International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Improving consumer satisfaction in green hotels: The roles of

perceived warmth, perceived competence, and CSR motive
Yixing (Lisa) Gao a, , Anna S. Mattila b
a
b

School of Hospitality Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 122 Mateer Building, University Park, PA 16802, United States
School of Hospitality Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 224 Mateer Building, University Park, PA 16802, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords:
CSR
Green hotel
Consumer satisfaction
Perceived warmth and competence
Perceived motive

a b s t r a c t
Research on consumer satisfaction with green hotels has yielded mixed results; some studies have shown
a positive relationship with CSR initiatives and others have shown a negative relationship. To reconcile
these two opposing views, we examine the mediating effects of perceived warmth and competence as
potential psychological mechanisms explaining consumers reactions to green hotels. We also investigate
the moderating role of rm motives in inuencing consumers reactions to green initiatives. Results from
Study 1 indicate that when service delivery is successful, consumer satisfaction is higher for green (vs.
non-green) hotels. However, the advantage for green hotels disappears when guests experience service
failures. Results from Study 2 show that consumer satisfaction with green hotels is enhanced when a rm
engages in green initiatives for public-serving (vs. self-serving) motives. Overall, the results show that
perceived warmth and competence mediate the relationship between service outcomes and consumer
satisfaction and behavioral intentions.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The hospitality industry has become increasingly involved
in corporate social responsibility (CSR) in recent years. Many
hotels have implemented numerous CSR initiatives to serve local
communities, improve employees well-being, and conserve the
environment (Bohdanowicz and Zientara, 2009; Lee and Heo,
2009). Being viewed as a green hotel is often a desired outcome
of a hotels CSR strategy. By participating in green certication
programs, such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design), hotels intend to promote and practice energy efciency,
conservation, and recycling, while at the same time providing hotel
consumers with a sustainable, clean, and healthy product (Millar
and Baloglu, 2011).
However, the impact of being green on consumer satisfaction
is equivocal. One literature stream shows that green initiatives
lead to greater consumer satisfaction (Lee and Heo, 2009; Luo and
Bhattacharya, 2006) and return intentions (Berezan et al., 2013).
On the other hand, Robinot and Giannelloni (2010) and Carbon
Trust (2011) have suggested that hotels should not inform consumers about their environmental initiatives, because consumers
doubt their efcacy and therefore, lower their evaluations. Chong

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 8147776276.

E-mail addresses: yzg104@psu.edu (Y. Gao), asm6@psu.edu (A.S. Mattila).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.06.003
0278-4319/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

and Verma (2013) also recently found that no booking advantage

is gained by going green; while green programs might attract consumers who support such efforts, other consumers might worry
that their comfort will be sacriced at hotels that cut back on
resources. Therefore, promoting an environmentally friendly image
while avoiding accusations of green washing is a key challenge
faced by hotels with CSR programs (Chan, 2013a,b; Chun and
Giebelhausen, 2012).
In the present research, we attempt to shed light on this
paradox by introducing the concepts of perceived warmth and
competence, which are critical to understanding how consumers
perceive green hotels. Abundant research in social psychology (i.e.,
Asch, 1946; Lydon et al., 1988; Rosenberg et al., 1968; Wojciszke
et al., 1998) and organizational behavior (Cuddy et al., 2011) has
shown that people judge others on the dimensions of warmth
(i.e., good-naturedness, trustworthiness, tolerance, friendliness,
and sincerity) and competence (i.e., capability, skillfulness, intelligence, and condence) (Cuddy et al., 2008; Fiske et al., 2007). In
this study, we propose that these two dimensions are the underlying mechanisms explaining consumer satisfaction in the context of
two service outcomes at green hotels: successful service delivery
and service failure.
According to attribution theory (Kelley, 1967), consumers are
likely to make inferences about a rms motives for engaging in CSR.
Previous research has uncovered two primary types of motives:
self-serving (e.g., to increase prots, sales or the prole of a specic

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

brand) and public-serving (e.g., to assist with community development or raise awareness for a specic cause) (Becker-Olsen et al.,
2006; Ellen et al., 2006; Vlachos et al., 2009). These two motives
signicantly inuence consumers attitudes, purchase intentions,
and word of mouth (Becker-Olsen et al., 2006; Kang et al., 2012;
Vlachos et al., 2009). In this study, we propose that perceived rm
motive will moderate the relationship between service outcomes
and consumer satisfaction in green hotels.
There is ample evidence to show that consumer satisfaction
drives behavioral intentions (e.g., Spreng et al., 1995; Parasuraman
et al., 1988; Burton et al., 2003; Han and Kim, 2010; Lee et al.,
2010). To enhance the managerial implications of our ndings, we
included behavioral intentions as an outcome variable in our model.
The objectives of this research are: (1) to verify the moderating
effect of CSR (green hotel) on consumer satisfaction; (2) to examine the mediating effects of perceived warmth and competence as
potential psychological mechanisms explaining consumers reactions to green hotels; (3) to investigate the moderating role of rm
motives in inuencing consumers reactions to green initiatives.
This research makes several contributions to the CSR and hospitality literature. First, we contribute to the research on CSR
programs by examining consumer satisfaction with green hotels
across two types of service outcomes and two types of rm motives.
Second, we introduce perceived warmth and perceived competence as a psychological mechanism in explaining the impact of
green initiatives on consumer satisfaction. The ndings of this
study will help hotel managers who engage in green initiatives
to understand the inuence of perceived warmth, competence,
and rm motive on consumer satisfaction. In the following sections, we present relevant theoretical background and develop
our hypotheses. We then describe our experimental designs, data
analysis techniques and results. Finally, we discuss conclusions,
implications, and limitations of the study.
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Green hotel and non-green hotel
Green hotels or eco-friendly hotels refer to lodging establishments that have made a commitment to various ecologically sound
practices such as saving water, saving energy, and reducing solid
waste (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007). Given the popularity of the
Green movement, many chain-afliated hotels have adapted green
initiatives to conserve natural resources, to reduce waste, to reuse
and recycle materials, to educate people, and to be involved in
community activities (Rahman et al., 2012; Stipanuk, 1996; Teng
et al., 2012). Eco-friendly hotels benet from cost savings, competitive advantage, enhanced employee and consumer loyalty and
regulatory compliance (Graci and Dodds, 2008).
2.2. Consumer satisfaction in hotels
Satisfaction is a multi-dimensional construct, and cognition
and affect are the key determinants of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (Oliver, 1993). Ample evidence shows that CSR
has a positive impact on consumer satisfaction (i.e., Eisingerich
et al., 2011; Lee and Heo, 2009; Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006). However, Robinot and Giannelloni (2010) argued that hotels should not
inform consumers about their environmental initiatives because
consumers may doubt the efcacy of such programs. So, how can
we reconcile these contradictory ndings?
In a hotel context, the social servicescape (i.e., interactions
with employees) and physical servicescape (i.e., building, landscape and interior facilities) drive consumer satisfaction (Bitner,
1992; Zeithaml et al., 2006). While core attributes of hospitality

21

services (e.g., providing a bed for the night) reect functional performance, green practices may satisfy consumers psychological
or emotional needs (Christy et al., 1996; Kang et al., 2012; Sen
and Bhattacharya, 2001). For instance, consumers who purchase
green products or services might experience feelings of well-being
when they behave altruistically, and gain a sense of moral satisfaction when they contribute to societys welfare (Hartmann
and Ibanez, 2006). Similarly, according to the warm-glow model,
individuals who contribute to the public good through environmental protection also report higher levels of life satisfaction
and happiness (Andreoni, 1989; Videras and Owen, 2006). These
results align with Handelman and Arnolds (1999) ndings that
CSR is a moderating factor in consumers evaluations of companies.
However, environmental practices are not part of a hotels core
services or core competencies (Kang et al., 2012; Kasim, 2004). Evidence suggests that the positive effect of CSR is limited to situations
in which corporate performance is acceptable (Handelman and
Arnold, 1999). That is, green practices are nonessential attributes
that deliver secondary benets (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007).
Service quality is the main determinant of consumer satisfaction, regardless of whether the hotel is green or not (Eisingerich
et al., 2011; Vlachos et al., 2009; Zeithaml et al., 2006). Since
being green might have additive effects on consumer satisfaction,
such as making people feel more socially responsible, green initiatives may increase consumers positive emotions (Hu et al., 2011;
Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001) when they experience satisfactory
service. However, in cases involving service failure, these benets are greatly diminished because the positive effect of CSR on
consumer satisfaction occurs only when environmental initiatives
are unrelated to a companys core service (Eisingerich et al., 2011).
Therefore, we propose that:
H1. Hotel type (i.e., green/non-green) will moderate the impact
of service outcomes (i.e., service success/failure) on consumer satisfaction, Specically:
H1a. When service delivery is successful, consumers will be more
satised in green hotels than in non-green hotels.
However,
H1b. When there are service failures, consumers will be equally
dissatised across the two hotel types (green and non-green).
2.3. Perceived warmth and perceived competence
Emotional warmth has been studied in a number of contexts
(Bush, 1972) and it is a signicant driver of consumer satisfaction, loyalty and retention (Rust and Zahorik, 1993). Warmth
judgments are formed automatically, and they have an important impact on consumers subsequent attitudes (Cuddy et al.,
2011). Perceived warmth is particularly important in the services context, as such judgments are highly linked to consumers
perceptions of how friendly and caring employees are (Mittal
and Lassar, 1996; Stauss, 2002). Moreover, perceived warmth is
linked to likeability and perceived service quality (Lemmink and
Mattsson, 2002). In service settings, consumers typically interact with capable, friendly, and helpful (i.e., warm) employees
(Parasuraman et al., 1988: SERVQUAL). Conversely, when service
failures occur, consumers perceive employees to be unconcerned
and uncaring (i.e., cold). Obviously, consumers perceive more
warmth in successful service encounters than in failed service
encounters.
However, the notion of warmth has received scant attention
in the CSR research. Aaker et al. (2010) found that consumers
perceive non-prot rms as being warmer than for-prot rms
because non-prots show more commitment to the social good.

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Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

Du et al. (2010) suggested that warm feelings may contribute to the

effectiveness of a rms CSR communication; such feelings induce
cognitive responses of trustworthiness and affective responses of
empathy.
It has been well documented that service outcomes such as
service smoothness and employee friendliness and helpfulness
are the primary determinants of perceived warmth (Lemmink
and Mattsson, 2002; Mittal and Lassar, 1996; Parasuraman et al.,
1988: SERVQUAL; Stauss, 2002) and satisfaction (Eisingerich et al.,
2011). In this paper, we suggest that CSR initiatives positively
inuence perceptions of warmth. In general, green hotels are
perceived as being environmentally conscientious (i.e., warm,
friendly, caring) (Millar and Baloglu, 2011) while non-green hotels
can be perceived as being environmentally unfriendly, indifferent and wasteful (i.e., cold) (Lichtenstein et al., 2004; Sen and
Bhattacharya, 2001). Consumers who purchase environmentally
friendly products derive high personal satisfaction from not only
the performance of green products, but also the knowledge that
they are not harming the environment (Leonidou et al., 2010).
Therefore, based on the warm-glow model (Andreoni, 1989) consumers who stay in green hotels should perceive high levels of
utility (such as warmth) and hence feel more satised (Videras
and Owen, 2006). However, such perceptions of warmth in green
hotels are not present in non-green hotels. Thus, we propose that:
H2. Perceived warmth mediates the relationship between service
outcomes and consumer satisfaction across two hotel types
(green/non-green).
Prior research has demonstrated that perceived warmth might
enhance service encounter satisfaction if an employee is perceived
as competent (Grandey et al., 2005). Competence also seems to
drive product quality perceptions (Aaker et al., 2010; Goldsmith
et al., 2000).
Although warmth judgments are instantaneous, competence
judgments require a secondary consideration of whether the
warmth (or its absence) is accompanied by capability (Cuddy et al.,
2011). Competence judgments reect consumers perceptions of
condence, effectiveness, intelligence, capability, skilfulness, and
competitiveness (Grandey et al., 2005). Perceived competence has
been linked to enhanced trust, stronger consumer/service provider
relationships, and lower likelihood of stability attributions in the
context of service failures (Coulter and Coulter, 2002; Wirtz and
Mattila, 2004). Werther and Chandler (2010) argued that integrating CSR as a core strategic competence will create competitive
advantage for a rm.
Handelman and Arnold (1999) investigated the effects of CSR on
consumer evaluations of corporate abilities, expertise and competency. By embracing LEED-certied green technology and utilizing
the newest equipment, materials, and techniques (e.g., using compact uorescent light bulbs in guest rooms and low-ow shower
systems that inject air to simulate ample water ow), hotels signal a high level of competency (Butler, 2008), and in turn increase
consumer satisfaction. Since non-green hotels do not engage in
these practices, they do not benet from potential increases in
consumers perceptions of competence.
In the context of a service failure, however, benets related
to perceived competence in green hotels are negated. Unlike
nonessential green attributes (Manaktola and Jauhari, 2007),
service outcomes are the key determinants of consumer satisfaction (Eisingerich et al., 2011; Zeithaml et al., 2006). Thus, we
propose that:
H3. Perceived competence mediates the relationship between
service outcomes and consumer satisfaction across two hotel types
(green/non-green).

Fig. 1. Conceptual model for Study 1.

2.4. Perceived motives of green initiatives

When consumers evaluate a hotels green initiatives, they may
try to infer the rms motivation for engaging in CSR. Perceived
corporate motive (self-serving vs. public-serving) has signicant
impact on consumers perceptions of CSR initiatives (Becker-Olsen
et al., 2006). For example, Ellen et al. (2006) categorized consumers attributions of CSR into self-centered motives (i.e., strategic
and egoistic), and other-centered motives (i.e., driven by corporate
values and stakeholders). In their study, consumers responded positively to CSR efforts that were strategic and values-driven, while
egoistic initiatives were perceived negatively.
Accordingly, research has shown that perceived rm motives
inuence consumers responses to cause-related marketing efforts
(Barone et al., 2000). For example, Blair and Chernev (2012) demonstrated that a perceived self-interest motive attenuates the positive
effect of social goodwill. Self-serving motives have a negative
impact on perceived warmth and competence (Cuddy et al., 2011),
evaluations of a companys CSR efforts (Vlachos et al., 2009), attitudes toward a company (Becker-Olsen et al., 2006) and consumers
willingness to pay for green initiatives (Kang et al., 2012).
According to Vlachos et al. (2009), rms that provide high
levels of service quality counteract the negative effects of selfserving motive attributions, because when satisfactory services
are provided, consumers care less about the motivations underlying CSR. In other words, consumers are more likely to engage in
compensatory processing for negative CSR attributions when they
receive satisfying services (Berens et al., 2007). Conversely, consumers attributional processes are heightened in service failure
situations (Vlachos et al., 2009); hence self-serving motives generate more negative perceptions than public-serving motives (Luo
and Bhattacharya, 2006). The logic for this argument is that CSR is
not a core attribute of a hotels service offering (Eisingerich et al.,
2011; Kang et al., 2012; Kasim, 2004), and service quality provision
is more personally relevant than CSR for consumers. The former
relates to satisfaction of lower-order physiological needs, whereas
the latter reects satisfaction of higher-order self-enhancement
needs (Vlachos et al., 2009). Therefore, hotels with CSR programs
that are perceived as having self-serving motives are especially disadvantaged when they perform poorly on core attributes; however,
when satisfactory service is provided, compensatory processing
leads to fewer satisfaction differences among consumers.
H4. Perceived motives (public-serving/self-serving) will moderate the impact of service outcomes (service success/failure) on
consumer satisfaction. Consumers will be more satised when they
perceive a rms motive as public-serving (vs. self-serving), regardless of the service outcome; the magnitude of the difference is
heightened in a service failure condition.
As discussed in Section 2.1, perceived warmth and perceived
competence play important roles in consumers perceptions of
environmental initiatives in green hotels. Is the mediating effect
of perceived warmth and competence the same for green hotels
when different motives for CSR are perceived by consumers?
Cuddy et al. (2011) suggested that warmth judgments affect the
extent to which people trust or doubt others motives, whereas

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

23

Table 1
Metric invariance between green hotel and non-green hotel.
Overall model

Chi-square

df

p-value

Unconstrained
Fully constrained
Number of groups
Difference

363.65
386.061

142
156
2
14

0.071

22.411

Fig. 2. Conceptual model for Study 2.

competence judgments inuence assessments of others abilities to

effectively act on their motives. Aaker et al. (2010) argued that nonprot organizations are judged to be warmer than for-prot rms
because people perceive non-nancial motives. Society-serving
motives reect altruism, generosity, and philanthropy, all of which
are warmth traits (Aaker et al., 2010; Lii and Lee, 2012; Nan and Heo,
2007). In the context of green hotels, consumers are likely make
inferences about a rms motives (Kelley, 1967). When consumers
perceive that a rms green initiatives reect society-serving intentions, positive feelings toward the company will increase, along
with purchase intentions (Aaker et al., 2010). Likewise, when
public-serving motives are perceived, higher competence is signaled, in that a company is able to take care of not only its core
business, but the environment as well (Becker-Olsen et al., 2006).
Thus, we propose:

self-serving motive, the hotels green program was described as

saving energy and achieving economic savings, while for the
public-serving motive, the hotels green program was described
as helping people and the planet. Two questions adapted from
Becker-Olsen et al. (2006) were used to measure rm motivation
(e.g., Determine your perceived motivation of Hotel XYZ for participation in the green programs: 1 = self-interested/7 = environment
interested, 1 = prot motivated/7 = socially motivated). The results
from an ANOVA table revealed that in the successful outcome
condition, consumer satisfaction was enhanced when the rm
motive was perceived as public-serving (Mself-serving = 4.78 vs.
Mpublic-serving = 6.14; F(1, 11) = 6.73, p = 0.03). However, the difference in satisfaction scores was insignicant in the failure condition
(Mself-serving = 3.49 vs. Mpublic-serving = 3.40; F(1, 17) = 0.02, p = 0.89)
due to small sample size.
3.2. Main study 1

H5. Perceived warmth mediates the relationship between service

outcomes and consumer satisfaction across two types of a rms
perceived motive (self-serving/public-serving).
H6. Perceived competence mediates the relationship between
service outcomes and consumer satisfaction across two types of
a rms perceived motive (self-serving/public-serving).
3. Research design
3.1. Pretest and pilot studies
We conducted one pretest and two pilot studies with a
total of 156 undergraduate students (Npretest = 49, Npilot study1 = 75,
Npilot study2 = 32). We adapted service failure scenarios from Smith
et al. (1999), and based green hotel scenarios on attributes suggested by Millar and Baloglu (2011). All measurement scales and
scenarios are provided in Appendices.
In the pretest, participants were asked to rate their level of
agreement (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) with statements (e.g., I believe Hotel XYZ is a green hotel; I believe hotel XYZ
is a non-green hotel). Only 3 out of 49 students failed to perceive
the green hotel description as reecting green practices.
We further tested the effectiveness of our scenarios on a different group of 75 undergraduate students by exposing each
student to one of the four scenarios (service success vs. service
failure, green hotel vs. non-green hotel). In addition to the green
hotel question, participants were asked to rate the hotel in terms
of perceived warmth and competence based on Aaker et al.
(2010) (e.g., To what extent do you believe that Hotel XYZ is warm
(cold)/friendly (unfriendly); competent (incompetent)/capable (incapable)?). We measured satisfaction using scales from Oliver (2010)
and behavioral intentions from Wirtz and Mattila (2004). In a
successful delivery condition, participants were marginally more
satised when the hotel was green vs. non-green (Mgreen = 4.95 vs.
Mnon-green = 4.31; F(1, 35) = 3.17, p = 0.0). Conversely, in a service
failure condition, hotel type failed to inuence guest satisfaction
(Mgreen = 3.49 vs. Mnon-green = 3.29; (F(1, 36) = 0.27, p = 0.61).
In the nal pretest, we tested the manipulations for rm
motives with 32 undergraduate students. The scenarios were
adapted from Butler (2008) and Aaker et al. (2010). For the

The purpose of Study 1 was to provide initial causal evidence for

the relationships between service outcomes and perceived warmth
and competence in green hotels and non-green hotels.
3.2.1. Method
We employed a 2(service outcome: service success/service failure) 2 (hotel type: green/non-green) between-subjects design.
Data were collected from an online consumer panel with 183
participants who were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions; 158 nished the survey with no overlapping.
Among participants who completed the survey, 45% were female,
88% were aged 2059 years, 80% were Caucasian, 85% held a degree
higher than high school, 66% had household incomes more than
$30,000, and 68% stayed at hotels more than once a year.
After reading the experimental stimuli, participants were asked
to rate perceived warmth and competence (Aaker et al., 2010) as
well as satisfaction (Oliver, 2010) and behavioral intentions (Wirtz
and Mattila, 2004). Demographic information was captured at the
end of the questionnaire. We performed scale reliability checks,
which are provided in Appendix 3.
Manipulation checks were included to assess whether the study
participants properly interpreted our scenarios. Signicant differences were observed for service outcomes (e.g., Referring back
to the check-in scenario you have read, do you think your experience at Hotel XYZ was bad/good? 1 = Bad; 7 = Good) (Msuccess = 5.49
vs. Mfailure = 2.51; F1, 156 = 225.36, p = 0.000) and hotel type (e.g., I
believe Hotel XYZ is a green hotel. 1 = Strongly disagree; 7 = Strongly
agree) (Mgreen = 6.00 vs. Mnon-green = 1.90; F1, 156 = 409.99, p = 0.000).
3.2.2. Analysis and results
3.2.2.1. Test for metric invariance. To compare parameters across
the two hotel types (green vs. non-green), we tested metric
variance following Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998) suggestions. The invariant items were measures of perceived warmth (2
items) and perceived competence (2 items), consumer satisfaction (5 items), and behavioral intentions (5 items). As shown in
Tables 1 and 2, the metric invariance model was supported, as the
chi-square difference between the nonconstrained model and the
full metric invariance model was not signicant (2 (14) = 22.41,

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Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

Table 2
ANOVA output for moderation effect of hotel type.
Tests of between-subjects effects
Dependent variable: satisfaction
Source

Type III sum of squares

df

Mean square

Sig.

Partial eta squared

Corrected model
Intercept
Service Outcome
Hotel Type
Service Outcome Hotel Type
Error
Total
Corrected total

320.123a
2243.010
213.511
47.735
21.785
197.897
2804.102
518.020

3
1
1
1
1
154
158
157

106.708
2243.010
213.511
47.735
21.785
1.285

83.038
1745.472
166.151
37.146
16.952

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.618
.919
.519
.194
.099

R squared = .618 (adjusted R squared = .611).

p = 0.071) under the threshold of p = 0.05 with 95% condence (Suh

and Youjae, 2006). These results indicate metric invariance across
the two hotel types (green and non-green).
3.2.2.2. The moderating effect of hotel type. An ANOVA of satisfaction revealed signicant main effects related to service outcome
(success/failure) (F(1, 154) = 166.15, p = 0.000) and hotel type
(green/non-green) (F(1, 154) = 37.15, p = 0.000), but these main
effects were qualied by a signicant interaction effect (F(1,
154) = 16.95, p = 0.000). As shown in Fig. 3, in a successful delivery
condition, participants were more satised when the hotel was a
green hotel vs. a non-green hotel (Mgreen = 5.96 vs. Mnon-green = 4.08;
F(1, 69) = 62.30, p = 0.000). Conversely, in a service failure condition, hotel type failed to inuence satisfaction (Mgreen = 2.83 vs.
Mnon-green = 2.47; F(1, 85) = 1.85, p = 0.18). Taken together, these
results support H1a and H1b.
3.2.2.3. The mediating role of perceived warmth and competence.
As Fig. 1 depicts, we propose a case of moderated mediation,
in which hotel type moderates the effect of service outcome on
perceived warmth and competence (the mediators), which in turn
inuence satisfaction (Hayes, 2013, Model 7). Using the mediator
model, we examined the effects of service outcome, hotel type, and
their interaction on perceived warmth; the interaction is signicant ( = 0.49, p = 0.004), which suggests that the indirect effect of
service outcome through perceived warmth varies as a function
of hotel type. Using the dependent variable model, we examined

the effects of perceived warmth and service outcome on satisfaction and found that perceived warmth has a signicant effect on
satisfaction ( = 0.78, p = 0.000). The effect of service outcome on
perceived warmth was moderated by hotel type ( = 0.94, SE = 0.19,
t = 4.95, p = 0.000). Using the recommended bootstrapping technique to test conditional indirect effects (sample size of 5000 for
the bias corrected bootstrap condence intervals), we found that
the conditional indirect effect of service outcome on satisfaction
through perceived warmth is signicant for both green hotels (95%
condence interval [CI] = 1.522.28), and non-green hotels (95%
CI = 0.691.56) which do not contain zeroes (Hayes, 2013).
Similarly, using the mediator model, we examined the effects
of service outcome, hotel type, and their interaction on perceived
competence. The interaction is signicant ( = 0.71, p = 0.0001),
which suggests that the indirect effect of service outcome through
perceived competence varies as a function of hotel type. Using the
dependent variable model, we examined the effects of perceived
competence and service outcome on satisfaction. The effect of
perceived competence on satisfaction ( = 0.77, p = 0.0000) is signicant. The effect of service outcome on perceived competence
was moderated by hotel type ( = 0.67, SE = 0.17, t = 3.80, p = 0.000).
Using the recommended bootstrapping technique to test conditional indirect effects (sample size of 5000 for bias corrected
bootstrap condence intervals), we found that the conditional indirect effect of service outcome on satisfaction through perceived
competence is signicant for both green hotels (95% CI = 1.762.86)
and non-green hotels (95% CI = 0.671.71), which do not contain
zeroes (Hayes, 2013).
These results support mediation by both perceived warmth and
perceived competence (Hayes, 2013). In other words, H2 and H3
are supported. Table outputs are provided in Appendix 4.
3.3. Study 2
The results of Study 1 show that hotel type (green vs. non-green)
moderates consumer satisfaction (H1 supported) and that the proposed underlying mechanisms of perceived warmth and perceived
competence mediate consumer satisfaction (H2 and H3 supported).
To verify these important ndings, we designed Study 2 to replicate the mediation effect while manipulating the rm motive for
engaging in CSR (self-serving vs. public-serving).

Fig. 3. Interaction of hotel type and service outcomes.

3.3.1. Method
We collected data from an online panel of 225 participants who
were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions
(service success vs. service failure/self-serving vs. public-serving
motive, all in green hotels). After cleaning the data, the nal sample consisted of 185 participants: 40% were female, 94% were aged
2059 years, 76% were Caucasian, 99.5% held a degree higher than
high school, 56% had household incomes of more than $30,000, and
70% stayed at hotels more than once a year.

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25

Table 3
Metric invariance between self-serving motive and public-serving motive.
Overall model

Chi-square

df

p-value

Unconstrained
Fully constrained
Number of groups
Difference

351.859
352.025

142
143
2
1

0.684

0.166

After reading the scenarios, participants were asked to answer

the two perceived motivation questions (Becker-Olsen et al.,
2006) (1 = self-interested/7 = environment interested; 1 = prot motivated/7 = socially motivated) along with questions about perceived
warmth and competence (Aaker et al., 2010) and satisfaction
(Oliver, 2010). At the end of the questionnaire, demographic information was collected. We also conducted scale reliability checks.
We conducted manipulation checks to assess whether the
study participants properly interpreted our scenarios. Signicant
differences were found for perceived service outcome (e.g., Referring back to the check-in scenario you have read, do you think
your experience at Hotel XYZ was bad/good? 1= Bad; 7= Good)
(Msuccess = 6.27 vs. Mfailure = 3.00; F1, 183 = 267.49, p = 0.000) and
perceived motive (e.g., Please determine your perceived motivation
of Hotel XYZ for participation in the green program: 1 = Self-interested;
7 = Environment interested; 1 = Prot motivated; 7 = Socially motivated) (Mself-motive = 3.47 vs. Mpublic-motive = 4.85; F1, 183 = 29.61,
p = 0.000).
3.3.2. Analysis and results
3.3.2.1. Test for metric invariance. We followed the same procedures as Study 1 to assess metric invariance across the two rm
motives (self-serving vs. public-serving). The invariant items were
measures of perceived warmth (2 items) and perceived competence (2 items), consumer satisfaction (5 items), and behavioral
intentions (5 items). As shown in Table 3, the metric invariance
model was supported, as the chi-square difference between the
nonconstrained model and the full metric invariance model was
not signicant (2 (1) = 0.166, p = 0.684) under the threshold of
p = 0.05 with 95% condence (Suh and Youjae, 2006).
3.3.2.2. The moderating effect of perceived motive. To test the moderating effect of perceived motive for CSR, we rst dichotomized
the continual variable of perceived motive by using a median
split method (Median = 4.0, Nself-serving = 106, Npublic-serving = 79)
(McClelland and Irwin, 2003).
An ANOVA of consumer satisfaction revealed signicant main effects of service outcomes (success/failure) (F(1,
181) = 291.54, p = 0.000) and motives (self-serving/public-serving)
(F(1, 181) = 102.39, p = 0.000) qualied by a signicant interaction effect (F(1, 181) = 14.74, p = 0.000). As shown in Fig. 4,
consumer satisfaction increased in both the service success situation (Mself-serving = 5.49 vs. Mpublic-serving = 6.44; F(1, 98) = 26.47,
p = 0.000) and the service failure situation (Mself-serving = 2.31
vs. Mpublic-serving = 4.43; F(1, 83) = 74.25, p = 0.000) when consumers perceived the hotels motive as public-serving. In
service failure situations, satisfaction differences between
consumers who perceived a self-serving motive and those
who perceived a public-serving motive are larger (Mean
differencepublic-servingself-serving = 2.15, SD = 0.24, p = 0.000) than
satisfaction differences in service success situations (Mean
differencepublic-servingself-serving = 0.96, SD = 0.20, p = 0.000) in
support of H4 (as shown in Table 4).
3.3.2.3. The mediating role of perceived warmth and competence.
As shown in Fig. 2, we propose a case of moderated mediation,
in which perceived motive moderates the effect of service outcome on perceived warmth and competence (the mediators), which

Fig. 4. Interaction of perceived motive and service outcomes.

in turn inuence satisfaction (Hayes, 2013, Model 7). Using the

mediator model, we examined the effects of service outcome and
perceived motive on perceived warmth and found that the interaction is signicant ( = 1.30, p = 0.0001). This nding suggests that
the indirect effect of service outcome, through perceived warmth,
varies as a function of perceived motive. Using the second model,
we examined the effects of perceived warmth and service outcome
on satisfaction. We found a signicant effect of perceived warmth
on satisfaction ( = 0.70, p = 0.000). The effect of service outcome on
perceived warmth was moderated by hotel type ( = 1.39, SE = 0.17,
t = 8.35, p = 0.000). Using the recommended bootstrapping technique (sample size of 5000 for bias corrected bootstrap condence
intervals), we found that the conditional indirect effect of service
outcome on satisfaction through perceived warmth is signicant
for hotels with self-serving motives (95% CI = 1.412.22), and for
hotels with public-serving motives (95% CI = 0.461.34), which do
not contain zeroes (Hayes, 2013).
Using the mediator model, we examined the effects of service
outcome, perceived motive, and their interaction on perceived
competence. The interaction is signicant ( = 1.51, p = 0.0000),
which suggests that the indirect effect of service outcome through
perceived competence varies as a function of perceived motive.
Using the second model, we examined the effects of perceived competence and service outcome on satisfaction. The effect of perceived
competence on satisfaction (b = 0.81, p = 0.0000) is signicant. The
effect of service outcome on perceived competence was moderated
by hotel type ( = 0.63, SE = 0.17, t = 3.64, p = 0.000). Using the recommended bootstrapping technique (sample size of 5000 for bias
corrected bootstrap condence intervals), we found that the conditional indirect effect of service outcome on satisfaction through
perceived competence is signicant for hotels with self-serving
motives (95% CI = 2.273.11), and for hotels with public-serving
motives (95% CI = 0.922.01), which do not contain zeroes (Hayes,
2013). These results support H5 and H6.
4. Discussion
This research contributes to the CSR and hospitality literature in
several ways. First, we extend previous research by examining consumer satisfaction with green hotels and non-green hotels across
two types of service outcomes. Second, we propose that perceived
warmth and perceived competence are the underlying psychological mechanism explaining the impact of green hotel on satisfaction.

26

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

Table 4
ANOVA output for moderation effect of perceived motive.
Tests of between-subjects effects
Dependent variable: satisfaction
Source

Type III sum of squares

df

Mean square

Sig.

Partial eta squared

Corrected model
Intercept
PM
Service Outcomes
PM Service Outcomes
Error
Total
Corrected total

534.352a
3601.579
97.478
277.540
14.033
172.310
4614.694
706.663

3
1
1
1
1
181
185
184

178.117
3601.579
97.478
277.540
14.033
.952

187.100
3783.212
102.394
291.537
14.740

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.756
.954
.361
.617
.075

R squared = .756 (adjusted R squared = .752).

Third, we show that rm motives in engaging in CRS initiatives

inuence consumer satisfaction.
The results from two experiments support our theorizing. The
ndings of Study 1 indicate that hotel type (green/non-green)
moderates the impact of service outcomes (success/failure) on consumer satisfaction, and that perceived warmth and competence
mediate the relationship between service outcomes and satisfaction. The results of Study 2 demonstrate that rm motives for
engaging in CSR (self-serving/public-serving) and service outcomes
(success/failure) jointly inuence guest satisfaction. Moreover,
perceived warmth and competence mediate such relationships.
Consistent with theories that advocate the positive impact of
CSR on consumer satisfaction (i.e., Eisingerich et al., 2011; Lee
and Heo, 2009; Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006), our ndings indicate
that green initiatives enhance consumer satisfaction in successful service situations by signaling higher levels of warmth and
competence. However, the positive impact of being green was
not observed in service failure conditions (Manaktola and Jauhari,
2007). This nding lends credence to Robinot and Giannellonis
(2010) and Carbon Trusts (2011) recommendations to use caution when communicating a hotels environmental initiatives to
the public.
Despite early suggestions that consumers might perceive rms
engaging in CSR higher in warmth than non-CSR rms (Aaker et al.,
2010; Du et al., 2010), empirical research on the topic is scant.
Our ndings indicate that CSR does indeed induce perceptions of
warmth. Green hotels make consumers aware of their environmental conscientiousness, and therefore, they are perceived as warmer,
more friendly, and more caring. Non-green hotels, on the other
hand, are perceived as more cold due to their wastefulness toward
the environment (Lichtenstein et al., 2004; Sen and Bhattacharya,
2001). Since green hotels are certied with LEED-certied green
technology and environmentally friendly equipment, materials,
and techniques, they also signal a high level of competency (Butler,
2008), which in turn is a driver of consumer satisfaction.
Congruent with prior research on rm motives for CSR initiatives (Blair and Chernev, 2012; Vlachos et al., 2009), we found that
consumer satisfaction with green hotels is inuenced by perceived
motives. That is, regardless of the service outcome, satisfaction
was higher when consumers perceived that the hotel engaged in
green initiatives to help the society (public-serving) rather than to
make more money (self-serving). Moreover, the difference in satisfaction ratings between self-serving and public-serving motives
is more pronounced in service failure situations than in successful
encounters. Again, the underlying mechanism is perceived warmth
and competence. Prior research shows that self-serving motives
have a negative impact perceived warmth and competence (Cuddy
et al., 2011), thus having a detrimental effect in consumers evaluations CSR efforts (Vlachos et al., 2009), attitudes toward a company
(Becker-Olsen et al., 2006) and willingness to pay for green initiatives (Kang et al., 2012).

4.1. Managerial implications

The ndings of Study 1 indicate that both perceived warmth
and competence are critical for eliciting consumer satisfaction.
Although service excellence is a primary goal for any service
business, hospitality operators might want to pay attention to consumer perceptions of warmth and competence elicited by their
CSR initiatives. Our results suggest that managers of green hotels
should not only focus on service excellence but also educate their
guests about the hotels green programs and how those initiatives
contribute to the environment. In such communication efforts, it
is important to highlight both the warmth (genuine care for the
environment) and the competence aspect (investment in the latest
eco-friendly technology) of the hotels CSR initiatives. One good
example of such initiatives is provided by the InterContinental
Hotels Group (IHG). IHG updates their Corporate Responsibility
Report every year to educate and inspire associates and guests
about their innovative conservation initiatives. The report explains
how IHG drives environmental sustainability through their online
environmental tool, IHG Green Engage, which signals the high level
of IHGs competence and care for the environment. Our results indicate that enhanced perceptions of warmth and competence are
likely to increase guest satisfaction which turn has a positive impact
on loyalty behaviors. However, it is important to note that green
initiatives do not act as a buffer in case of service failures.
The ndings of Study 2 suggest that hospitality managers need
to be careful when communicating rm motives. If consumers
attribute the rms CSR initiatives to self-serving motives, their satisfaction will decrease, particularly in the case of service failures.
Conversely, when consumers perceive a public-serving motive,
their satisfaction will be enhanced by CSR initiatives as long as
service quality is high. Therefore, it is very important for green
hotel managers to ensure that consumers perceive the hotels CSR
initiatives as society-serving rather than self-serving. For example, Marriott has committed $2 million to help protect a rainforest
reserve in Brazil. Moreover, ve percent of the room revenues generated from the meeting business were donated to a foundation
focusing on sustainability. These programs demonstrate Marriotts
commitment to society-serving CSR initiatives.
In sum, the ndings of this research indicate that hotel managers should strategically integrate CSR into their competitive
positioning because such efforts reinforce perceptions of warmth
and competence. Moreover, it is important to deliver CSR messages
in a manner that highlights the rms intention to help the society by engaging in eco-friendly initiatives. By doing so, consumer
satisfaction toward green hotels can be improved.
4.2. Limitations and future research
This study has several limitations that could be addressed in
future research. According to Spreng et al. (1995), consumers

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

overall satisfaction is determined by the outcome of the original service encounter based on specic service attributes (Singh,
1991), and attributes associated with the service recovery process (Parasuraman et al., 2004). Since consumers perceptions of
warmth and competence are highly linked to employees abilities
to show empathy and deliver successful service (Grandey et al.,
2005; Mittal and Lassar, 1996; Stauss, 2002) and perceived competence can be restored by new successes (Fiske et al., 2007), service
recovery may be considered as another factor affecting perceived
warmth and competence, as well as satisfaction.
In addition, we did not investigate the relationship between
the perceiver and the target of green initiatives. For instance,
Cislak and Wojciszke (2008) predicted that resource use would
be perceived as benetting either the perceiver (consumer) or
the target (environment), resulting in increased perceptions of
warmth and competence, respectively. However, we did not
dene these roles for consumers or the environment, which
merits further investigation. Furthermore, the hotel category
(budget/mid-range/luxury) was not well dened in our manipulations. Consumers who patronize different categories of restaurants
have varying social statuses, self-perceptions, and levels of
environmental-consciousness (Namkung and Jang, 2013), which
may inuence their perceptions.
The hypothetical scenario-based experiments may need to be
veried with more empirical research. For instance, more than
two types of motives (self-serving and public-serving) for a companys CSR initiatives could be perceived; other possibilities include
motives driven by values, stakeholders, strategy, or ego (Ellen et al.,
2006; Vlachos et al., 2009). In addition, adding service recovery
experiences might change consumers perceptions of warmth and
competence, and in turn, their satisfaction.
Appendix 1. Sample scenarios and manipulations for
Study 1
Service success in green hotel
Now imagine that you are paying $220 per night for your stay
at Hotel XYZ during your next visit to New York City. Please read
the scenarios carefully and answer the questions that follow.
You arrive at the Hotel XYZ at approximately 7:00 pm and go to
the front desk to check in. You are immediately treated by the front
desk receptionist. The representative welcomes you and looks up
your prepaid reservation and informs you that your room is ready.
During the check-in, you notice a green certication displayed at
the front desk counter.

27

room, you need to use an electronic key card to turn the power
on and off. There are occupancy sensors and energy saving bulbs
in the bathroom and sleeping area. One of the dustbins is labeled
recycling. A card by the bed tells you sheets and towels are
changed upon request only. When you walk into the bathroom,
you notice shampoo and soap dispensers are rellable.
Service failure in non-green hotel
You arrive at the Hotel XYZ at approximately 7:00 pm and go
to the front desk to check in. You wait in line for 5 min. When you
get to the desk, the representative at the front desk answers a telephone call. When the representative is ready, he/she looks up your
prepaid reservation and informs you that your room is ready. However, when you get to your room, you nd that the room has not
been cleaned. You call the front desk and ask to be reassigned to a
clean room.
In the room, you also notice that unlike in some other hotels
where you need to use an electronic key card to turn the power
to your room on and off, the lights and power to the room are
permanently on. Unlike some other hotels that have occupancy
sensors and energy saving bulbs in the guest bathroom and sleeping area, bulbs in the sleeping area and bathroom are all bright.
Unlike in some hotels where sheets and towels are changed upon
request only, a card by the bed tells you that sheets and towels are
changed every day. Unlike some other hotels that have rellable
shampoo and soap dispensers, the bottled shampoo and soap bar
are placed at the dressing desk.
Appendix 2. Sample scenarios and manipulations for
Study 2
Self-serving
In addition, you happen to see an endorsement on the shelf from
Wall Street Journal talking about the green initiatives by Hotel XYZ
indicating that:
Green Hotels Just Got Bigger and Better!
Hotel XYZ hopes their green programs will boost sales, save 30%
to 50% energy, and achieve hard economic savings that would be
equivalent benet of increasing their average daily rate (ADR)
by $4.00 to $6.75!
Public-serving
In addition, you happen to see an endorsement on the shelf from
Wall Street Journal talking about the green initiatives by Hotel XYZ
indicating that:
Green Hotels Just Got Bigger and Better!
Hotel XYZ gives guests who care about making a different access
to great services that help people and the planet. Hotel XYZ
saved 30% to 50% energy, and devoted about U.S. $ 1.8 million
to environment protection in 2012.
Appendix 3. Scales
Study 1

When you get to your room, you nd that the room is clean
and exactly the type of room (in terms of number and size of beds,
views, and smoking or nonsmoking) that you had reserved. In the

Perceived Warmth (N = 2, Pearson Correlation = 0.835**):

To what extend do you believe Hotel XYZ is. . .
1 = Extremely Cold 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Extremely Warm
1 = Extremely unfriendly 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Extremely friendly

28

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

Study 2

Perceived Competence (N = 2, Pearson Correlation = 0.957**):

Given your experience at Hotel XYZ, to what extend do you believe Hotel
XYZ is. . .
1 = Extremely incompetent 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Extremely competent
1 = Extremely incapable 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Extremely capable
Satisfaction (N = 5, Cronbachs Alpha = 0.984):
Please rate your experiences at Hotel XYZ:
1 = Displeased me 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Pleased me
1 = Very Dissatised 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Very Satised
1 = Did a poor job for me 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Did a good job for me
1 = Poor choice 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Wise choice
1 = Unhappy with 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Happy with
Behavioral Intentions (N = 5, Cronbachs Alpha = 0.981):
Please rate the likelihood that you would:
1 = Very Low 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Very High
Say positive things about the hotel to other people;
Recommend the hotel to someone who seeks your advice;
Encourage friends and relatives to do business with the hotel;
Consider the hotel your rst choice to stay if you visit New York City
again;
I am more likely to choose this hotel in the future.

Perceived Motive (N = 2, Pearson Correlation = 0.739**):

Please determine your perceived motivation of Hotel XYZ for
participation in the green programs:
1 = Self-interested 2 3 4 5 6 7=Environment interested
1= Prot motivated 2 3 5 6 7 = Socially motivated

** Correlation is signicant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Note: Ecological Concern and Social Desirability scales were
tested in the scale reliability checks but were excluded because
of no effect on tested variables.

Appendix 4. Process output

See Tables 5 and 6

Table 5
Results of mediation tests using Hayes process for study 1.
Model No.
Dependent variables

No.1 perceived warmth

Constant
Service outcome
Hotel type
Service outcome hotel type
Perceived warmth
R
R2
F
df
p

No.2 satisfaction

se

3.9239
1.9097
.5586
.4973

.0852
.1704
.0852
.1704

.0000
.0000
.0000
.0040

.8134
.9445

se

p
.2517
.1908

.7787

.0015
.0000

.0602
.8708
.7583
243.1482
2.0000, 155.0000
.0000

.7524
.5661
66.9728
3.0000, 154.0000
.0000

.0000

Note: N = 158.
Direct and indirect effects
Direct effect of service outcome (X) on
satisfaction (Y)
Conditional indirect effect(s) of service
outcome (X) on satisfaction (Y) at
values of the moderator-hotel type
(M)
Perceived warmth
Perceived warmth

Hotel type (non-green)

Hotel type (green)

Effect

se

LLCI

ULCI

.9445

.1908

4.9512

.0000

1.0997
1.8742

.5677

1.3214

Bootse

BootLLCI

BootULCI

.2191
.1951

.6947
1.5160

1.5582
2.2771

Note: number of bootstrap samples for bias corrected bootstrap condence intervals: 5000.

Level of condence for all condence intervals in output: 95.00.

Model No.
Dependent variables

Constant
Service outcome
Hotel type
Service outcome hotel type
Perceived competence
R
R2
F
df
p
Note: N = 158.

No.1 perceived competence

No.2 satisfaction

se

se

3.8592
2.2389
.7106
.7146

.0884
.1768
.0884
.1768

.0000
.0000
.0000
.0001

.8777
.6667

.2032
.1754

.0000
.0002

.7698

.0486
.8990
.8082
326.4738
2.0000, 155.0000
.0000

.0000

.8001
.6402
91.3283
3.0000, 154.0000
.0000

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

29

Table 5 (Continued )
Direct and indirect effects
Direct effect of service outcome (X) on
satisfaction (Y)
Conditional indirect effect(s) of service
outcome (X) on satisfaction (Y) at
values of the moderator- hotel type
(M)
Perceived competence
Perceived competence

Hotel type (non-green)

Hotel type (green)

Effect

se

LLCI

ULCI

.6667

.1754

3.8003

.0002

.3202

1.0133

Bootse

BootLLCI

BootULCI

.2632
.2697

.6721
1.7586

1.7094
2.8196

1.1735
2.2736

Note: Number of bootstrap samples for bias corrected bootstrap condence intervals: 5000.
Level of condence for all condence intervals in output: 95.00.
Table 6
Results of mediation tests using Hayes process for study 2.
Model No.
Dependent variables

No.1 perceived warmth

Constant
Service outcome
Perceived motive
Service outcome perceived motive
Perceived warmth
R
R2
F
df
p

No.2 satisfaction

se

2.7000
2.5500
2.2400
1.3048

.1341
.2036
.2473
.3234

.0000
.0000
.0000
.0001

.5866
1.3905

se

p
.1825
.1666

.7000

.0015
.0000

.0473
.9077
.8238
425.5623
2.0000, 182.0000
.0000

.8106
.6570
115.5720
3.0000, 181.0000
.0000

.0000

Note: N = 185.
Direct and indirect effects
Direct effect of service outcome (X) on
satisfaction (Y)
Conditional indirect effect(s) of service
outcome (X) on satisfaction (Y) at
values of the moderator- perceived
motive (M)
Perceived warmth
Perceived warmth

Perceived motive (self-serving)

Perceived motive (public-serving)

Effect

se

LLCI

ULCI

1.3905

.1666

8.3488

.0000

1.7851
.8717

Note: Number of bootstrap samples for bias corrected bootstrap condence intervals: 5000.

1.0619

1.7192

Bootse

BootLLCI

BootULCI

.2064
.2196

1.4149
.4640

2.2221
1.3391

Level of condence for all condence intervals in output: 95.00.

Model no.
Dependent variables

No.1 perceived competence

Constant
Service outcome
Perceived motive
Service outcome perceived motive
Perceived competence
R
R2
F
df
p

2.4750
3.2750
2.2450
1.5135

No.2 satisfaction

se
.1237
.1877
.2280
.2982

.0000
.0000
.0000
.0000

.3975
.6294

se

p
.1615
.1730

.8102

.0148
.0004

.0448
.9280
.8612
564.7795
2.0000, 182.0000
.0000

.8703
.7573
188.3003
3.0000, 181.0000
.0000

.0000

Note: N = 185.
Direct and indirect effects
Direct effect of service outcome (X) on
satisfaction (Y)
Conditional indirect effect(s) of service
outcome (X) on satisfaction (Y) at
values of the moderator- perceived
motive (M)
Perceived competence
Perceived competence

Perceived motive (self-serving)

Perceived motive (public-serving)

Effect

se

LLCI

ULCI

.6294

.1730

3.6387

.0004

.2881

.9706

Bootse

BootLLCI

BootULCI

.2127
.2776

2.2741
.9201

3.1141
2.0108

2.6535
1.4272

Note: Number of bootstrap samples for bias corrected bootstrap condence intervals: 5000.
Level of condence for all condence intervals in output: 95.00.

30

Y. Gao, A.S. Mattila / International Journal of Hospitality Management 42 (2014) 2031

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