Self-discrepancy theory

The self-discrepancy theory states that people compare themselves to internalized standards
called "self-guides". These different representations of the self can be contradictory and result in
emotional discomfort. Self-discrepancy is the gap between two of these self-representations. The
theory states that people are motivated to reduce the gap in order to remove disparity in self-guides.
[1]
Developed by Edward Tory Higgins in 1987, the theory provides a platform for
understanding how different types of discrepancies between representations of the self are related to
different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. It maintains close ties to a long-standing tradition of
belief-incongruity research. Higgins sought to illustrate that internal disagreement causes emotional
and psychological turmoil. Before, many theories such as the self-inconsistency theory,[2] the
cognitive dissonance theory,[3] and the imbalance theory (e.g., Heider, 1958), had done just that;
however, Higgins aspired to predict and define what distinct emotions the cognitive imbalances
would result in. Previous self-imbalance theories had recognized only positive or negative emotions,
in a general sense, associated with the belief inconsistency. The self-discrepancy theory was the first
to improve on these generalizations and assign specific emotions and affects to the disparity. It
asserts two cognitive dimensions from which various self-states are measured: domains of the self
and standpoints of the self.[4]
The theory proposes how a variety of self-discrepancies represents a variety of types of
negative psychological situations that are associated with different kinds of discomfort (p. 319).[4] A
primary goal of the self-discrepancy theory is to help aid in predicting which types of incongruent
ideas will cause such individuals to feel different kinds of negative emotions (p. 319).[4]
The structure of the theory was built based on three ideas: to distinguish among the different
kinds of discomfort felt by those people holding incongruent ideals experienced, to relate the
different possible kinds of emotional vulnerabilities felt by the different types of discrepancies that
people may have for the self, and to consider the role of both the availability and accessibility to the
different discrepancies that may potentially have in influencing the kind and type of discomfort they
are most likely to experience. Also, the theory suggests that individuals are motivated to reach a goal
of where the self-concept matches the appropriate self-guides (p. 32.

Affective Filter Hypothesis

The affective filter is a theoretical construct in second language acquisition that attempts to
explain the emotional variables associated with the success or failure of acquiring a second language.
The affective filter is an invisible psychological filter that can either facilitate or hinder language
production in a second language. When the affective filter is high, individuals may experience stress,
anxiety, and lack of self-confidence that may inhibit success in acquiring a second language. On the
other hand, a low affective filter facilitates risk-taking behavior in regards to practicing and learning
a second language.
Affective filters can be raised or lowered as a result of the environment that individuals are
in, interactions with peers and/or teachers, or due to personal factors such as insecurity and anxiety.
We can probably all attest to the fact that we have at one point in our life been in certain contexts
where we may be nervous about something and have felt paralyzed or incompetent. Just imagine
standing in front of a group of your colleagues in order to conduct a presentation about the ways in
which you differentiate for English learners. Many people might naturally have a low affective filter
in this type of situation because of their personal disposition. However, for many people the affective
filter will skyrocket. These people will sweat, become nervous and will be astonished at the
incoherent comments that may come out of their mouth while they are thinking in their head, "Why
am I speaking as if I don't know what I am talking about?"
Teachers of second language learners must strategically organize their environment and
instruction in order to lower the affective filter of learners in their classroom. Overemphasis on error
correction, laughing at mistakes or being placed in awkward or high-risk environments may tend to
increase the affective filter and inhibit language development. It is imperative that teachers also
institute a policy in the classroom that prohibits students from making fun of their peers or laughing
at errors made by other students. The optimal classroom for language learning and production is a
classroom that encourages risk-taking in language production and views errors as a natural
progression of language learning. When placed in a safe and affirming environment, many students
will blossom and grow in their language development!!

The Cognitive Theory of Social Anxiety

One of the main theories about social anxiety asserts that social anxiety is related to
overestimating the negative aspects of social interactions, and underestimating the positive aspects.
Individuals with social anxiety tend to overestimate the threat of social interactions, the likelihood of
negative outcomes, and the consequences of negative outcomes. Individuals with social anxiety also
tend to underestimate their ability to handle social interactions. One popular treatment for social
anxiety targets these patterns of thinking, and also encourages individuals with social anxiety to
practice engaging in social interactions.

One theory about social anxiety is that patterns of thoughts and beliefs play an important role
in social anxiety, and targeting these thoughts and beliefs can be a helpful way to treat it. These
patterns of thinking tend to lead them to avoid social interactions.
Beliefs and expectations
According to the cognitive theory, individuals with social anxiety tend to:
1. Overestimate the level of threat in social situations. (For example, This person is going to be
judging me.)
2. Underestimate their ability to handle social situations. (For example, Im going to say
something stupid.)
3. Expect negative outcomes from interactions in social environments. (For example, He is
going to think Im stupid.)
4. Overestimate the consequences of these negative outcomes. (For example, Hes probably
going to tell everyone at the office how stupid I am, and then Ill probably be fired.)Because
of these beliefs and expectations, social interactions are often avoided. Focus of attention
during social interactionsWhen individuals with social anxiety are in social interactions, they
tend to focus more on how they are being perceived by other people (for example, My
handshake was too weak. Shes going to think I have no confidence.), rather than on the
interaction itself.
This focus on ones own performance can be very distracting, and can get in the way of having a
positive interaction with someone else.
This attention can also lead one to only pay attention to the negative aspects of how they are
interacting with others.
Because of this focus, individuals with social anxiety tend to remember past interactions as worse
than they really were.
This pattern can lead to more avoidance of social interactions.
Strategies that get in the way of effective interactions
In social settings, individuals with social anxiety often use strategies to avoid negative outcomes.
These strategies are used to prevent bad outcomes, but often get in the way of having a good
outcome. For example, in order to avoid saying something stupid in a large group, someone with
social anxiety might not speak at all. As a result, one would succeed in not saying anything perceived
by others as stupid, but would also miss an opportunity to have a positive interaction.

Cognitive Behavioral Treatment for Social Anxiety

One of the most popular and well-research treatments for social anxiety is cognitive- behavioral
therapy (CBT). Although there are a number of variations to this treatment, two of the most common
elements of this treatment include the following:
CBT helps individuals to evaluate and modify their own negative beliefs and expectations about
social interactions.
Because avoiding social interactions is a strong feature of social anxiety, a CBT therapist supports
individuals to engage in social interactions that tend to be avoided.

Research has shown that this type of therapy can be helpful in treating social anxiety. However, there
are many different types of treatment, and one approach may fit some individuals better than others

Cognitive Theory of Motivation

BY PSYCHOLOGY NOTES HQ MAY 31, 2013
Cognitive theories of motivation seek to explain human behavior as a product of the careful study
and active processing and interpretation of information received. Such a perspective runs counter to
rationalizing human behavior as a result of automatic responses governed by preprogrammed rules or
innate mechanisms involving drives, needs and reactions. The actions of humans, in addition to what
motivates them to engage in particular actions, are therefore, the product of deliberate thought
processes such as beliefs, expectations, knowledge about things and past experiences.
Assumptions
Proponents of the Cognitive Theory of Motivation assert that peoples expectations guide their
behavior, usually, in ways that would bring about desirable outcomes.

Cognitive motivation is said to be rooted on two basic factors. The first involves information
available to the individual. Initially, an individual will process a situation based on whatever input is
immediately available to his senses. The second factor involves the individuals past experience,
which the person refers to when trying to make sense of information presently available and in
determining how to respond or relate to the current situation.
Types of Motivation
Deci and Ryan suggest that there are two types of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the force that
compels a person to fulfill his / her inner potential and interests. Moreover, intrinsic motivation

corresponds to the inherent desire of an individual to express his / her authentic self through selected
actions and behavior, across different settings, whether at work or at play. This particular type of
motivation is said to be quite effective as people who are intrinsically-motivated feel that they can
influence and determine the outcomes of their efforts. The notion of intrinsic motivation helps
explain why some people prefer a lower-paying job that they like over a more lucrative one which
may offer more material rewards but not as much enjoyment.
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is experienced when a persons actions are influenced by the
desire to attain goal objects or rewards. Rewards may be tangible, such as food or money, or
intangible, such as pride and recognition.
Goal Setting Theory
According to one cognitive theory of motivation, the Goal Setting Theory, three factors affect an
individuals probability of success in achieving an outcome. Specifically, these are the time set for
the attainment of a goal the degree of complexity or difficulty of the goal the specificity of the goal
Ideally, the shorter the time between the initiation of action toward a goal and the time the goal is
achieved, the greater are the chances of success. With regard to level of complexity of the goal, it is
said that this factor determines how attractive the goal is to the person. A goal is most attractive and
appealing to an individual if it is neither too easy nor too difficult to attain. Goals that are too easy
fail to provide satisfaction for the individual while goals that are too difficult to obtain can cause a
person to feel discouraged and expend less effort in trying to attain the goal. Furthermore, goals need
to be precise so that the individual knows exactly what is expected of him and the type and amount of
effort / actions needed in order for him to attain the goal.
Expectancy Value Theory
Simply stated, this theory asserts that the motivation of people and their probability of success in
attaining their goals largely depend on their expectation of success multiplied by the value they place
on success. Different people have varied expectancies, which are influenced by past experiences and
appraisals of these past experiences, in addition to social and cultural factors such as parental values
and gender-role stereotypes. Those with positive expectancies are convinced that they have what it
takes to succeed at a task while those with negative expectancies believe in their impending failure.
People who expect to succeed at obtaining a goal and to whom the attainment of the goal is quite
important, are more highly motivated to engage in actions that will ascertain attainment of the goal.
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory suggests that individuals, as learners, have a deeply-rooted need to understand
how and why they encounter success or failure at a task, especially when the outcome is an
unexpected one. Some explanations or causal attributions that people make may be related to amount
of effort, degree of luck, ability levels and task difficulty. An important concept supported by this
theory is that of locus of control, which has to do with whether a person believes his success or

failure to be the result of internal factors such as ones own ability and effort (internal locus) or of
external factors such as difficulty of task (external locus).
Applications of Cognitive Motivation Theories
The above theories are but a few samples of the many variations of cognitive theories of motivation
that are extensively and effectively utilized in education, at the workplace, in sports, and with health
and fitness issues such as those involving proper nutrition and substance abuse.

Cognitive Theories of Generalized Anxiety Disorder

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193953X05702069
This article presents cognitive models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and a critical review of
the empiric literature in which GAD has been associated with affect-related information-processing
biases, particularly in the domains of attention, memory, and problem solving. Not included in this
article are studies of cognitive features of nonclinical anxiety and worry, although this body of
research may be relevant to GAD. The core feature of GAD, worry, is regarded as maladaptive
information processing, biased in the direction of threat. The centrality of threat to everyday events
and possibilities clearly is mirrored in the concerns commonly expressed by individuals with GAD
judging another's look of disapproval as a sign of personal social failure or judging lateness as a sign
of personal incompetence, but despite the flood of research in this area and the robust evidence for
certain types of cognitive biases in GAD, the empiric investigation of threat-related information
processing is in its infancy. Most paradigms used to date fail to test key assumptions of the cognitive
models of GAD. Also, testing of the extent to which affect-related information-processing biases are
unique to GAD or are common to all of the anxiety disorders generally is absent. After reviewing the
extant literature, the authors suggest several novel tests of affective information processing and
highlight the benefits of using multiple comparison groups and prospective studies to fully test the
hypothesis that cognitive biases contribute to the development and maintenance of GAD.