water + ice and fog.
Surrounding (or) Environment
Everything external to the system is called surrounding.
Boundary (or) Control Surface (or) Control Volume
- It separate system and from surrounding.
- It may be real or imaginary.
- It may be fixed boundary (Ex: Rigid tank containing gas) or
movable boundary
(Ex: Cylinder with piston).
- It may be diathermic boundary (Permit heat transfer between the
system and surrounding.
- Ex: Outer surface of pressure cooker and engine cylinder surface)
or Adiabatic boundary (Prevent heat transfer between the system
and surrounding. Ex: Thermo flask).
- The control volume is bounded by a control surface.
Thermodynamic property (or) Property
- State is the condition of the system and described by properties.
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- Properties or Characteristics are coordinates, its depend only end

states and not
on the path (independent of the path).
- Properties are point function and are exact or perfect differentials
and macroscopic in nature.
- Specific properties are intensive properties and denoted by
lowercase(small letters)
- Total properties are extensive properties and denoted by uppercase
(capitalletters).
Intensive/ Intrinsic
Extensive/ Extrinsic
property
property
Independent on mass
size of the system.

(or) Dependent on mass (or) size

of the system. If mass is
increased,
the
extensive
properties
values
also
increase.

Ex: Pressure, temperature,

specific
volume,
specific
enthalpy, specific entropy,
specific
internal
energy,
specific
heat,
velocity,
dynamics
viscosity
and
density etc.,

Heat (or) Heat Transfer (Q)

Ex: Mass, weight, length,

total volume, total energy
(energy), Internal energy,
enthalpy, entropy and heat
capacity etc.,

Work (or) Work Transfer (W)

A form of energy transfer (energy It is an energy transfer

interactions) from a hot body to cold
body due to temperature gradient.

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

It is low grade energy (low grade It is high-grade energy (highenergy is cannot be converted fully grade energy is fully convertible
to useful work).
to useful work).
It is a boundary and transient It is a boundary and transient
phenomena and not a property.
phenomena.
It represented by an area under T - It represented by an area under p
s diagram.
- V diagram.
It is a path function and inexact (or) It is a path function, not a
imperfect differential.
property
and
inexact
(or)
imperfect differential.
It having magnitude and direction.

It
having
direction.

magnitude

and

Q = W + U (For a closed system or Work = Force x Distance moved

process).
i.e., (Force moves through a
distance).
dQ = dW (For a closed system or
cycle).
Work, W = p. dV (For Reversible
process).
Q = mcT
Sign conversion of heat:

Sign conversion of work:

Heat supplied to the system: (+Q)

W = pdV( Only for Reversible

process, closed system and work
should cross the boundary)

Heat rejected by the system: (-Q)

W = - vdp( Only for open system)

W.D by the system : (+ ve)

Ex: HE and Turbines etc.,
W.D on the system : (- ve)
Ex: Compressor, Fan and Heat
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

pump etc.,

Specific heat (c)

c = Q / m T
Q Amount of heat transfer (J)
m Mass of the substance (kg)
T Rise in temperature (K)
- The Amount of heat required to raise a unit mass of the substance
through a unit rise in temperature.
- Unit: J/kg K.
Heat capacity (C)
- Heat capacity = mc.
- Product of mass and specific heat.
- Unit: J/K (or) kJ/K.
Specific heat at constant pressure (cp )
Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of
the substance through a unit rise in temperature at constant
pressure.
c p = (h/T) p
Specific heat at constant volume (cv)

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Amount of heat required to increase or decrease a unit mass of

the substance through a unit rise in temperature at constant
volume.
The rate of change of specific internal energy with respect to
temperature when the volume is held constant.
c v = (u/T) v
Modes of work transfer
1. Mechanical work
a) Boundary or Displacement work
The work associated with the change in volume of a closed
system
Work, W = p. dV
b) Gravitational work
c) Acceleration work
d) Spring work
When the force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring
changes.
e) Shaft work
Torque is applied to the shaft.
f) Paddle wheel work (or) Stirring work
When the weight is lowered, and the paddle wheel turns, there
is work transfer into the fluid, which is stirred.
g) Thermodynamic work
- Work done by the system when the energy transferred across
the boundary of the system.
- Work is considered as an output done on the system or by the
system.
- It is mainly due to intensive property and difference between
system and surrounding.
h) Reversible Work

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

The maximum amount of useful work that can be obtained as a

system undergoes a process between specified initial and final
states.
2. Non mechanical work
a) Electrical work
When current (a) flows through a potential difference V, the
electrical W.D, W e = VI.
b) Magnetic work
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer which deals
with the relations among heat, work and properties of systems.
Energy
Exergy (or) Availability (or)
Available energy (AE or A)
Capacity to do work.

Available energy means the part of

heat energy, which can be converted
into work by a reversible (ideal)
process.

Energy is property and conserved

in every process.

It is measured in terms of second law

efficiency.

It depends on the mass.

The quality of energy is expressed in

terms of exergy or availability.
Availability means maximum useful
work.

Energy can convert from one form

into another form, but it cannot be
destroyed.

Exergy can never increase in isolated

system.

Total
Energy,
E
=
Availability = 1 - 2 (or) 1 - 2
(PE+KE+U+Other form of energy)
= U - ToS +PoV (Closed system)
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

= h - ToS (Open system)

Unavailable energy (U.A.E or UE) (or) Anergy (or) Loss of
availability
The part of the heat energy, which cannot be converted into
work due to friction.
UE = TE - AE
Specific Energy
The energy per unit mass.
Types of Energy / Forms of Energy
i) Stored Energy
- Stored energy is contained within the system boundaries.
- Ex: PE, KE and Internal energy.
- Stored energy is further classified into macroscopic energy
and microscopic
energy.
Macroscopic energy (Ek)

Microscopic energy (Ep)

It is the form of energy depend It is the form of energy

on the reference frame.
independent
of
outside
reference frames.
The energy contained in
myriads of molecules.

The energy contained in the

total system.

Ex: Kinetic energy and

potential energy.

Ex: Internal energy, Thermal

energy and chemical energy.

Potential Energy (PE)

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

-The Energy possessed by a system due to its height from

ground level.
- PE = m g Z (J/kg)
Let,
Z Height or elevation from ground level (m)
Kinetic Energy (KE)
The energy possessed by a body due to motion. It is measured
in Joules.

Let,
V - Velocity of the system
Internal Energy (U or IE)
- U = f (T) (For Ideal gas).
- The energy possessed by a body due to its molecular
interactions.
- Internal Energy is an outcome of first law of thermodynamics
(U = Q - W).
- U = mcvT
ii) Transit Energy
- The energy which crosses the system boundary.
- Ex: Heat energy, work energy and electrical energy.
iii) Enthalpy (or) Total heat (H)
- It is the property of a system and point function.
- Total heat content of a body.
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Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- H = U +pV
- H = mcpT H = mcpT
Specific enthalpy (h)
- h = u + pV (J/kg)
- Sum of internal energy (u) and flow energy (pV).
- Enthalpy per unit mass is called specific enthalpy.
iv) Flow Energy (pV) or displacement energy
- The energy transferred across the boundary.
- This form of energy is possessed by all fluids in motion.
- It occurs only in flow process (or) open system.
v) Pressure Energy
- Virtue of pressure.
- Pressure Energy (J/kg).
Equilibrium / Steady state
The system should not undergo any changes with respect to
time.
Thermodynamic equilibrium
The system satisfies all modes of equilibriums (i.e., mechanical,
thermal and chemical equilibrium) are called Thermodynamics
equilibrium.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
Pressure remains constant (or) Equality of forces and
couple.
b) Thermal equilibrium
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Temperature remains constant.

c) Chemical equilibrium
There is no chemical reaction and uniform chemical
composition.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (or) Law of temperature
Two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, all the three systems must be in thermal equilibrium with
each another.
TA = TB = TC

- It is the basis of temperature measurement.

- Zeroth Law deals with system in thermal equilibrium.
First Law of Thermodynamics
- Heat and work are mutually convertible (Q W).
- It deals with quantity of energy (As a conservation of energy
rule).
- Conservation of energy principle states that one form of energy
is converted into another form, but it cannot be destroyed.
- Ex: The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal
to the amount of heat transferred to it.
For a closed system (cycle or cyclic or series of process)
Algebraic sum of heat transfer is equal to algebraic sum of work
transfer (Q = W).
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Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Mathematically, dQ = dW
Let,
- Cyclic integral (or) Complete cycle
For a process (Non cyclic process)
Q = W + U
Let,
Q Heat transfer
W Work transfer
U
Change in internal energy (If KE and PE are
negligible)
E Change in internal energy
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
- It is impossible to transfer heat from lower temperature to
higher temperature.
- All heat energy is cannot converted into work and does not tell
how much energy can be transformed from one form to
another.
- It does not give any information regarding whether the process
is possible or not.
- The law does not specify the direction of heat and work.
Corollaries of first law of Thermodynamics
Corollary I
Energy is a function of heat and work transfers in a system.
Corollary II
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Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Internal energy of a closed system remains unchanged.

Corollary III
PMM - I is impossible.
Perpetual Motion Machine (PMM)
It is a device, which violates either the first or the second law of
thermodynamics.
PMM - I (Perpetual Motion of Machine of First Kind)

- It violates the first law of thermodynamics.

- It develops work, without any heat input. So the machine is
impossible (or) Imaginary engine.
Type of processes based on process index (n) (or) Non - flow
processes (or) closed system
Non - flow process occur in closed system, which do not permit
no mass transfer, but permit energy transfer (heat and work). The
heating and expanding of gases are done by following methods.
Most non flow processes are reversible and most flow
processes are irreversible.
1. Constant pressure/Isobaric/Isopiestic process (Process index,
n=0), p =C
When a gas is heated at a constant pressure, both volume
and temperature will increase.
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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

2. Constant volume/Isochoric/Isometric process (n=), V= C

When a gas is heated at a constant volume (i.e., fixed
space), its temperature and pressure will increase.
3. Constant temperature/Isothermal/ Hyperbolic process (n=1), T
=C or pV = C
- The temperature of the working substance remains constant.
- Isothermal process is very slow process and it is applicable to
gases only.
- Hyperbolic process is applicable to vapours, in which the gas
is heated or
expanded in such a way that the product of its
pressure and volume remains constant.
- Hyperbolic process Ex: Expansion of vapour.
4. Reversible adiabatic/Isentropic process (n=), pV =C
5. Polytropic /General Law of expansion and compression of gases /
Constant energy gradient process (n=n), pVn=C
6. Other process (p = a + bV)
First law of Thermodynamics Applied to Flow process (or)
Steady flow process (or) Open System (or) Control Volume
(or) Control surface
- Flow process occur in open system, which permit both mass
and energy (heat and work) transfer. The working medium is
continuously flowing in and out.
- The space enclosed by the boundary is called control volume.
It is an imaginary boundary and fixed one.
1. Throttling / Isenthalpic process (Enthalpy remains constant
(h = 0; Q=0; W=0; U=0)
- It is an irreversible process.
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Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

- Enthalpy remain constant.

- When a fluid flow through small opening like an orifice is
called as
throttling process.
- Pressure and velocity are reduced.
2. Free expansion / Unresisting / Constant internal energy
process (Q=0; W=0;
U=0)
- It is an irreversible process.
- Work done remain constant.
- Gas expands in vacuum is called free expansion.
- In expansion process the pressure decreases or volume
increases.
Why does free expansion have zero work transfer?
In free expansion, no work is done on or by the system i.e.,
boundary of the system does not move and also no heat flows to or
from the fluid.
Type of processes based on pressure and volume changes
a) Compression process (pressure increase or volume
decrease).
(b) Expansion process.
Path Function

Point Function (or) State

Function

Depend on path. Ex: Heat (Q) Depend on end state only (or)
and work (W).
does not depend on path. Ex:
(p, v & T), internal energy,
enthalpy and entropy.
Path

functions

are

inexact Point

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functions

Page 18 of Unit 1

are

exact

AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

differentials ().
It consider
processes.

the

differentials (d).
direction

of It does not consider

direction of processes.

the

The cyclic integral of a path The cyclic integral of a path

function is non zero.
function is zero.

NON-FLOW EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL GAS

Process

P=
constant

n=
0

V=C

n=

T=C

n=
1

Adaibatic

n=

Polytropic n =
n

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AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

For all processes, S can find by any one of the following three
equations:
S= mcvIn(T2/T1) + mRIn(T2/T1).
S= mcpIn(T2/T1) - mRIn(p2/p1).
S= mcpIn(V2/V1)+ mcvIn(p2/p1).

Process

n
exponent
in

Constan
t
Pressure

Constant
Volume

Constant
Temperatu
re

n=0&
p =C

n=& V
=C

n =1 & T
=C

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Reversible
Adiabatic
n = & pV
=C

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Polytro

n=n&p
C

AE6301 AERO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

pVn = C
p, V, T
Relations
hips
Work
done, W

T2/T1 =
V2/V1

T2/T1 =
p2/p1

p1/p2 = V2/V1

T /T = (p2/p1)
= (V1/V2)

2
1
-1/

T2/T1 = (p2
1/ n
= (V1/V

-1

p(V2-V1)
(or)
mR(T2-T1)

Heat
H
U
Transfer,
Q
Change in mcv(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1)
Internal
Energy,
U
Change in mcp(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1)
Enthalpy,
H
Change in mcpIn(T2/ mcvIn(T2/T1)
Entropy,
T1)
(or)
S
(or)
mcvIn(P2/P1)
mcpIn(V2/
V1)

p1V1In(V2/V1)
(or)
mRT1In(V2/V
1)
Q=W

p1V1 p2V2/
-1
(or)
mR(T1 T2)/
-1
0

U = - W
(or)
mcv (T2-T1)

mcp(T2-T1)

mRIn(V2/V1)
(or)
mRIn(p2/p1)

p1 V1 p 2 V2
(or)
mR(T1 T2)

W x ( -n/
(or)
mcp (T2mcv(T2-T

mcp(T2-T

mcnIn(T2

p - V and T s diagram
- Area under p - V diagram represents work done during the
process.
- Area under T s diagram represents heat transfer during the
process.

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Unit-1- BASIC CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW

Isothermal process

Adiabatic process

pV= C.

pV= C.

Temperature remain constant.

Entropy remain constant.

Slowest process.

Quickest process.

Heat transfer takes place.

Q = 0.

During the process, internal During the process, internal

energy and enthalpy remain energy and enthalpy will
constant.
change.
Quasi Static (or) Quasi Equilibrium Process
- It is an idealized (reversible) process.
- It is very low process.
- A quasi-static process is that a succession of equilibrium states.
- Infinite slowness (very very slowly) is the characteristic feature
of a quasi static process.

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