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- Cryogenic systems.
Types of Thermodynamics
1. Classical thermodynamic (or) Macroscopic approach
2. Statistical thermodynamic (or) Microscopic approach
Macroscopic/Classical/Engineering
Microscopic/Statistical
Approach
Approach
Macro means big.
It is an average approach.
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transfer
ii) Open system / cycle
(or) Flow process / system
(or) Control volume (or)
Control surface
System boundary
may not change.
may
or
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- It is an imaginary system.
- No mass and no energy (heat and work) transfer i.e., No interaction
between system and surrounding.
- Total energy remains constant (E = 0).
- Ex: Universe, thermo flask and nuclear waste package.
2. Based on the composition
i) Homogeneous system
- A system has a single phase (uniform chemical composition).
- Ex: Crude oil, air in the cycle tube, mixture of air and water vapour
and water in the bottle.
ii) Heterogeneous system
- A system consists of more than one phase.
- Ex: Water + steam, water + oil, water + ice and fog.
Surrounding (or) Environment
Everything external to the system is called surrounding.
Boundary (or) Control Surface (or) Control Volume
- It separate system and from surrounding.
- It may be real or imaginary.
- It may be fixed boundary (Ex: Rigid tank containing gas) or
movable boundary
(Ex: Cylinder with piston).
- It may be diathermic boundary (Permit heat transfer between the
system and surrounding.
- Ex: Outer surface of pressure cooker and engine cylinder surface)
or Adiabatic boundary (Prevent heat transfer between the system
and surrounding. Ex: Thermo flask).
- The control volume is bounded by a control surface.
Thermodynamic property (or) Property
- State is the condition of the system and described by properties.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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It is low grade energy (low grade It is high-grade energy (highenergy is cannot be converted fully grade energy is fully convertible
to useful work).
to useful work).
It is a boundary and transient It is a boundary and transient
phenomena and not a property.
phenomena.
It represented by an area under T - It represented by an area under p
s diagram.
- V diagram.
It is a path function and inexact (or) It is a path function, not a
imperfect differential.
property
and
inexact
(or)
imperfect differential.
It having magnitude and direction.
It
having
direction.
magnitude
and
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pump etc.,
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Total
Energy,
E
=
Availability = 1 - 2 (or) 1 - 2
(PE+KE+U+Other form of energy)
= U - ToS +PoV (Closed system)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Let,
V - Velocity of the system
Internal Energy (U or IE)
- U = f (T) (For Ideal gas).
- The energy possessed by a body due to its molecular
interactions.
- Internal Energy is an outcome of first law of thermodynamics
(U = Q - W).
- U = mcvT
ii) Transit Energy
- The energy which crosses the system boundary.
- Ex: Heat energy, work energy and electrical energy.
iii) Enthalpy (or) Total heat (H)
- It is the property of a system and point function.
- Total heat content of a body.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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- H = U +pV
- H = mcpT H = mcpT
Specific enthalpy (h)
- h = u + pV (J/kg)
- Sum of internal energy (u) and flow energy (pV).
- Enthalpy per unit mass is called specific enthalpy.
iv) Flow Energy (pV) or displacement energy
- The energy transferred across the boundary.
- This form of energy is possessed by all fluids in motion.
- It occurs only in flow process (or) open system.
v) Pressure Energy
- Virtue of pressure.
- Pressure Energy (J/kg).
Equilibrium / Steady state
The system should not undergo any changes with respect to
time.
Thermodynamic equilibrium
The system satisfies all modes of equilibriums (i.e., mechanical,
thermal and chemical equilibrium) are called Thermodynamics
equilibrium.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
Pressure remains constant (or) Equality of forces and
couple.
b) Thermal equilibrium
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Mathematically, dQ = dW
Let,
- Cyclic integral (or) Complete cycle
For a process (Non cyclic process)
Q = W + U
Let,
Q Heat transfer
W Work transfer
U
Change in internal energy (If KE and PE are
negligible)
E Change in internal energy
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
- It is impossible to transfer heat from lower temperature to
higher temperature.
- All heat energy is cannot converted into work and does not tell
how much energy can be transformed from one form to
another.
- It does not give any information regarding whether the process
is possible or not.
- The law does not specify the direction of heat and work.
Corollaries of first law of Thermodynamics
Corollary I
Energy is a function of heat and work transfers in a system.
Corollary II
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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Depend on path. Ex: Heat (Q) Depend on end state only (or)
and work (W).
does not depend on path. Ex:
(p, v & T), internal energy,
enthalpy and entropy.
Path
functions
are
inexact Point
functions
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are
exact
differentials ().
It consider
processes.
the
differentials (d).
direction
the
P=
constant
n=
0
V=C
n=
T=C
n=
1
Adaibatic
n=
Polytropic n =
n
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For all processes, S can find by any one of the following three
equations:
S= mcvIn(T2/T1) + mRIn(T2/T1).
S= mcpIn(T2/T1) - mRIn(p2/p1).
S= mcpIn(V2/V1)+ mcvIn(p2/p1).
Process
n
exponent
in
Constan
t
Pressure
Constant
Volume
Constant
Temperatu
re
n=0&
p =C
n=& V
=C
n =1 & T
=C
Reversible
Adiabatic
n = & pV
=C
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Polytro
n=n&p
C
pVn = C
p, V, T
Relations
hips
Work
done, W
T2/T1 =
V2/V1
T2/T1 =
p2/p1
p1/p2 = V2/V1
T /T = (p2/p1)
= (V1/V2)
2
1
-1/
T2/T1 = (p2
1/ n
= (V1/V
-1
p(V2-V1)
(or)
mR(T2-T1)
Heat
H
U
Transfer,
Q
Change in mcv(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1)
Internal
Energy,
U
Change in mcp(T2-T1) mcv(T2-T1)
Enthalpy,
H
Change in mcpIn(T2/ mcvIn(T2/T1)
Entropy,
T1)
(or)
S
(or)
mcvIn(P2/P1)
mcpIn(V2/
V1)
p1V1In(V2/V1)
(or)
mRT1In(V2/V
1)
Q=W
p1V1 p2V2/
-1
(or)
mR(T1 T2)/
-1
0
U = - W
(or)
mcv (T2-T1)
mcp(T2-T1)
mRIn(V2/V1)
(or)
mRIn(p2/p1)
p1 V1 p 2 V2
(or)
mR(T1 T2)
W x ( -n/
(or)
mcp (T2mcv(T2-T
mcp(T2-T
mcnIn(T2
p - V and T s diagram
- Area under p - V diagram represents work done during the
process.
- Area under T s diagram represents heat transfer during the
process.
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Isothermal process
Adiabatic process
pV= C.
pV= C.
Slowest process.
Quickest process.
Q = 0.
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