UNIT 1 HEALTH&HEALTH EDUCATION:MEANING,SCOPE AND AIMS

Many factors combine together to affect the health of individuals and communities.
Whether people are healthy or not, is determined by their circumstances and environment. To a
large extent, factors such as where we live, the state of our environment, genetics, our income and
education level, and our relationships with friends and family all have considerable impacts on
health, whereas the more commonly considered factors such as access and use of health care
services often have less of an impact.
The determinants of health include:
The social and economic environment,
The physical environment, The persons individual characteristics and behaviours.
The context of peoples lives determine their health, and so blaming individuals for having poor
health or crediting them for good health is inappropriate. Individuals are unlikely to be able to
directly control many of the determinants of health. These determinantsor things that make
people healthy or notinclude the above factors, and many others:
Income and social status - higher income and social status are linked to better health. The greater
the gap between the richest and poorest people, the greater the differences in health.
Education low education levels are linked with poor health, more stress and lower selfconfidence.
Physical environment safe water and clean air, healthy workplaces, safe houses, communities and
roads all contribute to good health. Employment and working conditions people in employment
are healthier, particularly those who have more control over their working conditions
Social support networks greater support from families, friends and communities is linked to
better health. Culture - customs and traditions, and the beliefs of the family and community all
affect health.
Genetics - inheritance plays a part in determining lifespan, healthiness and the likelihood of
developing certain illnesses. Personal behaviour and coping skills balanced eating, keeping
active, smoking, drinking, and how we deal with lifes stresses and challenges all affect health.
Health services - access and use of services that prevent and treat disease influences health
Gender - Men and women suffer from different types of diseases at different ages.

Aim and objectives of health Education in Schools

The following are the main aims and objectives of health education in schools:

To provide information about health and hygiene

It aims at acquainting the pupils and the teachers with the functioning of the body, the rules of health
and hygiene and the precautionary measures for warding off disease. It is to be notice of the pupils
how bad habits, unhygienic ways of living, addiction to smoking and liquor and such unhealthy
practices, result in evil consequence.

To Maintain norms of good health

It helps the school authorities to keep certain norms of health in school. A number of programmes of
good health, develop in the pupil sufficient habits of hygienic living, hygienic surroundings such as
cleanliness etc.

To take precautionary and preventive measures

Its aim is to take adequate precaution against contamination and spread of diseases. So good sanitary
arrangements are made. Urinals and toilets are kept clean. Sweeping is done daily, and the rooms and
the furniture are kept near and tidy. The eatables in the tuck-shop are saved from flies.

To take curative measures

Remedials action against disease is also taken. A physico-medical check-up is made deformities.
Disabilities and disease detected, and remedial measures suggested. A good number of pupils suffer
from myopea. An eye-examination reveals the extent of short-sightedness. If glasses are not used in
time, myopea will increase rapidly. Some pupils have bad teeth. If they suffer from pyorrhea,
immediate medical treatment is needed.

To develop and promote mental and emotional health

Mental and emotional health are also equally necessary in the school health programmes. While
physical health makes a pupil physically fit, mental and emotional health enables him to maintain an
even temper and happy deposition.

To develop a sense of civic responsibility among pupils.

These is little sense of civic responsibility in our students. They generally fail in their duty to help
their fellow students in particular and other persons in general. They do not come to the aid of others
in time of need and alleviate their sufferings. So, one of the objective of health education is to
cultivate a sense of civic responsibility. Through health education, pupils are to be made conscious of
social crimes, like spitting anywhere, sneezing and coughing on the faces of others.
UNIT2 :HYGIENE& HEALTH HAZARDS
Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of
diseases. Medical hygiene therefore includes a specific set of practices associated with this
preservation of health, for example environmental cleaning, sterilization of equipment, hand hygiene,
water and sanitation and safe disposal of medical waste.
Health Hazards, Prevention, and Solutions
Many homes fall short of the basic requirements of a healthy home and contain one or more of
hazards that adversely affect human health.
Scientific research has shown that these housing-related hazards pose a broad spectrum of risks,
including the following:
Mold and pests such as cockroaches, rodents, and dust mites can cause and contribute to
asthma, allergies, and other respiratory illnesses. Since housing conditions can play a significant
role in respiratory health, these hazards can greatly increase and intensify susceptibility to
respiratory illnesses.
Toxic materials such as lead, asbestos, and chemical pesticides can harm human health in a
variety of ways. For instance, lead poisoning in children causes reduced IQ and attention span,
hyperactivity, impaired growth, reading and learning disabilities, hearing loss, insomnia, and a
range of other health, intellectual, and behavioral problems.
Poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide and radon also pose threats to health. Carbon
monoxide poisoning results in more than 200 accidental deaths a year and, at much lower levels,

causes flu-like symptoms, which often go undiagnosed. Radon can increase the risk of cancer,
which is the second leading cause of death among adults and children..
The ideal way to maintain healthy homes and properties is to practice primary prevention (addressing
these hazards before they become dangerous problems) using a holistic approach (tackling many
hazards at once). With this in mind, NCHH has included two pages in this section Moisture and
Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality to discuss techniques that can help minimize threats from
multiple hazards.
Personal and domestic hygiene.
Handwashing Proper handwashing is one of the most effective ways of preventing the spread of
diarrhoeal diseases. Pathogens cannot be seen on hands, and water alone is not always sufcient to
remove them. Soap and wood ash are both cleansing and disinfecting agents when used with water
and can be used to kill pathogens on hands and utensils. The most important times that hands
should be washed with soap and water are: After defecating. After cleaning a child who has
defecated. Before eating or handling food. Promoting good personal hygiene often requires that
community members are mobilized towards this goal and awareness is raised about how to achieve
it. It is important that hygiene education programmes do more than simply tell people that if they
do not wash their hands they will become sick because of pathogens they cannot see. This rarely
works. Instead, education programmes should try different methods to maximize community
participation
HEALTHY VILLAGES: A GUIDE FOR COMMUNITIES AND COMMUNITY HEALTH
WORKERS
In the programmes and to encourage people to promote good hygiene. Some methods for
promoting hygiene and health are discussed in the next chapter. To encourage handwashing to
become part of the daily routine, suitable facilities must be located near to places such as latrines
and kitchens, where they will be needed. If running water is available, the facilities should include
a tap and a sink as well as soap. Hands may also be washed at a tap stand as. If running water is not
available, an oil can or bucket tted with a tap is a simple way of providing handwashing facilities;
the larger the container, the less frequently it will need lling. Some containers are mounted on
stands with a ledge for soap. Aleaking container (such as a tin can with holes in its base) can also
be used to scoop water from the water storage container and provide a stream of running water for
hand washing. Another approach involves a suspended container that, when tipped, pours water
onto the hands of the user. The system can easily be made from plastic cooking oil containers.
Soap itself can be kept clean by suspending it above the ground on a string.
Bathing Regular bathing and laundering are important for cleanliness and good personal
appearance. They also prevent hygiene-related diseases such as scabies, ringworm, trachoma,
conjunctivitis and louse-borne typhus. Educational and promotional activities can encourage
bathing and laundering, but increasing the number of washing facilities and locating them
conveniently may be more effective. Bathing with soap is an important means of preventing the
transmission of trachomaan illness that can cause blindness and other eyesight problems
What are the effects of drinking?
General
Drinking (even small quantities) can affect your mood and your thinking. This can cause you to hurt
others, get you into legal trouble, and damage your relationships. You can also harm your body now
and when you grow up and also get you addicted.

Death
Each year, an estimated 5,000 people under the age of 21 die from alcohol related injuries. Alcohol is
a factor in about 4 out of every 10 deaths from car crashes, drownings, burns, falls and other
unintentional injuries.
Addiction
The younger you are when you start drinking, the greater your chance of becoming addicted to
alcohol at some point in your life. More than 4 in 10 people who begin drinking before age 15
eventually become alcoholic.
Thinking
Problems
Your brain is still developing throughout the teen years. New research on teens with alcohol disorders
shows that heavy drinking in the teen years can cause long-lasting harm to thinking abilities.
Arrest
Drinking under age 21 is against the law. Penalties can include not getting a drivers license on time,
having the license removed for driving with any trace of alcohol in the body, losing a job, and losing a
college scholarship.
Money
Alcohol costs, and soon you will be spending all your pocket money on it. Your friends will be saving
to go on holidays, to buy books and other important things, and you? Broken!
Acute
Effects
In low doses, euphoria, mild stimulation, relaxation, lowered inhibitions; in higher doses, drowsiness,
slurred speech, nausea, emotional volatility, loss of coordination, visual distortions, impaired memory,
sexual dysfunction, loss of consciousness.
Health
Risks
Increased risk of injuries, violence, fetal damage (in pregnant women), depression,
neurologic deficits, hypertension, liver and heart disease, addiction andfatal overdose.

Why do teens smoke tobacco?

Cigarettes smoking among teens is a part of drug abuse. Fact.
Teens start smoking because of various reasons as below:
One or both parents smoke.
People they admire smoke.
Teens find acceptance by peers if they smoke too. Peer pressure
Advertising on smoking works on teenagers and adults.
Teens feel that they can stop at anytime. So why not try it?
It helps the teen lose weight, reduce stress, etc.
The dangers of smoking is so great, but because governments get a lot of tax money from
tobacco and cigarettes manufacturers, they are less hesitant to ban it totally. Government and
society is aware of the dangers, that is why they made it illegal for teens to possess and use
cigarettes. If it was good, why would they restrict you? Does this makes sense?
What is second-hand smoke?

Second-hand smoke is made up of the smoke from the burning end of a cigarette or pipe, and
the smoke that is blown into the air by the person smoking. It has...
Over 4,000 chemicals; many of them cause cancer. Two thirds of the smoke from a
cigarette is not inhaled by the smoker, but enters the air around the smoker.
At least twice the amount of nicotine and tar as the smoke inhaled by the smoker
Five times the amount of carbon monoxide, a deadly gas that robs the blood of oxygen.
Additionally, below is true of second hand smoking...
It contains higher levels of ammonia (better known as window cleaner) and cadmium (also
found in batteries)
The concentration of hydrogen cyanide (a poisonous gas that attacks respiratory enzymes)
in tobacco smoke is considered toxic
It contains nitrogen dioxide which is measured at fifty times higher than the standard for
harm
Non-smokers who breathe in second-hand smoke can get many serious diseases. It can
cause lung cancer, heart disease, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (emphysema and
chronic
bronchitis)
asthma and other diseases
Regular exposure to second-hand smoke increases the risk of lung disease by 25% and
heart disease by 10%.
This is why smoking is banned in many public places such as airports, transport stations,
bars and restaurants, public offices and others.
Alchaholism

Categories & types of drugs, and their effects.

Cannabinoids
Marijuana (street names: Blunt, dope, ganja, grass, herb, joint, Mary Jane, pot, reefer, green,
sinsemilla, skunk, weed etc)
Hashish (street names: Boom, gangster, hash, hash oil, hemp, etc)
Acute Effects: Euphoria; relaxation; slowed reaction time; distorted sensory perception; impaired
balance and coordination; increased heart rate and appetite; impaired learning, memory; anxiety;
panic attacks; psychosis
Health Risks: Cough, frequent respiratory infections; possible
mental health decline; addiction
Opioids
Heroin (street names:,smack, horse, brown sugar, dope, H, junk, skag, skunk, white horse, China
white, etc)
Opium (street names: Laudanum, paregoric: big O, black stuff, block, gum, hop, etc)
Acute Effects: Euphoria; drowsiness; impaired coordination; dizziness; confusion; nausea; sedation;
feeling of heaviness in the body; slowed or arrested breathing
Health Risks: Constipation; endocarditis; hepatitis; HIV; addiction; fatal overdose
Stimulants
Cocaine (Street names: Cocaine hydrochloride: blow, bump, C, candy, Charlie, coke, crack, flake,
rock, snow, toot, etc)
Amphetamine (Street names: Biphetamine, Dexedrine: bennies, black beauties, crosses, hearts,
LA turnaround, speed, truck drivers, uppers, etc)
Methamphetamine (Street names: Desoxyn: meth, ice, crank, chalk, crystal, fire, glass, go fast,
speed, etc)
Acute Effects: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, metabolism; feelings of
exhilaration; increased energy, mental alertness; tremors; reduced appetite; irritability; anxiety; panic;
paranoia; violent behavior; psychosis, Severe dental problems (for methamphetamine), Nasal damage
from snorting (for cocaine)
Health Risks: Weight loss, insomnia; cardiac or cardiovascular complications; stroke; seizures;
addiction

Club Drugs
These drugs are often used by young adults at all-night dance parties, dance clubs and bars. They
include:
MDMA (methylenedioxy-methamphetamine). Street names: Ecstasy, Adam, clarity, Eve, lover's
speed, peace, uppers, etc.
Flunitrazepam (Street names: forget-me pill, Mexican Valium, R2, roach, Roche, roofies,
roofinol, rope, rophies, etc)

GHB (Street names: G, Georgia home boy, grievous bodily harm, liquid ecstasy, soap, scoop,
goop, liquid X, etc)
Acute Effects: for MDMA - Mild hallucinogenic effects; increased tactile sensitivity; empathic
feelings; lowered inhibition; anxiety; chills; sweating; teeth clenching; muscle cramping.
For Flunitrazepam - Sedation; muscle relaxation; confusion; memory loss; dizziness; impaired
coordination
For GHB - Drowsiness; nausea; headache; disorientation; loss of coordination; memory loss
Health Risks: for MDMA - Sleep disturbances; depression; impaired memory; hyperthermia;
addiction
For GHB - Unconsciousness; seizures; coma
Dissociative
Drugs
These include: Ketamine, PCP and analogs, Salvia divinorum, Dextromethorphan (DXM)
visual perceptions
Health Risks: Anxiety; tremors; numbness; memory loss; nausea Acute Effects: Feelings of being
separate from ones body and environment; impaired motor function
For Ketamine - Analgesia; impaired memory; delirium; respiratory depression and arrest; death
For PCP and analogs - Analgesia; psychosis; aggression; violence; slurred speech; loss of
coordination; hallucinations
For DXM - Euphoria; slurred speech; confusion; dizziness; distorted
Hallucinogens
They include LSD Mescaline Psilocybin
Acute Effects: Altered states of perception and feeling; hallucinations; nausea
For LSD - Increased body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure; loss of appetite; sweating;
sleeplessness; numbness, dizziness, weakness, tremors; impulsive behavior; rapid shifts in emotion
For Mescaline - Increased body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure; loss of appetite; sweating;
sleeplessness; numbness, dizziness, weakness, tremors; impulsive behavior; rapid shifts in emotion
For Psilocybin - Nervousness; paranoia; panic
Health Risks: for LSD - Flashbacks, Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder
Other Compounds
Anabolic steroids (Anadrol, Oxandrin, Durabolin, Depo-Testosterone, Equipoise: roids, juice,
gym candy, pumpers)
Inhalants (Solvents (paint thinners, gasoline, glues); gases (butane, propane, aerosol
propellants, nitrous oxide); nitrites (isoamyl, isobutyl, cyclohexyl): laughing gas, poppers,
snappers, whippets
Acute Effects: for Anabolic steroids - No intoxication effects, Also, for Inhalants (varies by
chemical) - Stimulation; loss of inhibition; headache; nausea or vomiting; slurred speech; loss of
motor coordination; wheezing
Health Risks: for Anabolic steroids - Hypertension; blood clotting and cholesterol changes; liver
cysts; hostility and aggression; acne; in adolescentspremature stoppage of growth; in males
prostate cancer, reduced sperm production, shrunken testicles, breast enlargement; in females
menstrual irregularities, development of beard and other masculine characteristics
Also, for Inhalants - Cramps; muscle weakness; depression; memory impairment; damage
to cardiovascular and nervous systems; unconsciousness and sudden death

UNIT 3:FOOD &NUTRITION,LIFESTYLE DISEASES,FIRST AID&POSTURE

Healthy and balanced nutrition is important for everyone
Food is essential for our bodies to:

develop, replace and repair cells and tissues;

produce energy to keep warm, move and work;
carry out chemical processes such as the digestion of food;
protect against, resist and fight infection and recover from sickness.

Food is made up of nutrients. Micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals are needed only in small
amounts. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates, protein and fat are needed in larger amounts. The
body cannot function properly if one or more nutrients are missing. A healthy and balanced diet
provides foods in the right amounts and combinations that are safe and free from disease and harmful
substances.
Prevention is better than cure. The earlier a person starts to eat a healthy and balanced diet, the more
he or she will stay healthy. Once weight has been lost it may be difficult to regain it because of
tiredness and lack of appetite.
The section below contains some guidelines on healthy and balanced nutrition. These apply to
everyone - whether they are infected with HIV or not.
HEALTHY AND BALANCED NUTRITION
Enjoy a variety of foods
Eating well means eating a variety of foods. No single food contains all the nutrients that our bodies
need, except for breastmilk for babies up to the age of six months. Eating a variety of different foods
will supply the nutrients that are essential for our bodies. By taking care to choose foods that are in
season and locally available, eating can be enjoyable, healthy and affordable.
Eat staple foods with every meal
Staple foods should make up the largest part of a meal. These foods are relatively cheap and supply a
good amount of energy and some protein. Staples include cereals (such as rice, maize, millet,
sorghum, wheat and barley), starchy roots (such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava and yams) and
starchy fruit (such as plantains).
However, staple foods are not enough to provide all the nutrients the body needs. Other foods must be
eaten to provide additional energy, proteins and micronutrients.
Eat legumes if possible every day
These foods provide a person with the proteins needed to develop and repair the body and also to
build up strong muscles. They are good sources of vitamins, minerals and fibre and help to keep the
immune system active.

Legumes include beans, peas, lentils, groundnuts (including peanut butter) and soybeans. When eaten
with staple foods the quality of protein is increased. Legumes are a cheaper protein source than animal
foods, such as beef and chicken, and should be eaten every day, if possible.
Eat animal and milk products regularly
Foods from animals and fish should also be eaten as often as you can afford them. They supply goodquality proteins, vitamins and minerals and extra energy. They will help to strengthen muscles and the
immune system.
These foods include all forms of meat, poultry (birds), fish, eggs and dairy products such as milk, sour
milk, buttermilk, yoghurt and cheese. If insects, such as caterpillars or grasshoppers, are part of your
diet, they also provide good nutrients.
Eat vegetables and fruit every day
Vegetables and fruit are an important part of a healthy and balanced meal. They supply the vitamins
and minerals that keep the body functioning and the immune system strong. These foods are
especially important for people living with HIV/AIDS to fight infection. Eat a wide variety as each
one provides different vitamins and minerals. A recommended list is provided below.
Yellow, orange, red or dark green
Other vegetables and fruit vegetables and fruit
Green leafy vegetables (spinach, pumpkin, Tomatoes, cabbage, oranges, mandarins,
cassava leaves), green peppers, squash, carrots, grapefruit, lemons, guavas mangoes, passionfruit,
yellow peaches, apricots, papaya and mangoes
pineapples, mulberries and baobab fruit
Good sources of vitamin A
Good sources of vitamin C; help to fight
infection
Fats, oils and sugar are good sources of energy and can help one gain body weight, which can be
particularly important for those living with HIV/AIDS. They also add flavour to food, thereby
stimulating appetite.
Fats and oils play an important part in a healthy and balanced diet. Even small amounts can provide
lots of energy. Fats and oils include butter, lard, margarine, cooking oil (vegetable, coconut and palm
oil), cream, mayonnaise and coconut cream. They are also found in avocados, oilseeds (sunflower,
groundnut and sesame), fatty meat and fish, curds and cheese.
Sugars and sugary foods include honey, jam, table sugar, cakes and biscuits.
Although fats and sugars are good sources of energy, they are not rich in other nutrients. They should
therefore be eaten in addition to other foods, not in place of them.
MACRO VS MICRO NUTRIENTS
There are two types of nutrients which we need for our survival, micronutrients and macronutrients.
This division is based on the quantity of a nutrient the body needs. We need micronutrients in small
amounts and macronutrients in large amounts.

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients that the human body needs in minute amounts so that it can
function properly. Although, they are needed only in small amounts, their deficiency leads to critical
health problems.
In fact, most of the diseases and conditions that people face today are due to deficiency of
micronutrients. The World Health Organization (WHO) says that if we eliminate this deficiency,
labor efficiency will increase multifold.
Here is a list of micronutrients
Vitamins Vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K and Carotenoids.
Minerals Boron, Calcium, Chloride, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Fluoride, Iodine, Iron, Magnesium,
Manganese, Molybdenum, Phosphorous, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium and Zinc.
Organic Acids Acetic acid, Citric acid, Lactic acid, Malic acid, Choline and Taurine.
It is better to get these from natural sources such as fruits and vegetables, as this seems to increase
their usefulness.
Macronutrients
Macronutrients constitute the bulk of the food we eat. The macronutrients are proteins, carbohydrates
and fats.
Proteins Proteins are called building blocks of life. It is what most of our body is made up of.
Proteins themselves are made of amino acids. Some good sources of protein include fish, poultry
meat, legumes, soy, eggs, milk and milk products.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are made up of sugar or starches. They are the main energy
providers for our body. Excess carbohydrates are converted into fat and stored in our body. All foods
have carbohydrates in some measure.
Fats Fats are substances that your body stores for future use. Although, most people think that fats
are to be avoided altogether, there is a distinction to be made here. There are good fats and bad fats.
Bad fats are to be avoided and good fats are to be eaten. Good fats are very much necessary for the
proper functioning of the body.
Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are to be eaten in proper proportion. If they are not, lifestyle diseases
will affect you.
CARBOHYDRATES
Depending on the size of the molecule, carbohydrates may be simple or complex.

Simple carbohydrates: Various forms of sugar, such as glucose and sucrose (table sugar),
are simple carbohydrates. They are small molecules, so they can be broken down and
absorbed by the body quickly and are the quickest source of energy. They quickly increase
the level of blood glucose (blood sugar). Fruits, dairy products, honey, and maple syrup

contain large amounts of simple carbohydrates, which provide the sweet taste in most candies
and cakes.
Complex carbohydrates: These carbohydrates are composed of long strings of simple
carbohydrates. Because complex carbohydrates are larger molecules than simple
carbohydrates, they must be broken down into simple carbohydrates before they can be
absorbed. Thus, they tend to provide energy to the body more slowly than simple
carbohydrates but still more quickly than protein or fat. Because they are digested more
slowly than simple carbohydrates, they are less likely to be converted to fat. They also
increase blood sugar levels more slowly and to lower levels than simple carbohydrates but for
a longer time. Complex carbohydrates include starches and fibers, which occur in wheat
products (such as breads and pastas), other grains (such as rye and corn), beans, and root
vegetables (such as potatoes).

PROTEINS
Proteins consist of units called amino acids, strung together in complex formations. Because proteins
are complex molecules, the body takes longer to break them down. As a result, they are a much
slower and longer-lasting source of energy than carbohydrates.
There are 20 amino acids. The body synthesizes some of them from components within the body, but
it cannot synthesize 9 of the amino acidscalled essential amino acids. They must be consumed in
the diet. Everyone needs 8 of these amino acids: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Infants also need a 9th one, histidine.
The percentage of protein the body can use to synthesize essential amino acids varies from protein to
protein. The body can use 100% of the protein in egg and a high percentage of the proteins in milk
and meats. The body can use a little less than half of the protein in most vegetables and cereals.
The body needs protein to maintain and replace tissues and to function and grow. Protein is not
usually used for energy. However, if the body is not getting enough calories from other nutrients or
from the fat stored in the body, protein is used for energy. If more protein is consumed than is needed,
the body breaks the protein down and stores its components as fat.
The body contains large amounts of protein. Protein, the main building block in the body, is the
primary component of most cells. For example, muscle, connective tissues, and skin are all built of
protein.
Adults need to eat about 60 grams of protein per day (0.8 grams per kilogram of weight or 10 to 15%
of total calories). Adults who are trying to build muscle need slightly more. Children also need more
because they are growing.
FATS
Fats are complex molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol. The body needs fats for growth and
energy. It also uses them to synthesize hormones and other substances needed for the bodys activities
(such as prostaglandins).
Fats are the slowest source of energy but the most energy-efficient form of food. Each gram of fat
supplies the body with about 9 calories, more than twice that supplied by proteins or carbohydrates.
Because fats are such an efficient form of energy, the body stores any excess energy as fat. The body
deposits excess fat in the abdomen (omental fat) and under the skin (subcutaneous fat) to use when it

needs more energy. The body may also deposit excess fat in blood vessels and within organs, where it
can block blood flow and damage organs, often causing serious disorders.
Fatty acids
When the body needs fatty acids, it can make (synthesize) certain ones. Others, called essential fatty
acids, cannot be synthesized and must be consumed in the diet. The essential fatty acids make up
about 7% of the fat consumed in a normal diet and about 3% of total calories (about 8 grams). They
include linoleic acid and linolenic acid, which are present in certain vegetable oils. Eicosapentaenoic
acid and docosahexaenoic acid, which are fatty acids essential for brain development, can be
synthesized from linolenic acid. However, they also are present in certain marine fish oils, which are a
more efficient source.
VITAMINS AND ITS TYPE
Vitamins are nutrients your body needs to function and fight off disease. Your body cannot produce
vitamins itself, so you must get them through food you eat or in some cases supplements. There are 13
vitamins that are essential to your body working well. Knowledge of the different types and
understanding the purpose of these vitamins are important for good health.
Types and Examples of Foods
There are two types of vitamins: fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in
your fat cells, consequently requiring fat in order to be absorbed. Water-soluble vitamins are not
stored in your body; therefore, they need to be replenished daily. Your body takes what it needs from
the food you eat and then excretes what is not needed as waste. Here is a list of vitamin types and
some common food sources:
The fat soluble vitamins:

Vitamin A - comes from orange colored fruits and vegetables; dark leafy greens, like kale
Vitamin D - can be found in fortified milk and dairy products; cereals; (and of course
sunshine!)
Vitamin E - is found in fortified cereals, leafy green vegetables, seeds, and nuts
Vitamin K - can be found in dark green leafy vegetables and turnip/beet greens

The water soluble vitamins:

Vitamin B1 or Thiamin - come from whole grains, enriched grains; liver; nuts, and seeds
Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin - comes from whole grains, enriched grains, and dairy products
Vitamin B3 or Niacin - comes from meat, fish, poultry, and whole grains
Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid - comes from meat, poultry, and whole grains
Vitamin B6 or Pyridoxine - comes from fortified cereals and soy products
Vitamin B7 or Biotin - is found in fruits and meats
Vitamin B9 or Folic Acid (Folate) - comes from leafy vegetables
Vitamin B12 - comes from fish, poultry, meat, and dairy products
Vitamin C - comes from citrus fruits and juices, such as oranges and grapefruits; red, yellow
and green peppers

Major Minerals
Your body requires relatively large quantities of certain minerals including calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, chloride, sodium and potassium to function properly. These nutrients are known as
major minerals, or macro-minerals, because you need more than 250 milligrams a day. Most major
minerals actually have recommended intake levels above 1,000 milligrams per day. Calcium and
phosphorus are the two primary components of bones and teeth. Calcium also promotes normal nerve
and muscle function, while phosphorus helps generate energy. Magnesium gives structure to bones
and helps control blood sugar levels. Chloride, sodium and potassium are electrolytes that work
together to keep fluids and minerals balanced at the cellular level.
Trace Minerals
Trace minerals are just as important to your health as major minerals, but are required in much
smaller quantities fewer than 20 milligrams per day. Your body actually needs less than 1 milligram
a day of most trace minerals, including chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, molybdenum and
selenium. Chromium helps regulate blood sugar levels, copper is used to produce red blood cells,
fluoride helps harden tooth enamel, iodine is integral to thyroid health, molybdenum helps your body
use stored iron and selenium is an important antioxidant. You need larger but still relatively small
amounts of iron, zinc and manganese. Iron is vital to energy production, zinc supports normal growth
and manganese is involved in bone formation.

DIETRY FIBRE
Dietary fibre is not a nutrient, but it is important for health.
Dietary fibre is made up of a number of complex carbohydrates.

Dietary fibre helps:

prevent constipation;
keep the gut healthy;
lower blood cholesterol levels.
Some health professionals suggest the risks of bowel and colorectal cancer are
reduced by a diet high in fibre.
Dietary fibre is a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants.
Good sources of dietary fibre include:
cereal and cereal products;
fruits;
vegetables (including pulses and beans).
Food such a meat, fish and dairy products do not contain fibre.
TIPS FOR INCRESING DIETERY FIBRE

Eat a wholegrain cereal in the morning.

Switch from white to wholemeal or granary bread.
Use cereal in fruit crumble toppings.
Serve a side salad with a sandwich or pasta dish.
Eat porridge with a handful of dried fruit.
Add beans and pulses to casseroles and soups.
FUNCTIONS OF WATER
The human body is over 75% water.
Water is vital for good health.

Water has many functions in the body:

production of body fluids (saliva);
absorption of water soluble nutrients;
removal of waste products (urine);
regulation of body temperature (sweat).
The body needs about 2 litres of fluid each day to help it to function properly. This is
the same as roughly 6-8 glasses of water.
More water is needed during hot weather and when exercising.
All drinks count towards water intake including tea, coffee and carbonated
drinks. People should remember to choose drinks that are better for health.

What Is a Balanced Diet?

A balanced diet is one that gives your body the nutrients it needs to function correctly. In order to get
the proper nutrition from your diet, you should obtain the majority of your daily calories from:

fresh fruits
fresh vegetables
whole grains
legumes
nuts
lean proteins

What Are Calories?

The number of calories in a food is a measurement of the amount of energy stored in that food. Your
body uses calories from food for walking, thinking, breathing, and other important functions. The
average person needs to eat about 2,000 calories every day to maintain their weight.
However, a persons specific daily calorie intake can vary depending on their age, gender, and
physical activity level. Men generally need more calories than women, and people who exercise need
more calories than people who dont.

children ages 2 to 8: 1,000 to 1,400 calories

active women ages 14 to 30: 2,400 calories
sedentary women ages 14 to 30: 1,800 to 2,000 calories
active men ages 14 to 30: 2,800 to 3,000 calories
sedentary men ages 14 to 30: 2,000 to 2,600 calories
active men and women over 30: 2,200 to 3,000 calories
sedentary men and women over 30: 1,800 to 2,200 calories

VITAMIN DEFICIENCY DISEASES

MAL NUTRITION
Malnutrition is a broad term which refers to both undernutrition (subnutrition) and
overnutrition.
Malnutrition can also be defined as the insufficient, excessive or imbalanced consumption of
nutrients.
Several different nutrition disorders may develop, depending on which nutrients are lacking or
consumed in excess.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), malnutrition is the gravest single threat to
global public health.1
.
Poor diet may lead to a vitamin or mineral deficiency, among other essential substances, sometimes
resulting in scurvy - a condition where an individual has a vitamin C (ascorbic acid) deficiency.
Though scurvy is a very rare disease, it still occurs in some patients - usually elderly people,
alcoholics, or those that live on a diet devoid of fresh fruits and vegetables. Similarly, infants or
children who are on special or poor diets for any number of economic or social reasons may be prone
to scurvy.
WHO adds that malnutrition during childhood usually results in worse health and lower educational
achievements during adulthood. Malnourished children tend to become adults who have smaller
babies.
While malnutrition used to be seen as something which complicated such diseases
as measles, pneumonia anddiarrhea, it often works the other way round - malnutrition can cause
diseases to occur.
Globally, as well as in developed, industrialized countries, the following groups of people are at
highest risk of malnutrition (subnutrition):

Elderly people, especially those who are hospitalized or in long-term institutional care

Individuals who are socially isolated

People on low incomes (poor people)

People with chronic eating disorders, such as bulimia or anorexianervosa

People convalescing after a serious illness or condition.

Symptoms of malnutrition
A symptom is something the patient feels and reports, while a sign is something other people, such as
the doctor detect. For example, pain may be a symptom while a rash may be a sign.
Signs and symptoms of malnutrition (subnutrition) include:5
Loss of fat (adipose tissue)

Breathing difficulties, a higher risk of respiratory failure

Depression
Higher risk of complications after surgery

Higher risk of hypothermia - abnormally low body temperature

The total number of some types of white blood cells falls; consequently, the immune system is
weakened, increasing the risk of infections.

Higher susceptibility to feeling cold

Longer healing times for wounds

Longer recover times from infections

Longer recovery from illnesses

Lower sex drive

Problems with fertility

Reduced muscle mass

Reduced tissue mass

Tiredness, fatigue, or apathy

Irritability.

In more severe cases:

Skin may become thin, dry, inelastic, pale, and cold

Eventually, as fat in the face is lost, the cheeks look hollow and the eyes sunken

Hair becomes dry and sparse, falling out easily

Sometimes, severe malnutrition may lead to unresponsiveness (stupor)

If calorie deficiency continues for long enough, there may be heart, liver and respiratory failure

Total starvation is said to be fatal within 8 to 12 weeks (no calorie consumption at all).

Children
Children who are severely malnourished typically experience slow behavioral development, even
mental retardation may occur. Even when treated, undernutrition may have long-term effects in
children, with impairments in mental function and digestive problems persisting - in some cases for
the rest of their lives.
Adults whose severe undernourishment started during adulthood usually make a full recovery when
treated.

Hypokinetic diseases & its management

Lifestyle diseases (also sometimes called diseases of longevity or diseases of
civilization interchangeably) are defined as diseases linked with the way people
live their life. This is commonly caused by alcohol, drug and smoking abuse as
well as lack of physical activity and unhealthy eating. Diseases that impact on our
lifestyle are heart disease, stroke, obesity and type II diabetes. The diseases that
appear to the increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and
people live longer. They can include Alzheimer's disease, arthritis,
atherosclerosis, asthma, cancer, chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, metabolic
syndrome, chronic renal failure, osteoporosis, stroke, depression, and obesity
Causes of the disease
Diet and lifestyle are major factors thought to influence susceptibility to many diseases. Drug abuse,
tobacco smoking, and alcohol drinking, as well as a lack of or too much exercise may also increase
the risk of developing certain diseases, especially later in life., sugary foods, , and alcoholic beverages
during the latter half of the 20th century. People also developed sedentary lifestyles and greater rates
of obesity.
Prevention
Prevention is remedies or activities that aim to reduce the likelihood of a disease
or disorder affecting people. Lifestyle diseases are preventable for children if
parents set them on the correct path, as our early life decisions and influences can
impact us later on in life. Lifestyle diseases can be prevented through reduction in
smoking of tobacco [ the Australian Government has started this by introducing
plain packaging for all tobacco products and increasing the prices of tobacco
production.[ Overweight and obesity can be prevented through a well balanced
lifestyle through healthy eating and exercise. Prevention can come about by a
person undertaking 30 minutes of moderate exercise daily or by doing 150
minutes of moderate intensity exercise a week.] Examples of moderate exercise
includes a brisk walk, swim, or it can also be everyday life activities like mowing
the lawn or All causes of lifestyle disease can be prevented through giving up
smoking and other drugs, reducing ones intake of alcohol, processed meats (like

bacon and sausages), red meats (like pork, beef and lamb), fatty foods and by
engaging in daily exercise.

Headache and high temperature for three four weeks. The temperature reaches its peak in the
afternoon.

If care is not taken, relapse is common.

Proper sanitation, control of flies, anti typhoid inoculation are some of the precautions to be taken.
Control
The drug of choice is Ciproflox.
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea manifests itself with frequent loose motions accompanied with griping abdominal pain.
Bacteria such as E.coli, Shigella spp, some types of protozoa and viruses cause this disease.
Symptoms

Frequent loose motion and vomiting leading to dehydration.

If neglected dehydration sets in. The patient becomes irritable, eyes look sunken, nose is
pinched and the tongue and inner rides of the cheeks appear dry. There is sudden weight loss,
pulse is weak accompanied with deep breathing and convulsions.

Prevention

Eatables should be kept covered to prevent contamination through dust and flies.

Fruits and vegetables should be well washed with potassium permanganate, before use.

Water should be boiled before drinking. Filtered water and mineral water are also safe.

Proper sanitation and toilet facilities are essential.

Proper personal hygiene, like washing hands before eating or handling food is important.

Food that is stale or has got rancid should not be consumed.

Public should be educated about community hygiene.

Control

Total bed rest is advised for the patient till the illness is fully controlled.

Frequent vomiting and loose motions can lead to dehydration. Conscious effort must be made
to increase the fluid intake. ORS can be made at home using one teaspoonful of sugar and a
pinch of salt dissolved in 200ml of water. ORS must be administered sip by sip at short
intervals.

Antimicrobal drugs and anti diarrhoeal agents should be administered.

A good home remedy is to take the pulp of boiled raw banana, turmeric, salt and lime.

Husk of Isabgol seed (Plantago Ovata) with water or curd will give relief.

Anthrax
Anthrax is a highly infectious disease caused by the bacterium- Bacillus anthracis. It is a disease
found commonly in domestic animals such as cows, goats and sheep, but human beings can be
infected when exposed to the infected animal. The meat of the infected animal if consumed without
being cooked properly can cause the disease. The spores of the bacteria are used in biological warfare.
Symptoms
Anthrax infection can occur in three forms

Cutaneous (skin): This type is rare but 20% result in death.

Inhalation: Running nose followed by breathing difficulty and finally death.

Intestinal: Nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, pain and finally vomiting blood. This is
ultimately fatal.

Prevention
Course of 4 subcutaneous infections of anthrax vaccine is adviced.
Control
If detected early it can be cured, with effective antibiotics.
Given below is a chart listing the communicable diseases we have learnt in this chapter, their
symptoms, prevention and control.

Communicable diseases

Disease

Mode of
Transmission

Symptom

Prevention

Malaria

Caused by
protozoan
Plasmodium
through the bite of
the female
anopheles mosquito

High
fever,
rigours which is
repeated on the
3rd or 4th day

Prevent mosq uitoes

from
biting
and A quinine derivative
prevent them from called chloro quinine
breeding

Influenza

Caused by virus
myxovirus
Cough,
influenzae which is fever
air brone.

cold

Control

Avoid
physical
No cure as it is viral.
contact with influenza
Crocin can give relief
patients

Jaundice

Caused by virus.
The various types
are Hepatitis A, B,
C, D, E, and C.
Spread through
contaminated food
and water caused by
virus

Loss of appetite,
yellow
colouration due
to excess bile
pigment in the
blood
yellow
urination fever,

Diet control, fat free

and limited amount of
Hepatitis B vaccine.
problem.
Rest
for
Use purified water.
patient.
Plenty
of
Avoid contact with
sugarcane juice, rad
infected people
dish
Interferon
injection.

Rabies

Hydrophobia,
fever, headache,
Caused by virus
damage to the
which is transmitted
central nervous
through the bite of a
system,
causes
rabid dog
paralysis
often
fatal

1. Anti rabies vaccine

to
immunize
household
pets.
2. Louis Pasteurs No cure if the disease
vaccines- a course of sets in
14
injections
at
intervals of 0-3-7-1430 days after the bite

AIDS

Caused by HIV Weakness,

No vaccine developed
No known cure for the
(virus), Transmitted bodys
normal so far. Practice safe

Disease

Mode of
Transmission

Symptom

through
sex, defence against
common injection infection
needle,
blood breaksdown
transfusion,
barbers razor

Caused by
Tuberculo- Mycobacterium
sis
tuberculosis spread
by air, dust, spit.

Lung T.B. is
more corn mon.
Persistent cough,
blood
stained
mucus,
breathlessn- ess
TB. can effect
lymph, intestine
or other organs.

Prevention

Control

sex. Avoid common disease

razors and needles.
Screen blood before
transfusion

BCG vaccine. Milch

cows to be immunized ATT(Anititubercular
against the disease. Therapy)to
be
Spitting in public administered.
places to be banned.

Cholera

Immunization
with
anti cholera vaccine,
Caused
by Vomiting, watery consume boiled water.
bacterium
vibrio motions,
Prevent flies from
cholera
e, dehydration . If settling on food. ORS
transmitted by flies, neglected, can be to
prevent
is also water borne fatal.
dehydration.Good
sanitation
and
hygiene.

Tetracycline
administered
supervision
Physician

Typhoid

Caused by
bacteriurn
Salmonella typhi,
transmitted by flies
or contaminated
food

Ciproflox
to
be
administered
under
supervision
of
a
Physician

Diarrhoea

Caused by bacteria
E.colli, Shigella,
ORS
to
prevent
some types of
dehydration
proper
viruses and protoz Frequent
loose
sanitation and hygiene Anti diarrhoeal drugs
oa. Transmitted
motion, vomiting
consume hygienically will control the disease
through
dehydration
prepared food and
contaiminated food
purified water
and water. Fly
could be an agent.

High
tern
perature for 3-4
weeks
with
headache

Anti
typhoid
inoculation,
good
sanitation and hygiene
in the community

to

be
under
of
the

Disease

Mode of
Transmission

Symptom

Anthrax

Caused
by
bacterium Bacillus
anthracis.
Trans
mitted
through
domestic animals

Running
nose,
Can be cured if detected
breathing
Course of 4 Anthrax
early. Antibiotics can
difficulty
and vaccine injections
control the disease.
finally death.

Prevention

Control

What is first aid?

First aid is the immediate care of an injured or suddenly sick person. It is the care a person applies as
soon as possible after an accident or sudden illness.
This prompt care and attention prior to the arrival of the ambulance can sometimes mean the
difference between life and death or between a full or partial recovery.
PRINCIPLES OF FIRST AID
1AIMS AND PRINCIPLES OF FIRST AID
The aims of First Aid or the reasons for carrying it out or to be more specific, what the first
aider is trying to achieve. They are:1. to save life 2. To prevent the casualtys condition from
becoming worse. It must be remembered that there is a limit as to the effectiveness that first aid can
have, and with the vast majority of casualties even partial recovery from their injuries can be long
term. If a casualty reaches further medical aid without his condition becoming worse then the first
aider has done his job well.
PRINCIPLES
the principles of first aid area)To prevent further injury to the casualty and to avoid injury to
yourself: (e.g., from enemy, fire, flames, collapsing building or any other hazards. b)To assess
and treat the casualty in the correct order of priority)To place casualties in a comfortable
position. T o i m m o b i l i ze i n j u r e d l i mb s . ) T o r e l i e ve p a i n a n d a n x i e t y i f p o s s i b l e . )
To arrange evacuation if necessary in the correct priority.
PRIORITYOFTREATMENT
some injuries are more serious than others and in general they should always be treated in the
following order:1. AIRWAY - Casualties with airway problems.2. BREATHING - Casualties with difficulty
in breathing or whose breathing has stopped3 CIRCULATION - Casualties with bleeding wounds or
are in shock.4. DISABLITY - Casualties with other injuries, e.g. breaks and burns.
PRINCIPLES OFCASUALTYRESCUE
Often at the scene of the accident, the situation is made worse by people rushing in without thinking
and this can lead to the unnecessary suffering of casualties and more importantly injury to the first
aider. To ensure the efficiency of a first aider at the scene of an accident, the following should always
be carried out
1. LOOK - For any further danger - at the number of casualties and their injuries For a safe place to
treat the casualties
2. LISTEN - To the casualties and bystanders and ascertain what happened

3. THINK -Which casualties to treat first. If the casualty can be moved.4 ACT - Carry out the
appropriate actions.
Different types of Fractures A Simple Classification of Fractures
Types of fractures and their pattern vary according to the site of the injury. For a physician
classification of fractures is of utmost importance. Not only it suggests the severity and mechanics of
injury that occurred, but also helps to formulate most suitable treatment.There are many types of
classifications which are available to physicians. These classifications vary with type of bone
involved and the region of bone involved.
For this discussion we would stick to the basic and general classification of the fractures of long
bones. We have already discussed closed and open fractures. That is one type of classification
according to absence or presence of wounds that communicate with fracture.
Fractures are also classified according to the pattern in which bone breaks. Let us take them one by
one
Transverse Fracture
A fracture in which the break is across the bone, at a right angle to the
long axis of the bone. Adjoining figure would illustrate.
Oblique Fracture
Instead of break being at right angle, it goes in oblique direction to the long
axis of the bone.The fracture is confined to one plane. In other words the bone has broken at an angle.
Spiral Fracture
This fracture is easily confused with the oblique fracture. Instead of a straight
break as in oblique fracture that is only in one plane, the break in this case
traverses both the planes. To understand this you need to imagine a three dimensional view of the
bone.
If you take a stick and slice it at an angle so that it is divided in two, it is similar to oblique fracture.
But if you twist and break that stick it would result in a break pattern that would start from one point,
move obliquely in on direction, reach the other end and then continue in other side of the stick in a
spiral fashion to meet the original point.
Adjoining diagram would give you rough idea of what I am trying to say. Compare it with the oblique
fracture diagram and you would be able to appreciate the difference.
Comminuted Fracture
If the injury results in multiple breaks in the bone, they are visible as
different fragments. These kind of fractures are called comminuted
fractures.

Apart from this, fracture can be displaced or undisplaced. If bone fragments stay
together maintaining structural alignment of the bone , it is called an undisplaced
fracture. A hairline fracture is an example of an undisplaced fracture.
But fragment of the bone may move from their original position resulting separation
of the fragments. Such a fracture is called a displaced fracture. (See the figure)

MANAGEMENT OF FRACTURE
A fracture is a broken bone. It requires medical attention. If the broken bone is the result of major
trauma or injury, call 911 or your local emergency number.
Also call for emergency help if:

The person is unresponsive, isn't breathing or isn't moving. Begin CPR if there's no breathing
or heartbeat.
There is heavy bleeding.
Even gentle pressure or movement causes pain.
The limb or joint appears deformed.
The bone has pierced the skin.
The extremity of the injured arm or leg, such as a toe or finger, is numb or bluish at the tip.
You suspect a bone is broken in the neck, head or back.

Don't move the person except if necessary to avoid further injury. Take these actions immediately
while waiting for medical help:

Stop any bleeding. Apply pressure to the wound with a sterile bandage, a clean cloth or a
clean piece of clothing.
Immobilize the injured area. Don't try to realign the bone or push a bone that's sticking out
back in. If you've been trained in how to splint and professional help isn't readily available,
apply a splint to the area above and below the fracture sites. Padding the splints can help
reduce discomfort.
Apply ice packs to limit swelling and help relieve pain. Don't apply ice directly to the skin.
Wrap the ice in a towel, piece of cloth or some other material.
Treat for shock. If the person feels faint or is breathing in short, rapid breaths, lay the person
down with the head slightly lower than the trunk and, if possible, elevate the legs.

DISLOCATION
A dislocation is an injury to a joint a place where two or more of your bones come together in
which the ends of your bones are forced from their normal positions. This painful injury temporarily
deforms and immobilizes your joint.

Dislocation is most common in the shoulders and fingers. Other sites for dislocations include the
elbows, knees and hips. If you suspect a dislocation, seek prompt medical attention to return your
bones to their proper positions.
When treated properly, most dislocations return to normal function after several weeks of rest and
rehabilitation. However, some joints, such as your shoulder, may have an increased risk of repeat
dislocation.

Five Types of Wounds

A wound is any type of injury to the skin. Wounds can be open wounds, in which the skin is broken or
torn or closed wounds. Although open wounds can bleed and run the risk of infections, closed wounds
can also be dangerous depending on the extent of tissue damage. There are five major categories of
wounds; each is distinctive in its appearance and the source of the injury.
Incision
An incision wound is a cut in the skin caused by a sharp object such as a knife, broken glass, scissors
or surgeons scalpel. Incision wounds are neat and the edges of the skin are usually smooth.
Laceration
A laceration is injury to the skin that results in the skin being cut or torn open. Lacerations can be
shallow, only injuring the surface skin, or deep, causing injury to the muscles, tendons, ligaments,
blood vessels or nerves. Lacerations are most commonly made by some sort of blunt trauma such as
being hit with a fist or baseball bat. Unlike an incision wound, a laceration is generally jagged because
the skin is torn instead of cut.

Abrasion
An abrasion is a type of wound in which the skin is scraped or rubbed off. When skin is dragged on
carpet, the resulting wound, often called a carpet burn, is an abrasion. Abrasions are usually
superficial wounds, meaning that only the outer layers of skin are affected. A deep abrasion, one that
penetrates to the inner layers of skin, can leave a scar. Parts of the body with thin layers of skin, such
as the knees and elbows, are most prone to abrasions.
Contusion
A contusion is a kind of closed wound, meaning that the skin is not broken. Contusions are caused by
blunt force trauma to the skin that results in tissue damage. When the blood vessels under the skin are
broken, blood pools under the skin causing a bruise.
Puncture
A puncture wound is created when a sharp object enters the skin. These wounds are usually small and
do not bleed a lot. Although these wounds tend to close over quickly, they still need treatment as
infection is a possibility. Puncture wounds are prone to a tetanus infection, so it is important to seek
medical advice for any puncture wound. Common types of puncture wounds include stepping on a
nail or bites from animals.
SPRAIN&STRAIN

Sprains and strains are common injuries that share similar signs and symptoms, but involve different
parts of your body.
A sprain is a stretching or tearing of ligaments the tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect two
bones together in your joints. The most common location for a sprain is in your ankle.
A strain is a stretching or tearing of muscle or tendon. A tendon is a fibrous cord of tissue that
connects muscles to bones. Strains often occur in the lower back and in the hamstring muscle in the
back of your thigh.
Initial treatment for both sprains and strains includes rest, ice, compression and elevation. Mild
sprains and strains can be successfully treated at home. Severe sprains and strains sometimes require
surgery to repair torn ligaments, muscles or tendons
Muscle cramps

A muscle cramp is an involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax.

Almost everyone experiences a muscle cramp at some time in their life.

There are a variety of types and causes of muscle cramps.
Muscle cramps may occur during exercise, at rest, or at night, depending upon the exact
cause.
Dehydration is a common cause of muscle cramps.
Numerous medicines can cause muscle cramps.
Most muscle cramps can be stopped if the muscle can be stretched.
Muscle cramps can often be prevented by measures such as adequatenutrition and hydration,
attention to safety when exercising, and attention to ergonomic factors.

Syncope (Fainting): Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

157SHARE18
Medical term for fainting is syncope. Fainting is a sudden loss of consciousness, usually temporary
and typically caused by a lack of oxygen in the brain. The brain oxygen deprivation has many
possible causes, including hypotension (low blood pressure).
The following words or phrasal expressions also mean to faint: to pass out, to black out, to fall
unconscious, to fall in a faint. The verbs to come to and to come round mean to recover
consciousness.

Fast facts on fainting

Here are some key points about fainting. More detail and supporting information is in the main article.
The scientific term for fainting is syncope.
Fainting is usually caused by a lack of oxygen in the brain.
Every case of fainting should be treated as a medical emergency until the cause is known.
In Victorian England, women would faint to appear fashionably frail.
Symptoms can include blurred vision and confusion.
There are a different types of fainting, one of which is orthostatic hypotension.
Potential causes of fainting include dehydration, alcohol and diabetes.
Treatment of fainting depends on the causes of the condition.

If oxygen levels are below 16% at atmospheric pressure most people faint due to hypoxia. If oxygen
levels fall below 11% individuals may die by suffocation. The amount of oxygen in the air depends on
its partial pressure - inhaling pressurized gas while scuba diving which is below 16% oxygen does not
cause hypoxia (because the air is pressurized).
Syncope due to hypoxia may also be caused by malfunctioning lungs, problems with blood
circulation, or carbon monoxide poisoning. Some people faint at the sight of blood, or when
receiving an injection or seeing somebody having one.
Symptoms of syncope
The hallmark sign is evident to anyone around - the patient passes out, faints, suddenly loses
consciousness.
The following signs and symptoms may precede a fainting episode:
A feeling of heaviness in the legs
Blurred vision
Confusion
Feeling warm or hot
Light headedness, dizziness, a floating feeling
Nausea
Sweating
Vomiting
Yawning.
The patient may be slumping
The person may be unusually pale

There may be a drop in blood pressure

What are burns?

Burns are one of the most common household injuries, especially among children. The term burn
means more than the burning sensation associated with this injury. Burns are characterized by severe
skin damage that causes the affected skin cells to die.
Most people can recover from burns without serious health consequences, depending on the cause and
degree of injury. More serious burns require immediate emergency medical care to prevent
complications and death.
Burn levels
There are three primary types of burns: first-, second-, and third-degree. Each degree is based on the
severity of damage to the skin, with first-degree being the most minor and third-degree being the most
severe. Damage includes:

first-degree burns: red, nonblistered skin

second-degree burns: blisters and some thickening of the skin
third-degree burns: widespread thickness with a white, leathery appearance

There are also fourth-degree burns. This type of burn includes all of the symptoms of a third-degree
burn and also extends beyond the skin into tendons and bones.
Burns have a variety of causes, including:

scalding from hot, boiling liquids

chemical burns
electrical burns
fires, including flames from matches, candles, and lighters
excessive sun exposure

The type of burn is not based on the cause of it. Scalding, for example, can cause all three burns,
depending on how hot the liquid is and how long it stays in contact with the skin.
Chemical and electrical burns warrant immediate medical attention because they can affect the inside
of the body, even if skin damage is minor.
First-degree burn
First-degree burns cause minimal skin damage. They are also called superficial burns because they
affect the outermost layer of skin. Signs of a first-degree burn include:

redness
minor inflammation, or swelling
pain
dry, peeling skin occurs as the burn heals

Since this burn affects the top layer of skin, the signs and symptoms disappear once the skin cells
shed. First-degree burns usually heal within 7 to 10 days without scarring.
You should still see your doctor if the burn affects a large area of skin, more than three inches, and if
its on your face or a major joint, which include:

knee
ankle
foot
spine
shoulder
elbow
forearm

First-degree burns are usually treated with home care. Healing time may be quicker the sooner you
treat the burn. Treatments for a first-degree burn include:

soaking the wound in cool water for five minutes or longer

taking acetaminophen or ibuprofen for pain relief
applying lidocaine (an anesthetic) with aloe vera gel or cream to soothe the skin
using an antibiotic ointment and loose gauze to protect the affected area

Make sure you dont use ice, as this may make the damage worse. Never apply cotton balls to a burn
because the small fibers can stick to the injury and increase the risk of infection. Also, avoid home
remedies like butter and eggs as these are not proven to be effective.
Second-degree burn
Second-degree burns are more serious because the damage extends beyond the top layer of skin. This
type burn causes the skin to blister and become extremely red and sore.
Some blisters pop open, giving the burn a wet or weeping appearance. Over time, thick, soft, scab-like
tissue called fibrinous exudate may develop over the wound.
Due to the delicate nature of these wounds, keeping the area clean and bandaging it properly is
required to prevent infection. This also helps the burn heal quicker.
Some second-degree burns take longer than three weeks to heal, but most heal within two to three
weeks without scarring, but often with pigment changes to the skin.
The worse the blisters are, the longer the burn will take to heal. In some severe cases, skin grafting is
required to fix the damage. Skin grafting takes healthy skin from another area of the body and moves
it to the site of the burned skin.
As with first-degree burns, avoid cotton balls and questionable home remedies. Treatments for a mild
second-degree burn generally include:

running the skin under cool water for 15 minutes or longer

taking over-the-counter pain medication (acetaminophen or ibuprofen)
applying antibiotic cream to blisters

However, seek emergency medical treatment if the burn affects a widespread area, such as any of the
following:

face
hands
buttocks
groin
feet

Third-degree burn
Excluding fourth-degree burns, third-degree burns are the most severe. They cause the most damage,
extending through every layer of skin.
There is a misconception that third-degree burns are the most painful. However, with this type of burn
the damage is so extensive that there may not be any pain because of nerve damage.
Depending on the cause, the symptoms third-degree burns can exhibit include:

waxy and white color

char
dark brown color
raised and leathery texture
blisters that do not develop.

What is Posture?
What is posture? Posture is a term used to describe a position of the body or
the arrangements of body parts relative to one another. Ideal postures are
those assumed to perform an activity in the most efficient manner utilizing
the least amount of energy. All activity begins with a posture and ends with
a posture. The relationships between body parts can be controlled voluntarily
but to do this would require too much concentration. During normal
functioning one's postures and adjustments to postures are automatic and
occur quickly

What are the types of spine curvature disorders?

There are three main types of spine curvature disorders, including:

Lordosis. Also called swayback, the spine of a person with lordosis curves significantly
inward at the lower back.
Kyphosis. Kyphosis is characterized by an abnormally rounded upper back (more than 50
degrees of curvature).
Scoliosis. A person with scoliosis has a sideways curve to their spine. The curve is often Sshaped or C-shaped.

Birth Defects and Congenital Anomalies Symptoms & Causes

What causes birth defects?

Most birth defects are caused by genetic or environmental factors or a combination of the two
(multifactorial birth defects). In most cases, however, the cause is unknown.
Genetic or inherited causes include:

Chromosomal defects caused by too few or too many chromosomes, or problems in the
structure of the chromosomes. Example includes Down syndrome (and extra copy of
chromosome 21 and sex chromosome abnormalities (missing or extra copies of the sex
chromosomes X or Y).
Single gene defects a mutation in one gene causes the defect.
Dominant inheritance A person can inherit a genetic disease when one parent (who may or
may not have the disease) passes along a single faulty gene. Examples include achondroplasia
and Marfan syndrome
Recessive inheritance occurs when both parents who do not have the disease pass along the
gene for the disease to the child. Examples are cystic fibrosis and Tay Sachs.

REMEDY FOR POSTURAL DEFORMITTIS

1. Bhujangasana/ Cobra Posture:- It stretches the spine, opens the chest and the shoulders,
strengthens the diaphragm. Hold the posture for 30 seconds with normal breathing.
2. Makarasana/ Crocodile Posture :- This posture encourages the vertebral column to assume its
normal shape and release the compression of the nerves. Stay in variation 1 for about 30 seconds. In
the variation 2 you have to lift your legs up alternately trying to kick the hips with the heels, repeat for
30 seconds breathing normally.
3. Ustrasana/ Camel Posture:- Opens the chest and the shoulders increasing the lung capacity.
Particularly good at correcting rounded back and drooping shoulders. For more details on the posture
check this link. Precaution:- You might feel light headed after doing this posture, relax immediately in
Shashankasana if it happens, also do not rush in and out of the posture, do it slowly with deep
breathing.
4. Shashankasana/ Hear Posture:- Used to relax the body and calms the mind. It counteracts the
backward bending postures, and will stretch the spine releasing any pressure on the disc. .
5. Gomukhasana/ Cow Face Posture:- It removes the stiffness from the neck, back and the shoulders,
stretching the hips. If you are not able to reach your hands at the back then you can.