1 INTRODUCTION

The combined effects of traffic loading and the environment will cause every
pavement, no matter how well-designed/constructed to deteriorate over time.
Maintenance and rehabilitation are what we use to slow down or reset this
deterioration process. Maintenance actions, such as crack sealing, joint
sealing, fog seals and patching help slow the rate of deterioration by identifying
and addressing specific pavement deficiencies that contribute to overall
deterioration. Rehabilitation is the act of repairing portions of an existing
pavement to reset the deterioration process. For instance, removing and
replacing the wearing course in a pavement provides new wearing course
material on which the deterioration process begins anew. Reconstructing an
entire pavement, however, is not considered rehabilitation but rather new
construction because the methods used are generally those developed for new
pavement construction. This section will discuss the following:

Maintenance options for flexible and rigid pavement. Basic preventive and
corrective maintenance options.

Rehabilitation options
for flexible and rigid pavement. Basic
rehabilitation options to include
overlays and their design procedures.

Major Topics on this Page

2. Crack Seals
1
2. Fog Seals
2

2 FLEXIBLE - MAINTENANCE
Pavement maintenance describes all the
methods and techniques used to preserve
pavement condition, safety, and ride quality,
and therefore aid a pavement in achieving
its design life (Hall et al., 2001). The
performance of a pavement is directly tied to
the timing, type and quality of the
maintenance it receives. This section, taken
largely from Roberts et al. (1996), describes
the more common U.S. preventative and
corrective maintenance options for HMA
pavement. The timing of these maintenance
items is discussed in Pavement Management.

2. Rejuvenators
3
2. Slurry Seals
4
2. Bituminous Surface
5 Treatments
2. Non-Structural Overlays
6
2. Patching
7
2. Summary
8

2.1 Crack Seals

Crack seal products are used to fill individual pavement cracks to prevent entry
of water or other non-compressible substances such as sand, dirt, rocks or
weeds. Crack sealant is typically used on early stage longitudinal cracks,
transverse cracks, reflection cracks and block cracks. Alligator cracks are most

often too extensive to warrant filling with crack sealer; they usually require an
area treatment such as a patch or reconstruction. Crack filler material is
typically some form of rubberized asphalt or sand slurry.

Purpose Preventive maintenance. Crack filling to prevent entry of water or

:
other non-compressible substances into the pavement.
Material Heated liquid asphalt (often some form of rubberized asphalt).
s:
Mix
Design:

Various, including proprietary methods.

Other
Info:

Before applying crack sealant, cracks need to be routed out and

cleaned.
Crack sealing is best done in moderate temperatures (spring or
fall) and is most effective if performed immediately after cracks
develop.
Reported average performance life ranges from about 3 - 8 years.

2.2 Fog Seals

A fog seal is a light application of a diluted slow-setting asphalt emulsion to the
surface of an aged (oxidized) pavement surface. Fog seals are low-cost and are
used to restore flexibility to an existing HMA pavement surface. They may be
able to temporarily postpone the need for a surface treatment or non-structural
overlay.
Purpose Preventive maintenance. Fog seals are used to restore or
:
rejuvenate an HMA surface. They may be able to postpone the
need for a BST or non-structural overlay for a year or two.
Material Slow-setting asphalt emulsion.
s:
Mix
Design:

None. A test patch may be needed to determine the proper

application rate.

Other
Info:

Fog seals are suitable for low-volume roads which can be closed to
traffic for the 4 to 6 hours it takes for the slow-setting asphalt
emulsion to break and set.
An excessive application rate may result in a thin asphalt layer on
top of the original HMA pavement. This layer can be very smooth
and cause a loss of skid resistance. Sand should be kept in reserve
to blot up areas of excess application.

2.3 Rejuvenators
Rejuvenators are products designed to restore original properties to aged
(oxidized) asphalt binders by restoring the original ratio of asphaltenes to
maltenes. Many rejuvenators are proprietary, making it difficult to offer a good
generic description. However, many rejuvenators contain maltenes because
their quantity is reduced by oxidation. Rejuvenators will retard the loss of
surface fines and reduce the formation of additional cracks, however they will
also reduce pavement skid resistance for up to 1 year (Army and Air Force,
1988). Because of this, rejuvenators are generally appropriate for low-volume,
low-speed roads or parking lots.
Purpose Preventive maintenance. Restore original properties to aged
:
asphalt binder. Rejuvenators may be able to postpone the need for
a BST for a year or two.
Material
s:
Mix
Design:

Various compounds. Most rejuvenators are proprietary and thus a

general description of their constituent materials is not possible.
None. A test patch may be needed to determine effectiveness and
the proper application rate.

Other
Info:

A rejuvenator should not be applied to a pavement having an

excess of binder on the surface such as that found in slurry
seal, OGFC, or BSTs. When excessive binder is on the surface, the
rejuvenator will soften the binder and cause the surface to become
tacky and slick (Army and Air Force, 1988).
The amount of air voids in the HMA being rejuvenated should be at
least 5 percent to ensure proper penetration of the rejuvenator into
the pavement. If the voids are less than 5 percent, the rejuvenator
may fill the voids and thus cause an unstable mix (Army and Air
Force, 1988).
Rejuvenators should be applied in hot weather, above 20C (70F),
so that the rejuvenator (1) will penetrate more deeply into the
asphalt pavement and (2) will cure sooner (Army and Air Force,
1988).

2.4 Slurry Seals

A slurry seal is a homogenous mixture of emulsified asphalt, water, wellgraded fine aggregate and mineral filler that has a creamy fluid-like appearance
when applied. Slurry seals are used to fill existing pavement surface defects as
either a preparatory treatment for other maintenance treatments or as a wearing
course. There are three basic aggregate gradations used in slurry seals:
1. Type I (fine). This type has the finest aggregate gradation (most are
smaller than the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve) and is used to fill small surface
cracks and provide a thin covering on the existing pavement. Type I

aggregate slurries are sometimes used as a preparatory treatment for

HMA overlays or surface treatments. Type I aggregate slurries are
generally limited to low traffic areas (ISSA, 2001).
2. Type II (general). This type is coarser than a Type I aggregate slurry (it has
a maximum aggregate size of 6.4 mm (0.25 inches)) and is used to (1)
treat existing pavement that exhibits moderate to severe raveling due to
aging or (2) to improve skid resistance. Type II aggregate slurry is the
most common type.
3. Type III (coarse). This type has the most coarse gradation and is used to
treat severe surface defects. Because of its aggregate size, it can be used
to fill slight depressions to prevent water ponding and reduce the
probability of vehicle hydroplaning.
Microsurfacing
Microsurfacing is an advanced form of slurry seal that uses the same basic
ingredients (emulsified asphalt, water, fine aggregate and mineral filler) and
combines them with advanced polymer additives. Figures 10.1 through 10.4
show a microsurfacing slurry seal project.
Purpose Preventive maintenance. Repair slight to moderate pavement
:
surface defects, improve skid resistance.
Material Emulsified asphalt, water, well-graded fine aggregate and mineral
s:
filler.
Mix
Design:

Various, including proprietary methods.

Other
Info:

As opposed to a fog seal, a slurry seal contains aggregate and can

thus correct minor surface defects in a variably textured surface filling cracks and voids, sealing weather-tight, and providing color
and texture delineation in a single pass (ISSA, 2001b).

Figure 10.1: Microsurfacing Truck

Figure 10.2 Microsurfacing

Placement

Figure 10.3: Microsurface Close-Up

Figure 10.4: Finished Microsurface

2.5 Bituminous Surface Treatments (BST)

A bituminous surface treatment, also known as a seal coat or chip seal, is a thin
protective wearing surface that is applied to a pavement or base course. BSTs
can provide all of the following:

A waterproof layer to protect the underlying pavement.

Increased skid resistance.

A fill for existing cracks or raveled surfaces.

An anti-glare surface during wet weather and an increased reflective

surface for night driving.

A single layer BST is constructed in the following steps:

1. Surface preparation. Surface defects, such as potholes, are repaired and
the existing surface is cleaned (e.g., by a street sweeper).
2. Asphalt material application. Typically, an asphalt emulsion is applied
from a spray truck to the surface of the existing pavement (see Figure
10.5).
3. Aggregate application. A thin aggregate cover (only one stone thick) is
spread over the asphalt material before it has set (see Figure 10.6). The
aggregate usually has a uniform gradation.
4. Aggregate embedding. A roller (usually a pneumatic tire roller) is used to
push the aggregate into the asphalt material and seat it firmly against the
underlying pavement (see Figure 10.7). Generally, about 50 percent of
each aggregate particle should be embedded in the asphalt material (see
Figure 10.8) after final rolling. About 70 percent of each aggregate

particle will be embedded after several weeks of traffic. It is common to

place an aggregate "chokestone" on top of the uniformly graded larger
aggregates after embedment. Chokestone is essentially a finer aggregate
gradation (e.g., less than 12.5 mm (0.25 inches)) used to make a more
dense aggregate matrix at the level of embedment (see Figure 10.9). This
more dense matrix helps prevent excessive aggregate loss due to traffic.
Multiple layer surface treatments are done by repeating the above process for
each layer. Figure 10.10 shows a BST in Washington State.

Figure 10.5: Placing the

Asphalt Emulsion

Figure 10.6: Placing the

Aggregate

Figure 10.7: Embedding the

Aggregate

Figure 10.8: BST Before

Chokestone Application (note
asphalt emulsion is
visible between aggregates)

Figure 10.9: BST After

Chokestone Application (note
small chokestone
between the larger
aggregates)

Figure 10.10: BST on SR 2

near
Coulee City, WA

Purpos Preventive maintenance. Wearing course, waterproof covering for the

e:
existing pavement.
Materi Asphalt (as asphalt binder, cutback asphalt or asphalt emulsion) and
als:
aggregate (uniformly graded).
Mix
Various methods.
Design:
Other
Info:

Traditionally, BSTs were thought of as most applicable to low volume,

low speed roads because they will eventually involve some amount of
loose aggregate. On a high volume or high speed road, this loose
aggregate can be picked up and thrown by wheels, which can result in
chipped paint and broken windshields. However, developments in
asphalt cement modifiers and BST construction procedures have made
it possible to use them on high volume/speed roads including
interstates.
The Minnesota Department of Transportation has an excellent resource
on BSTs and other seal coats titled the Minnesota Seal Coat Handbook
and available
at: http://mnroad.dot.state.mn.us/research/mnroad_project/restools/sea
lcoat.asp

2.6 Non-Structural Overlays

Non-structural overlays (see Figure
10.11) do not involve extensive
structural design and generally
contribute little, if anything, to a
pavement's structural capacity.
Non-structural overlays are
generally thin surface overlays on
the order of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) to
Figure 10.11: Non-Structural Overlay
37.5 mm (1.5 in.) that are used to (NAPA, 1995):

Improve ride quality.

Correct minor surface defects.

Improve safety characteristics such as skid resistance and drainage.

Enhance appearance.

Reduce road-tire noise.

2.6.1 Categories
Non-structural overlays can vary widely in composition depending upon local
practice, traffic and general purpose. A loose classification of non-structural
overlays follows (NAPA, 1995):
1. Light volume/residential traffic. The primary objective in light traffic areas
is to retard asphalt binder aging of the underlying pavement. Since heavy
traffic loads are not of great concern, overlays are generally less stiff
(resulting in a more workable mix, increased durability and flexibility and a
potential for the overlay to reheal under traffic) and use smaller-sized
aggregates.
2. Heavy, high-speed traffic. The primary objective in heavy, high-speed
traffic areas is to prevent rutting and provide good friction. Because of
this, overlays typically use larger angular aggregate and more durable
mixes such as SMA or OGFC.

2.6.2 Construction Notes

Non-structural overlays are generally quite thin. This results in several
construction concerns (NAPA, 1995):

Thin lifts require less HMA per foot of road length than thick lifts. This can
result in high paver speeds (in excess of 21 m (70 ft.) per minute).
Compaction may not be able to keep pace with these high speeds.

Thin lifts will cool quicker than thick lifts. This can result in little time
available for compaction before the thin overlay reaches cessation
temperature (sometimes as little as 3 to 5 minutes). Therefore, roller
variables should be set to account for this (e.g., enough rollers and an
adequate roller pattern to compact the material before it reaches
cessation temperature).

Thin lift construction produces greater screed wear. If the lift depth is less
than about twice the maximum aggregate size, the HMA may tear under
the paver screed. Very thin lifts (less than 25 mm (1 inch)) can be
damaged by the screed dragging large particles.

Thin lifts are more sensitive to vibratory rolling. Incorrectly chosen

amplitude, frequency or roller speed can result in aggregate degradation
(i.e. breaking) and damage of the bond between the overlay and the
existing pavement.

Density control is difficult. Thin lifts provide fewer options for aggregate
particles to rearrange under compaction. Thus, mat densities will tend to
be less uniform than those associated with a thicker lift. This should be
recognized if pay is in any way tied to mat density.

In general, compaction is more difficult and more variable on thin lifts.

2.7 Patches
Patches are a common method of treating an area of localized distress. Patches
can be either full-depth where they extend from the pavement surface to the
subgrade (see Figure 10.12) or partial where they do not extend through the full
depth of existing pavement (see Figure 10.13).
Full-depth patches are necessary where the entire depth of pavement is
distressed. Often times, the underlying base, subbase or subgrade material is
the distresses root cause and will also need repair. Partial depth patches are
used for pavement distresses like raveling, rutting, delamination and cracking
where the depth of crack does not extend through the entire pavement depth.
Patching material can be just about any HMA or cold mix asphalt material as well
as certain types of slurries. Typically some form of HMA is used for permanent
patches, while cold mix is often used for temporary emergency repairs.

Figure 10.12: Full-Depth Patch

Figure 10.13: Partial-Depth Patch

One form of patching, pothole patching, probably receives the greatest amount
of public attention. Pothole patching procedures cover a wide range of methods
and intentions from permanent full-depth patches to temporary partial depth
patches. Two general patching procedures are described next.
Semi-Permanent Pothole Patch (see Figures 10.14 and 10.15) (from
FHWA, 1998)
1. Remove all water and debris from the pothole.
2. Square up the pothole sides so they are vertical and have in-tact
pavement on all sides.
3. Place the patching material into the clean squared-up hole. The material
should mound in the center and taper down to the edges so that it meets
flush with the surrounding pavement edges.
4. Compact the patching material starting in the center and working out
toward the edges. Compaction can be accomplished using a vibratory
plate compactor or a single-drum vibratory roller. Check the compacted
patching material for a slight crown. This is done so that subsequent
traffic loading will compact it down to the surrounding pavement height.

Figure 10.14: Pothole Patching Truck

with a Hotbox
Throw-and-roll (from FHWA, 1998)

Figure 10.15: Semi-permanent

Pothole Repair

1. Place the patching material into the pothole without any preparation or
water/debris removal.
2. Compact the patching material using the patching truck tires (usually 4 to
8 passes).
3. Check the compacted patch for a slight crown. If a depression is present
add more patching material and compact.
Although it may seem that the semi-permanent technique would produce a
higher quality patch than the throw-and-roll technique, the FHWA's Long Term
Pavement Performance (LTPP) Study found that the "throw-and-roll technique
proved just as effective as the semi-permanent procedure for those materials for
which the two procedures were compared directly" (FHWA, 1998). Since the
semi-permanent technique is more labor and material intensive, the throw-androll technique will generally prove more cost effective if quality materials are
used.

2.8 Summary
Pavement maintenance prolongs pavement life by slowing its deterioration rate.
This section has described some of the more common maintenance options in
the U.S. Each option's effectiveness is dependent upon a multitude of local
conditions. For most smaller agencies, the best advice when considering
pavement maintenance options is to talk to local contractors and nearby
agencies about what types of maintenance options have worked best in your
local area.

3 FLEXIBLE - REHABILITATION

Major Topics on this Page

The combined effects of traffic loading and

3. Structural HMA Overlays
the environment will cause pavements to
1
deteriorate over time. Although maintenance
3. Structural PCC Overlays
can slow the rate of deterioration, it cannot
2
stop it. Therefore eventually the effects of
deterioration need to be reversed by adding or 3. Summary
3
replacing material in the existing pavement
structure. This is called rehabilitation.
Formally, rehabilitation can be defined as (Hall et al., 2001):

"...a structural or functional enhancement of a pavement which produces a

substantial extension in service life, by substantially improving pavement
condition and ride quality."
A wholesale replacement of the entire pavement structure is considered
reconstruction rather than rehabilitation since it follows new pavement
construction methods. Flexible pavement rehabilitation options depend upon
local conditions and pavement distress types but typically include:

Hot in-place recycling (HIPR). Covered in Recycling Options.

Cold in-place recycling (CIR). Covered in Recycling Options. Full-depth

CIR, known as full-depth reclamation (FDR) is considered reconstruction.

HMA overlays. Overlays can be placed on existing surfaces with or without

preparatory milling. Overlays are used for two primary purposes:

Structural overlays are designed to add structural support to

the existing pavement. Because of this, they are structurally
designed and are thicker than non-structural overlays.

Non-structural overlays are designed to add to or replace the

existing pavement wearing course only. Because of this they
contribute very little to the pavement structure and are generally
assumed to provide no additional structural support. Because most
agencies consider non-structural overlays to be maintenance items,
they are discussed in Maintenance.

PCC overlays. Some agencies have used PCC overlays of flexible

pavements (usually called "whitetopping") in certain situations. PCC
overlays can be divided into two types (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998):
o

Unbonded (termed "classical whitetopping"). The PCC overlay is not

purposely bonded to the surface of the underlying flexible
pavement surface. The existing flexible pavement serves as base
for the new PCC overlay. These overlays are usually greater than
100 mm (4 inches) thick.

Bonded (termed "thin composite whitetopping"). The PCC overlay is

purposely bonded to the existing flexible pavement surface. Thus,
the rigid overlay and existing flexible pavement act as a composite
structure. This allows for thinner PCC overlays.

NCHRP Web document 35 (Project C1-38): Rehabilitation Strategies for Highway

Pavements (http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/nchrp/nchrp_w35-a.pdf) provides
some good guidelines for collecting data, evaluating pavement, selecting
rehabilitation techniques and forming rehabilitation strategies.
This section will concentrate on structural overlays by describing several typical
structural overlay design methods.

3.1 Structural HMA Overlays

Structural overlays are used to increase pavement structural capacity.
Therefore, they are considered rehabilitation, although they typically have some
maintenance-type benefits as well. Asphalt concrete structural overlay design
can be broadly categorized into the following (modified after Monismith and Finn,
1984):

Engineering judgment

Component analysis

Non-destructive testing with limiting deflection criteria

Mechanistic-empirical analysis

Each of the above categories will be briefly described.

3.1.1 Engineering Judgment
This classification of overlay design is the most subjective of the four listed and
can be heavily influenced by political and budget constraints. Selection of
overlay thickness and the associated materials is often based on local knowledge
of existing conditions, which can result in cost effective solutions; however, local
expertise is fragile and subject to retirements, agency reorganizations, etc.
Currently, more agencies appear to be relying on quantifiable overlay design
approaches but tempered with local expertise.

3.1.2 Component Analysis

This approach to overlay design essentially requires that the total pavement
structure be developed as a new design for the specified service conditions and
then compared to the existing pavement structure (taking into account
pavement condition, type, and thickness of the pavement layers). Current
component design procedures require substantial judgment to effectively use
them. This judgment is mainly associated with selection of "weighting factors" to
use in evaluating the structural adequacy of the existing pavement layers (i.e.,
each layer of the pavement structure is assigned a layer coefficient often on the
basis of experience).

3.1.3 Non-destructive Testing with Limiting Deflection Criteria

Pavement surface deflection measurements can be used to determine pavement
structural properties, which can then be used to determine the required amount
of additional pavement structure. Basically, a pavement's surface deflection in

response to a known loading is used as a measure of effective strength. This

"effective strength" is influenced by a variety of factors including material
properties (including subgrade), thickness of pavement layers, and
environmental effects. Most currently used deflection based overlay design
procedures do not attempt to isolate material properties of individual pavement
layers.

3.1.4 Mechanistic-Empirical Analysis

Mechanistic-empirical based design methods are useful in overlay design as well
as new pavement design. Their greatest advantage is the versatility provided in
evaluating different materials under various environments and pavement
conditions. Mechanistic-empirical procedures provide a basis for rationally
modeling pavement systems. As these models improve, better correlations can
be expected between design and performance parameters. In many places
these procedures have replaced limiting deflection overlay methods, since the
latter do not account for subsurface material properties. Mechanistic-empirical
overlay design is essentially the same as mechanistic-empirical structural
design for new pavements but with the addition of more evaluation
locations. Mechanistic-Empirical covers this design method.

3.2 Structural PCC Overlays

A PCC overlay of an existing flexible pavement, called "whitetopping", is a newer,
viable rehabilitation alternative for flexible pavements. The overlayed rigid layer
offers a reasonably thin, highly durable wearing course with a significant
structural capacity. Although there are risks, whitetopping can be effective for
almost all applications. They have been successfully used on interstate
highways, state primary and secondary roads, intersections, etc. as well as major
airport and general aviation runways, taxiways, and aprons (Mack, Hawbaker and
Cole, 1998). This subsection covers:

Unbonded PCC overlays, often called "classical whitetopping"

Bonded PCC overlays, often called "thin composite whitetopping"

3.2.1 Unbonded - Classical Whitetopping

Classical whitetopping is an unbonded PCC overlay of an existing flexible
pavement. Because there is no bond, the existing flexible pavement is assumed
to function only as a base for the new PCC overlay. Most often, the PCC overlay
is placed directly on the flexible pavement surface after sweeping to remove
loose debris. Generally, classical whitetopping works well as long as rut and
pothole depths in the existing flexible pavement are less than 50 mm (2 inches).
If rut or pothole depths are deeper, the potholes are filled or the surface

is milled. All three types of rigid pavement (JPCP, JRCP and CRCP) have been
successfully used as classical whitetopping (McGhee, 1994).
The chief advantage of classical whitetopping is that it requires minimal surface
preparation. However, minimum overlay thicknesses tend to be in the 125 - 175
mm (5 - 7 inch) range, which is quite thick and possibly unsuitable in situations
where a specific elevation must be maintained such as in curbed areas or under
bridges.
The design procedure contained in
the 1993 AASHTO Guide is virtually
identical to the AASHTO empirical
design for new rigid pavements
with one exception: The effective
modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is
determined based on the existing
flexible pavement resilient
modulus. Although perfectly
acceptable, this method gives little
credit to the existing pavement's
remaining strength.
Figure 10.16: Thin Composite
Whitetopping at the Mn/ROAD Test
3.2.2 Bonded - Thin Composite Facility
Whitetopping
Thin composite whitetopping (see Figure 10.16) is a PCC overlay intentionally
bonded to an existing flexible pavement with a PCC slurry or grout in order to
create a composite pavement section (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998). This
composite section, acting as a single layer, is thicker than just the PCC overlay
and thus, results in substantially reduced maximum slab tensile stresses (on the
order of 1/2 for edge stresses and 1/4 for corner stresses) (Mack, Hawbaker and
Cole, 1998). Overlay thicknesses tend to be 50 - 175 mm (2 - 7 inches) thick but
can be thicker for high volume roads; overlays in the 50 - 100 mm (2 - 4 inches)
range are often referred to as "ultra-thin whitetopping" (UTW). Thin white
topping (i.e., bonded PCC overlay greater than 100 mm (4 inches) thick) is
considered appropriate for all situations and traffic levels. UTW as conceived and
developed in the early 1990's is intended more for lower-volume roads, vehicular
parking areas and light duty airports (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998).
The chief advantage of thin composite whitetopping is that it can be made
thinner than classical whitetopping because of the composite layer action.
However, issues with slab size, joint location and bonding effectiveness can
complicate its use. This subsection covers:

Structural design

Joint design

Other considerations

3.2.2.1 Structural Design

The 1993 AASHTO Guide design procedure does not account for the bonded
composite action of the combined pavement-plus-overlay. Therefore, it treats
the bonded overlay design exactly the same as the unbonded one and does not
credit the existing flexible pavement with any structural capacity. In reality, if
the bond between layers is adequate then the structural support capacity of the
underlying flexible pavement should be considered. Although multiple studies
have shown this bonding to be adequate (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998), the
assumption of adequate bond performance is still a significant risk. If,
for some reason, the bond does not perform as intended then the pavement will
most likely fail prematurely. Surface preparation is critical.
The American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA) has a web page that will
calculate the load-carrying capacity of an ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW)
pavement during its service life. The calculations are based on a comprehensive
mechanistic analysis and correlation to UTW performance data. This web page
can be found at: http://www.pavement.com/pavtech/tech/utwcalc/main.asp.

3.2.2.2 Joint Design

Joints are typically design much closer than for typical new-construction rigid
pavement. The closer joint spacing, on the order of 1 - 4 m (3.3 - 13.1 ft.), does
the following (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998):

Reduces the moment arm of the applied wheel load and minimizes the
stresses due to bending.

Reduces the curling and warping stresses by reducing the size of the slab
that can curl or warp.

Because of the short joint spacing, the overlaid PCC slabs transfer load to the
underlying flexible pavement by deflecting downward as a unit rather than
bending (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998). Figures 10.17 and 10.18 show two
different joint spacings.

Figure 10.17: 3.7 x 3.7 m (12 x 12 ft.)

UTW Slabs at the Mn/ROAD Test
Facility

Figure 10.18: 1.2 x 1.2 m (4 x 4 ft.)

UTW Slabs at the Mn/ROAD Test
Facility

3.2.2.3 Other Considerations

Some criteria for deciding when to consider thin composite whitetopping as a
rehabilitation alternative are (Vandenbossche and Fagerness, 2001):

The existing flexible pavement must be more than 100 mm (4 inches)

thick. This provides a reasonably strong structural layer to which the PCC
overlay can bond. Mack, Hawbaker and Cole (1998) suggest a minimum
thickness of 75 mm (3 inches).

No raveling on the existing flexible pavement. Raveling will adversely

affect bonding.

Little to no bottom-up fatigue cracking in the existing flexible pavement.

Bottom up fatigue cracking will continue to progress and weaken the
flexible pavement structure even after the PCC overlay.

Other considerations are (Mack,

Hawbaker and Cole, 1998;
Vandenbossche and Fagerness,
2001):

Joints should not be in the

wheel paths (see Figure
10.19). Joints in the wheel
paths will lead to edge
loading, which induces high
slab edge and corner
stresses that can lead to
cracking. Thus, shorter joint
spacing is not always better.

Proper PCC curing is critical.

The thin slabs have a high
Figure 10.19: Typical Corner Breaks
surface-to-volume ratio and
Resulting from Joints Placed in the
can lose water to
Wheelpath (the White Dashed Lines
evaporation quite rapidly.
Represent the Approximate
Mack, Hawbaker and Cole
(1998) recommend applying Wheelpaths).
a curing compound at twice the normal rate to help avoid shrinkage
cracking and debonding between the PCC and flexible pavement layers.

PCC - flexible pavement bonding is critical to performance. If the bond is

inadequate, the PCC overlay will, in essence, function alone. This will
substantially increase maximum slab tensile stresses, increasing the
potential for cracking.

3.3 Summary
Rehabilitation essentially reverses the effects of deterioration by adding or
replacing material in the existing pavement structure. Although there are
several common methods of rehabilitation (HIPR, CIR and overlays) this section
has concentrated on structural overlays - those used to increase a pavement's
structural capacity. Non-structural overlays are treated in Flexible Maintenance.
New road construction in the U.S. is not nearly as prolific as it has been in
previous generations. Urban areas have filled out greatly and the ratio of
existing roads to new roads is now quite high. Consequently, rehabilitation (and
not new construction) has become the dominant force in today's pavement
design and construction arenas.

4 RIGID - MAINTENANCE

Major Topics on this Page

Pavement maintenance describes all the
methods and techniques used to prolong
pavement life by slowing its deterioration
rate. Thus, the performance of a pavement is
directly tied to the timing, type and quality of
the maintenance it receives. This section,
taken largely from Roberts et al. (1996),
describes the more common U.S. preventative
and corrective maintenance options for rigid
pavement. The timing of these maintenance
items is discussed in Pavement Management.

4. Joint and Crack Sealing

1
4. Slab Stabilization
2
4. Diamond Grinding
3
4. Patches
4
4. Summary
5

4.1 Joint and Crack Sealing

Sealant products are used to fill joints (see Figures 10.20 and 10.21) and cracks
in order to prevent entry of water or other non-compressible substances.
Although most rigid pavement joints are sealed at the time of new construction,
the useful sealant life is limited as stated by the ACPA (2001) on their web site:
"A typical hot-pour sealant provides an average of 3 to 5 years of life after proper
installation. Some low-modulus or PVC coal-tars can perform well past 8
years. Silicone sealants have performed well for periods exceeding 8 to 10 years
on roadways. This type of performance hinges on joint preparation and
installation. Of extreme importance is that the joint be clean and
dry. Compression seals provide service for periods often exceeding 15 years and
sometimes 20 years."
Crack sealant is typically used on early stage, isolated panel cracks; extensive or
advanced panel cracking is a symptom of larger problem (e.g., lack of panel
support, inadequate structural design or poor construction) that cannot be
addressed by simple crack sealing.
Purpose Preventive maintenance. Joint and crack filling to prevent entry of
:
water or other non-compressible substances into the pavement.
Material Hot-pour seals, compression seals, silicone seals
s:
Other
Info:

Sealant performance is dependent upon proper joint design and

cleanliness.

Figure 10.20: Joint Sealing

Figure 10.21: Joint Sealing CloseUp

4.2 Slab Stabilization

Slab stabilization seeks to fill voids beneath the slab caused by pumping,
consolidation or other means. If left untreated, these voids, which are often
quite small (on the order of 3 mm (0.125 inches) deep), may cause other
problems such as faulting, corner breaks or cracking (ACPA, 1995). Voids are
typically filled by pumping grout through holes drilled through the slab.
Purpose Preventive and corrective maintenance. Restores proper
:
base/subgrade slab support to prevent more serious distresses
such as faulting, corner breaks and cracking.
Material Pozzolan-cement grout.
s:
Other
Info:

Slab stabilization only fills the voids under a slab, it should not be
confused with slab jacking, which is used to raise the elevation of a
depressed slab.

4.3 Diamond Grinding

Diamond grinding (see Figure 10.22) refers to a process where gang-mounted
diamond saw blades (see Figures 10.23 and 10.24) are used to shave off a thin,
1.5 - 19 mm (0.06 - 0.75 inch) top layer of an existing PCC surface in order to
restore smoothness and friction characteristics. Most often, it is used to restore
roadway friction or remove roughness caused by faulting, studded tire wear, and
slab warping and curling.
Diamond grinding can reduce the IRI of an older pavement to 1.0 - 2.0 m/km (63
- 126 inches/mile).
Purpose Corrective maintenance. Restores pavement smoothness and
:
frictional characteristics. Can also be used in new construction to

attain initial specified smoothness, although properly constructed

PCC pavements should not require any diamond grinding.
Material Gang-mounted diamond saw blades.
s:
Other
Info:

Diamond grinding addresses serviceability problems but not their

root cause. For example, diamond grinding can substantially
reduce the roughness on a faulted rigid pavement, but it will not
address the cause of faulting, nor will it prevent roughness in the
future as a result of additional faulting.
Because the grinding head is cooled with water, a byproduct of
diamond grinding is a slurry of ground PCC particles and water.
Most of this slurry is picked up by vacuums within the grinding
machine and either deposited along the highway shoulder (in some
rural areas) or collected in trucks for disposal.

Figure 10.22: Diamond Grinding Machine

Figure 10.23: Diamond Saw

Blades

Figure 10.24: Gang-Mounted

Diamond
Saw Blades

4.4 Patches
Rigid pavement patches are used to treat localized slab problems such
as spalling, scaling (e.g., reactive aggregate distress, over-finishing the
surface), joint deterioration, corner breaks or punchouts. If the problem is
limited in depth, then a partial depth patch may be appropriate, otherwise a full
depth patch is recommended. A high quality patch can be considered a
permanent repair, although all patches are treated as a form of pavement
distress. Although HMA is sometimes used for emergency patches, PCC should
be used for permanent patches. Fast-setting PCC is often used to minimize
setting time.

4.4.1 Partial Depth Patch

Partial depth patches (see Figure
10.25) are used to restore localized
areas of slab damage that are
confined to the upper one-third of slab
depth. Generally, this includes light to
moderate spalling and localized areas
of severe scaling (ACPA, 1995). Partial
depth patches are usually small, often
Figure 10.25: Partial Depth Patch
only 50 - 75 mm (2 - 3 inches) deep
Used to Repair Spalling Damage
and covering an area less than 1
2
2
m (10.8 ft ) (ACPA, 1995). The
generally partial depth patching process proceeds as follows (ACPA, 1995):
1. Locate the area to be patched. Extend the patch beyond the damaged
area by 75 - 100 mm (3 - 4 inches).

2. Remove the damaged material. Removal is usually accomplished by

sawing and chipping. Small areas can be removed by sawing around the
patch edges and then chipping out the interior. The patch should be deep
enough to remove all the damaged material.
3. Clean the area to be patched. Sandblasting or water blasting removes
loose particles and creates a rough texture to which the bonding agent
can adhere.
4. Apply a bonding agent. A cementitious grout is used to help the patch
material bond to the original slab material.
5. Place, finish and cure the PCC. The PCC should be placed so that the
patch is of the same elevation as the surrounding slab. Finishing the patch
from the center to the edges helps push the PCC patch material firmly
against the existing slab and increases the potential for a high strength
bond.

4.4.2 Full-Depth Patch

Full depth patches (see Figure 10.26) are used to restore localized areas of slab
damage that extend beyond the upper one-third of slab depth or originate from
the slab bottom. Generally, this includes spalling, punchouts, corner breaks,
moderate to severe slab cracking and localized areas of severe scaling
(e.g., reactive aggregate distress, over-finishing the surface) (ACPA, 1995).
Corner breaks and punchouts should almost always be patched to full depth.
When deciding between a partial and full depth patch for spalling and slab
cracking, realize that joint spalls extending more than about 75 - 150 mm (3 - 6
inches) from the joint are indicative of possible slab bottom spalling. Corner
breaks and slab cracking are indicative of structural inadequacies that cannot be
addressed with partial depth patching. These problems should be addressed
using a full depth patch. Figure 10.27 shows a full depth patch pour.

Figure 10.26:
Full-Depth Patch
Preparation

Figure 10.27:
Pouring a Small
Full Depth PCC
Patch on a
Residential Street
A PCC full depth patching process proceeds as follows (ACPA, 1995):
1. Locate the area to be patched. If the area to be patched is too close to an
existing joint or crack, the patch area should be extended as follows:
o

Patch boundary within 2 m (6 ft.) of an existing undoweled

transverse joint. Extend the patch to the transverse joint.

Patch boundary on an existing doweled transverse joint. If the other

side of the joint does not require repair, extend the patch beyond
the transverse joint by about 0.3 m (1 ft.) to remove the existing
dowels.

The patch boundary falls on an existing crack (CRCP). Extend the

patch beyond the crack by about 0.15 m (0.5 ft.).

2. Remove the damaged material. Usually, full depth saw cuts are used to
isolate the repair area from the rest of the pavement. Then, the isolated
section is lifted out as a whole or broken up and removed.
3. Prepare the patch area. The base material and subgrade is compacted,
smoothed and dried (see Figure 10.28). Dowel bars holes are drilled into
the adjacent slab transverse sections and dowel bars are inserted to
provide load transfer across the patch boundary. Slab replacements
longer than about 4.5 m (15 ft.) require longitudinal tie bars as well (see
Figure 10.29).
4. Apply a bonding agent. A cementitious grout is used to help the patch
material bond to the original slab material.
5. Place, finish and cure the PCC. The PCC should be placed so that the
patch is of the same elevation as the surrounding slab. Vibratory screeds
are often used to strike off and finish full depth patches.

Figure 10.28: Base Preparation

Figure 10.29: Drilling Holes for

Tie Bar Placement

4.5 Summary
Pavement maintenance prolongs pavement life by slowing its deterioration rate.
This section has described some of the more common maintenance options in
the U.S. Each option's effectiveness is dependent upon a multitude of local
conditions. For most smaller agencies, the best advice when considering
pavement maintenance options is to talk to local contractors and nearby
agencies about what types of maintenance options have worked best in your
local area.

5 RIGID - REHABILITATION
The combined effects of traffic loading and
the environment will cause pavements to
deteriorate over time. Although
maintenance can slow the rate of
deterioration, it cannot stop it. Therefore
eventually the effects of deterioration need to
be reversed by adding or replacing material in
the existing pavement structure. This is called
rehabilitation. Formally, rehabilitation can be
defined as (ITS, 2000):

Major Topics on this Page

5. Dowel Bar Retrofit
1
5. Structural HMA Overlays
2
5. Structural PCC Overlays
3
5. Summary
4

"Measures to improve, strengthen or salvage existing deficient pavements to

continue service with only routine maintenance. Deficient pavements exhibit
distress in excess of what can be handled through routine maintenance."
A wholesale replacement of the entire pavement structure is considered
reconstruction rather than rehabilitation since it follows new pavement
construction methods. Rigid pavement rehabilitation options depend upon local
conditions and pavement distress types but typically include:

Dowel bar retrofit. Rigid pavements originally constructed without dowel

bars may be subject to excessive faulting and pumping due to poor load
transfer. In these situations, retrofitting transverse cracks
and/or contraction joints with dowel bars can significantly increase load
transfer and extend rigid pavement life.

HMA overlays. HMA overlays are used for two primary purposes:
structural and non-structural. Structural overlays are thicker and are
designed to add structural support to the existing rigid pavement. Nonstructural overlays are designed as a wearing course and are generally
assumed to provide no additional structural support.

PCC overlays. PCC overlays are structural in nature and can be divided
into two types (Mack, Hawbaker and Cole, 1998):

Unbonded. Bonding between the existing rigid pavement and the

PCC overlay is intentionally prevented by using a slurry seal, BST, or
HMA bond breaking interlayer. Unbonded PCC overlays are typically
125 - 305 mm (5 - 12 inches) thick (AASHTO, 1993).

Bonded. The PCC overlay is purposely bonded to the existing rigid

pavement surface. Thus, the PCC overlay and existing rigid
pavement act as a composite structure. This allows for thinner PCC
overlays.

Rubblization or crack-and-seat. This involves breaking up the existing

distressed rigid pavement and overlaying the resulting surface with a
flexible or rigid pavement. Rubblization and crack-and-seat surface
preparation is discussed in Flexible Overlays on Rigid Pavement.

This section will concentrate on structural overlays by describing several typical

overlay design methods. Discussion of rubblization or break-and-seat surface
preparation techniques used to prepare existing rigid pavements for either rigid
or flexible overlays can be found in Flexible Overlays on Rigid Pavement.

5.1 Dowel Bar Retrofit

Dowel bar retrofitting is a method used to restore or provide better load
transfer across transverse joints or cracks using dowel bars. Usually, dowel bar
retrofits are necessitated by excessive faulting due to a loss of aggregate
interlock over time. It is interesting to note that much of the rigid pavement built
in the U.S. during the 1950s and later included dowel bars for load transfer except on the west coast where dowel bars did not become common practice in
some states until the late 1990s. Thus, large-scale dowel bar retrofit projects are
largely confined to western states. The basic procedure is as follows:
1. Cut slots across the joint (see Figure 10.30). Typically, three or four slots
are cut across the joint in each wheel path. These slots are cut parallel to

the direction of traffic flow and must also be parallel to one another so
that the retrofitted dowel bars do not restrict slab expansion and
contraction.
2. Insert dowel bars into the slots (see Figure 10.31). Each dowel bar is
placed on a small support to keep it at the correct elevation. A Styrofoam
joint reformer and plastic end caps are used to allow the slab to expand
without bearing on the grout.
3. Fill the slot with grout (see Figure 10.32). A small maximum aggregate
size (e.g., 10 mm (0.4 inch)) is used to ensure the grout fills in completely
around the dowel.
4. Diamond grind the entire pavement area (see Figure 10.33). This removes
any elevation differences due to faulting or grout placement.

Figure 10.30: Dowel Bar Slots

Figure 10.31: Dowel Bars in Slots

Figure 10.32: Filling Slots with Grout

Figure 10.33: Slots After Diamond

Grinding

Retrofitting dowel bars has grown in popularity over the last 10 years and has
resulted in good pavement performance.

5.2 Structural HMA Overlays

HMA structural overlays are used to increase rigid pavement structural capacity.
Therefore, they are considered rehabilitation, although they typically have some
maintenance-type benefits as well. Although the specific constants used may be
different, flexible overlays of rigid pavement are designed in the same basic
manner as flexible overlays of flexible pavement. For a discussion of these
design methods, see Flexible - Rehabilitation.

5.3 Structural PCC Overlays

PCC overlays of existing rigid pavements have been used for years to restore
pavement structural capacity. All types of rigid pavement designs
(JPCP, JRCP, CRCP) are appropriate to be overlaid and to be used as overlays.
This section briefly describes the AASHTO design procedure for the two major
types of PCC overlays: unbonded and bonded.

5.3.1 Unbonded
An unbonded PCC overlay consists of a relatively thick PCC layer (typically 125 305 mm (5 - 12 inches) thick) over an existing rigid pavement. Bonding between
the existing pavement and overlay is intentionally prevented by using a slurry
seal, BST, or HMA bond breaking interlayer. This intentional separation allows
the original pavement and overlay to act independently of each other and helps
prevent distresses in the existing pavement from reflecting through into the
overlay (ACPA, 2001). Unbonded overlays are generally used as an alternative
to rubblization when the existing rigid pavement is badly deteriorated. Their
primary advantages are that they (1) can be applied over a badly deteriorated
pavement without much surface preparation and (2) they do not require the
existing pavement to be removed. Their primary disadvantages are (1) because
they are relatively thick and placed directly over the existing pavement, they add
substantially to roadway elevation, which could pose overhead clearance
problems, and (2) they are relatively expensive.

5.3.1.1 Structural Design

The design procedure contained in the 1993 AASHTO Guide is virtually identical
to the AASHTO empirical design for new rigid pavements with one exception: The
effective modulus of subgrade reaction (k) is determined based on the existing
pavement resilient modulus. Although perfectly acceptable, this method gives
little credit to the existing pavement's remaining strength. The basic equation in
the 1993 AASHTO Guide is:

where Dol
:

= required thickness of unbonded rigid overlay

Df

= slab thickness required to carry all future

traffic

De

= effective thickness of the existing slab

ff

The 1993 AASHTO Guide design procedure is summarized below.

1. Determine the slab thickness required to carry all future traffic (D f). This is
done as it would be in the normal AASHTO empirical design process for
new rigid pavements. Material properties used in these calculations
should be those of the overlay material and not the existing rigid
pavement. Other values, are specified in the 1993 AASHTO Guide.
2. Determine the effective thickness of the existing slab (D eff) by one of the
following two methods:
o

From a condition survey. The following equation is used to adjust

the actual existing slab thickness based on condition survey results:

where De
:
ff

= effective thickness of the existing slab

Fjcu

= joints and cracks adjustment factor accounts for the extra loss of serviceable
life caused by deteriorated transverse joints
and cracks in the existing pavement.

= existing slab thickness, maximum value is

250 mm (10 inches) even if the existing slab
is thicker

From a remaining life calculation. This method does not account for
any benefits from pre-overlay repair. The following equation is used
to determine the remaining life as a percentage of total life:

where RL
:

= remaining life, as a percentage of total life

Np

= total loads to date in ESALs

N1.

= total loads to failure in ESALs. To be

consistent with AASHO Road Test data,
"failure" is assumed to occur at PSI = 1.5 and
reliability = 50%.

5.3.1.2 Joint Design

Joints are typically designed to be mismatched with underlying existing joints.
The assumption is that the thick overlay and bond breaking interlayer will
prevent reflective cracking, therefore mismatching the joints will improve load
transfer. AASHTO recommends that "the placement of joints in the overlay
should be mismatched from existing joints and working cracks by at least 0.9 m
(3 ft.) where possible" (AASHTO, 1990).

5.3.2 Bonded
A bonded PCC overlay consists of a relatively thin PCC layer (typically less than
100 mm (4 inches) thick) over an existing rigid pavement. The overlay is
intentionally bonded to the existing pavement with a PCC slurry or grout in order
to create a composite pavement section (McGhee, 1994). Bonded overlays are
generally used to add structural capacity to existing rigid pavements that have
little deterioration (e.g., no faulting or spalling and cracked slabs should be
replaced before overlay). Their primary advantages are that they (1) are thinner
than unbonded overlays and (2) their structural design accounts for the strength
of the underlying pavement. Their primary disadvantages are (1) they should
not be applied over badly distressed pavements because the distress may affect
bond quality, and (2) they are dependent upon good bond development - if for
some reason this does not occur, the pavement could be structurally inadequate.

5.3.2.1 Structural Design

The design procedure in the 1993 AASHTO Guide is somewhat similar to that
for unbonded overlays, however, it is more dependent on existing pavement
characteristics. Specifically, there are three key differences:
1. The overlay thickness is a linear function of the total required slab
thickness (Df) and effective slab thickness (Deff) instead a quadratic
function. This results in a thinner overlay for a given D f and Deff. In
essence, the bonded overlay design procedure gives more credit to the
existing pavement's structural contribution.
2. Design is based on the material properties of the existing pavement
structure because of the expected bonding.

3. Effective thickness (Deff) calculations incorporate more aspects of the

existing pavement's structure. Because the design relies more heavily on
the existing pavement's structure, it's evaluation should be more
rigorous.
The basic equation in the 1993 AASHTO Guide is:

where Dol
:

= required thickness of unbonded rigid overlay

Df

= slab thickness required to carry all future

traffic

De

= effective thickness of the existing slab

ff

The 1993 AASHTO Guide design procedure is summarized below.

1. Determine the existing pavement structure and material properties. This
includes determining the existing slab thickness, type of load transfer,
type of shoulder design (flexible or rigid), condition survey, effective
modulus of subgrade reaction (k), PCC parameters (elastic modulus,
modulus of rupture), joint load transfer, etc.
2. Determine the slab thickness required to carry all future traffic (D f). This is
done as it would be in the normal AASHTO empirical design process for
new rigid pavements. Material properties used in these calculations
should be those of the existing material and not the overlay. Other
values, are specified in the 1993 AASHTO Guide.
3. Determine the effective thickness of the existing slab (D eff) by one of the
following two methods:
o

From a condition survey. The following equation is used to adjust

the actual existing slab thickness based on condition survey results:

where De
:
ff
Fjc

= effective thickness of the existing slab

= joints and cracks adjustment factor - accounts for
the extra loss of serviceable life caused by
deteriorated reflection cracks in the overlay that will
result from any unrepaired distresses in the existing
pavement.

Fdu

= durability adjustment factor - accounts for the extra

loss in serviceability caused by
any durability problems (such as "D" cracking) in the
existing pavement.

Ffat

= fatigue damage adjustment factor - accounts for

past fatigue damage in the existing pavement.

= existing slab thickness

From a remaining life calculation. This method does not account for
any benefits from pre-overlay repair. The following equation is used
to determine the remaining life as a percentage of total life:

where RL
:

= remaining life, as a percentage of total life

Np

= total loads to date in ESALs

N1.

= total loads to failure in ESALs. To be

consistent with AASHO Road Test data,
"failure" is assumed to occur at PSI = 1.5 and
reliability = 50%.

5.3.2.2 Joint Design

Joints are typically designed to coincide with underlying existing joints, otherwise
uncontrolled reflective cracking may occur and substantially affect overlay
performance (McGhee, 1994). Dowels and reinforcing steel are generally not
placed in the overlay joints.

5.5 Summary
Rehabilitation essentially reverses the effects of deterioration by adding or
replacing material in the existing pavement structure. This section has
concentrated on structural overlays of existing rigid pavements. These overlays,
which can be either flexible or rigid, are used to increase a pavement's structural
capacity. In order to do this, they must be structurally designed using one of
several methods. Flexible overlays tend to be less expensive, thinner and
quicker to construct, while rigid overlays are more expensive, thicker and take
longer to construct, but may offer longer life. The choice of overlay type and
method is highly dependent upon local practice and conditions.

Finally, new road construction in the U.S. is not nearly as prolific as it has been in
previous generations. Urban areas have filled out greatly and the ratio of
existing roads to new roads is now quite high. Consequently, rehabilitation (and
not new construction) has become the dominant force in today's pavement
design and construction arenas.

Component Analysis - Asphalt Institute

The Asphalt Institute's component analysis design approach (termed "effective
thickness" by the Asphalt Institute) uses
Major Topics on this Page
relationships between subgrade strength,
Subgrade Analysis
pavement structure, and traffic (Asphalt
Institute, 1983). The existing structural
Pavement Structural Analysis
integrity of the pavement is converted to an
Traffic Analysis
equivalent thickness of HMA, which is then
Example
compared to that required for a new design.
The structural evaluation procedure developed by the Asphalt Institute allows for
either determining the required thickness of asphalt concrete overlay or
estimating the length of time until an overlay is required. The essential parts of
this overlay design procedure will be briefly described:

Subgrade analysis

Pavement structure thickness analysis

Traffic analysis

This section summarizes the approach described in the Asphalt

Institute's Asphalt Overlays for Highway and Street Rehabilitation (MS-17).

Subgrade Analysis
Subgrade material testing is encouraged even if original design records are
available. The resilient modulus (MR), CBR or R-value tests appear to be the
easiest to use with this procedure. For actual design, the design strength of the
subgrade must be characterized in terms of resilient modulus. Therefore CBR
and R-values must be correlated to resilient modulus values. If test data in terms
of MR, CBR, or R-value are not available, subgrades can be placed into one of
three classes for design purposes as follows:

Poor soils. Soft and plastic when wet, generally composed of silts or clays.
Typical properties are: MR = 30 MPa (4,500 psi), CBR = 3, R-value = 6.

Medium soils. Include soils such as loams, silty sands, and sand-gravels
which contain moderate amounts of clay and silt. These soils can be
expected to lose only a moderate amount of strength when wet. Typical
properties are: MR = 80 MPa (12,000 psi), CBR = 8, R-value = 20.

Good soils. These soils can be expected to retain a substantial amount of

their strength when wet and include clean sands and sand-gravels. Typical
properties: MR = 170 MPa (25,000 psi), CBR = 17, R-value = 43.

If subgrade strength or stiffness test results are available, a conservative value is

chosen as a function of the design traffic (ESALs). To do this, a plot is prepared
of the percent equal to or greater than (y-axis) versus subgrade
strength/stiffness test results (x-axis). Basically, this is a cumulative frequency
plot. The design subgrade strength/stiffness is then selected from the plot
according to Table 1 or similar criteria.
Example Plot Using CBR Values

Table 1: Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus Selection Values

Design ESALs
10,000
10,000 to 1,000,000
> 1,000,000

Design Subgrade Percentile Value

(%)
60
75
87.5

Pavement Structure Analysis

The goal of this portion of the design method is to determine the "Effective
Thickness (Te)" of the existing pavement structure. AASHTO refers to effective
thickness as Deff. One common Asphalt Institute approach is illustrated here.
First, the significant pavement layers are identified and their condition
determined. Second, "Conversion Factors" are selected for each layer (judgment
by the designer is very important at this point). Third, the Effective Thickness for
each layer is determined by multiplying the actual layer thickness by the
appropriate Conversion Factor. The Effective Thickness of the complete
pavement structure is the sum of the individual Effective Thicknesses. Typical
layer thickness Conversion Factors are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Example of Asphalt Institute Conversion Factors for Estimating
Thickness

of Existing Pavement Components to Effective Thickness (after Asphalt

Institute, 1983)
Description of Layer Material
Native subgrade
Improved subgrade - predominantly granular materials
Lime modified subgrade of high PI soils

Conversion Factor*
0.0
0.0

Granular subbase or base CBR not less than 20

Cement modified subbases and bases constructed from low PI
soils

0.1 - 0.3

Cement or lime-fly ash bases with pattern cracking

Emulsified or cutback asphalt surfaces and bases with extensive
cracking, rutting, etc.

0.3 - 0.5

PCC pavement broken into small pieces

Asphalt concrete surface and base that exhibit extensive
cracking

0.5 - 0.7

Asphalt concrete generally uncracked

PCC pavement stable, undersealed and generally uncracked
pavement

0.9 - 1.0

*Equivalent thickness of new asphalt concrete

Traffic Analysis
The Asphalt Institute treatment of traffic includes consideration of volume
composition, and axle weights, with the goal being to develop the equivalent
number of ESALs. To estimate the ESALs for the overlay design period, at least
two approaches can be used, depending on availability of site specific traffic
information. One approach provides broad traffic classifications and the
associated ESAL amounts, as illustrated in Table 3. The second approach
includes the use of "truck factors" (the average ESALs per truck number) along
with the number and type of trucks that are expected to use the facility. This
approach can accommodate a wide variety of truck information ranging from
only an estimate of the percent of the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) that constitutes
trucks to estimates of trucks broken into the categories of single and multi-units
(as illustrated by "vehicle type" in Table 3).
Truck factors are shown in Table 7.3 for a variety of vehicle types, with the
average being 0.4 ESAL per truck averaged over all highway and truck types.

Thus, if a given "average" highway is expected to have 1,000,000 trucks during

the design period, the resulting ESALs would be 400,000.
Table 3: Asphalt Institute Traffic Classifications (after Asphalt Institute,
1983)
Type of Street or Highway Estimated

18,000 lb (80 kN)

ESALs

Parking lots, light traffic residential streets and farm roads

5,000

Residential streets, rural farm and residential roads

10,000

Urban and rural minor collectors

100,000

Urban minor arterials, light industrial streets, rural major

collectors and rural minor arterial highways

1,000,000

Urban/rural freeways and other principal arterial highways

3,000,000

Some interstate highways and industrial roads

10,000,000

Table 4. Average Truck Factors Compiled from FHWA Data (after Asphalt
Institute, 1983)
Truck Factors

Vehicle Types

Rural Highways
Interstate

Other

All

Urban
Highways

(a) 2-axle, 4-tire

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.02

(b) 2-axle, 6-tire

0.19

0.21

0.20

0.26

0.21

Combined

. Single-units

(c) 3-axles or more

0.56

0.73

0.67

1.03

0.73

(d) All single-units

0.07

0.07

0.07

0.09

0.07

(a) 3-axle

0.51

0.47

0.48

0.47

0.48

(b) 4-axle

0.62

0.83

0.70

0.89

0.73

(c) 5-axles or more

0.94

0.98

0.95

1.02

0.95

(d) All multiple units

0.93

0.97

0.94

1.00

0.95

0.49

0.31

0.42

0.30

0.40

. Tractor semi-trailers

. All trucks

Example
A two-lane highway has the following characteristics and resulting overlay
requirement:
1. Traffic

Average Daily Traffic = 4,000

Percent trucks (total all units) = 10%

Traffic growth rate = 4%

2. Existing pavement structure and condition

Asphalt concrete = 3 in.

Crushed stone base = 8 in.

Subgrade design strength value: CBR = 8 or M R 12,000 psi

Overall, the pavement structure is in poor condition, with the HMA

exhibiting well defined crack patterns

Determine overlay thickness for a 20-year design period.

1. 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs

number of trucks in the design lane per day = (4,000)(0.50)(0.10) = 200

ESALs/day = 200(0.4 ESAL/truck) = 80 ESALs/day

18K ESAL for design period = (80 ESALs/day) (365 days/yr)

(29.8) 870,000 after adjustment for design period and traffic growth
rate. Note:

2. Effective pavement thickness

Effective Thickness
(inches)
75 mm (3 in.)
0.5
37.5 mm (1.5 in.)
200 mm (8 in.)
0.2
40.0 mm (1.6 in.)
Total Te =
77.5 mm (3.1 in.)
3. From Figure 1, the required new "full-depth" asphalt concrete pavement
thickness (Tn) = 195 mm (7.7 in.).
Layer Thickness (inches)

Conversion Factor (Table 2)

4. Thickness of asphalt concrete overlay = Tn - Te = 195 mm - 77.5 mm =

117.5 mm (4.6 in.)

Figure 1: Sketch of Asphalt Institute Design Chart for Full-Depth HMA (redrawn from Asphalt Institute, 1983)

Limiting Deflection - Asphalt Institute

The basic approach of the overlay design procedure is to identify continuous
pavement sections of uniform performance,
Major Topics on this Page
obtain "static" pavement surface deflections
Deflection Analysis
with the Benkelman Beam or other device and
Example
determine the expected traffic by use
of ESALs. This section summarizes the approach described in the Asphalt
Institute's Asphalt Overlays for Highway and Street Rehabilitation (MS-17).

Deflection Analysis
The Asphalt Institute recommends that a minimum of 20 deflection
measurements be taken each mile and randomly located in the outer wheelpath.
From this data for each "uniform" pavement section, a "representative rebound
deflection" is determined as follows:
RRD = (x + 2s)(f)(c)
wher
e:

RR
D

= representative rebound deflection (inches)

= mean of the individual deflections (inches)

= standard deviation of the deflections (in)

= temperature adjustment factor

= critical period adjustment factor (where c = 1 if deflection

tests made during the most critical period (highest pavement
deflections)).

This calculation of RRD represents an upper bound of about 97 percent of all

deflections measured. The temperature adjustment factor adjusts the existing
asphalt concrete surfacing to a standard temperature of 21C (70F) (refer to
Figure 1).

Figure 1: Sketch of Asphalt Institute Temperature Adjustment Factors

for Benkelman Beam Deflections (after Asphalt Institute, 1983)
A study for the U.S. Forest Service completed during 1994 (Uhlmeyer et al.
[7.33]) reviewed deflection data from paved roads in the Willamette National
Forest (Central Oregon), the Olympic National Forest (both aggregate and asphalt
surfaced pavements) and the Kootenai National Forest (western Montana). The
critical period adjustment factor (c) ranged from about 1.0 to 1.7 (with the
exception of one forest road in the Kootenai which ranged from 3.0 to 8.0).
Overall, a c = 1.5 appeared to be widely applicable. Further, if the deflection
data are collected for different time periods, the following adjustment factors
could be used:
Time Period When Deflection Data
Obtained
January - March
April - June
July - September
October - December

Deflection Data Adjustment Factor

(c)
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.25

The above "c" values are generally representative for flexible pavements located
in areas with modest annual freezing and thawing (a Freezing Index of say less
than 700F-days) or a wet climate. A higher "c" is likely needed in areas with
severe winter freezing and thawing. The Roads and Transportation Association of
Canada (RTAC) (RTAC, 1977) uses a multiplier of 2.5 to convert Benkelman Beam
measurements taken during the fall period (September 1 to October 15) to
"maximum spring values." This ratio of 2.5 is a bit higher than generally
observed in the U.S., possibly reflecting the generally more severe winter and
thaw periods in Canada.

The deflection measurements can be used to estimate the remaining life of the
pavement or the needed thickness of asphalt concrete overlay. To determine the
required overlay thickness, Figure 2 is used with the RRD and ESALs as the
required input.

Figure 2: Sketch of HMA Overlay Thickness Required to Reduce

Pavement Deflection
from a Measured to a Design Deflection Value (Asphalt Institute, 1983)
Example
A two-lane highway has the following characteristics and resulting overlay
requirement (same data as for the component analysis example):
1. Traffic

Average Daily Traffic = 4,000

Percent trucks (total all units) = 10%

Traffic growth rate = 4%

2. Existing pavement structure and condition

Asphalt concrete = 3 in.

Crushed stone base = 8 in.

Subgrade design strength value: CBR = 8 or M R 12,000 psi

Overall, the pavement structure is in poor condition, with the HMA

exhibiting well defined crack patterns

Determine overlay thickness for a 20-year design period.

1. 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs

number of trucks in the design lane per day = (4,000)(0.50)(0.10) = 200

ESALs/day = 200(0.4 ESAL/truck) = 80 ESALs/day

18K ESAL for design period = (80 ESALs/day) (365 days/yr)

(29.8) 870,000 after adjustment for design period and traffic growth
rate. Note:

2. Deflection data

mean (x) = 0.061 in., standard deviation (s) = 0.004 in.

f: If the mean asphalt concrete temperature during deflection = 15C

(60F) then f = 1.10 (refer to Figure 1).

c: If tests are made during the critical period, then c = 1.0.

3. Representative rebound deflection

RRD = x + (2s)(f)(c)

RRD = [0.061 + 2(0.004)](1.10)(1.0)

RRD = 0.076 in.

4. Required asphalt concrete overlay thickness = 96.5 mm (3.8 in) (refer to

Figure 2)