HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

--: ASSIGNMENT:--

[RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM]

SUBMITTED TO: - MR. A. ARUN RAJA

SUBMITTED: - BY CHAINA RAM

DEPARTMENT: - M. TECH. [THERMAL]
ROLL NO.-15230010

--SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS-Q1What is solar constant?

Ans -The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the conventional name for the
Mean solar electromagnetic radiation (the solar irradiance) per unit area that
would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays
2. List the options adopted for enhancing the efficiency of solar collectors
Ans- (i) Solar Panels and Temperature
(ii) Solar constant
3. Mention any 2 advantages of wind rose
Ans- (i) renewable sources it will never run out.
(ii).Inexhaustible fuel source No pollution often an excellent supplement to other
4. Define the term solidity with respect to wind mills
Ans - The ratio between the part of a propeller disc that when viewed from the front is
solid and the part that is just air. This ratio is measured by adding up the blade
chords at a certain radius and dividing the sum by the circumference at that
radius. Solidity = [No of Blades X Chord at radius r]/Circumference at radius r
5. Present any 2 drawbacks of bio energy.
Ans- (i) expensive when taking into account the cost of harvesting, extracting,
transporting and handling biomass
(ii) Generally a more expensive energy source compared to fossil fuels, because it
requires more fuel to produce the same amount of energy.
6. Brief on the desirable features of ethanol for usage as an automobile fuel
Ans- (i) Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource
(ii) Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon
(soot) and carbon monoxide
(iii)The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce
crops required to obtain ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol

7. Expand HDR and SONATA with respect to geothermal energy

Ans (i) HDR is by far the most abundant source of geothermal energy available to
mankind. A vast store of thermal energy is contained in the hot but essentially
dry impervious crystalline basement rocks found almost everywhere deep
beneath the Earths surface
(ii) SONATA geothermal provinces in India Son-Narmada-Tap
8. Give any 2 prominent tidal locations identified in India.
Ans- The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast have the
maximum tidal range of 11m and 8m with average tidal range of 6.77m and
5.23m respectively.
9. How fuel cells are classified?
Ans - (i)Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
(ii)Direct methanol fuel cells
(iii)Alkaline fuel cells
(iv)Phosphoric acid fuel cells
(v)Molten carbonate fuel cells
(vi)Solid oxide fuel cells
(vii)Reversible fuel cells
10. Mention any two environmental issues of fuel cells
Ans- (i) Expensive
(ii) Not Easy to Replace Existing Infrastructure
(iii)Highly Flammable
(iv)Storage problem

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LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q1.

(a) Detail the classifications of solar thermal collectors

(b) Compare the advantages of flat plate over concentrated collectors
(c) Enumerate, with suitable schematic, on the construction details of a flat
plate collector

Answer-(a)
(i) Evacuated tube solar thermal systems
The evacuated tube solar thermal system is one of the most popular solar thermal
systems in operation. An evacuated solar system is the most efficient and a common
means of solar thermal energy generation with a rate of efficiency of 70 per cent. As an
example, if the collector generates 3000 kilowatt hours of energy in a year then 2100
kilowatt hours would be utilised in the system for heating water. The rate of efficiency
is achieved because of the way in which the evacuated tube systems are constructed,
meaning they have excellent insulation and are virtually unaffected by air
temperatures.
(ii) Flat plate solar thermal systems Flat Plate Solar Thermal Collector are another
common type of solar collector. The main components of a flat plate panel are a dark
coloured flat plate absorber with an insulated cover, a heat transferring liquid
containing antifreeze to transfer heat from the absorber to the water tank, and an
insulated backing. The flat plate feature of the solar panel increases the surface area
for heat absorption. The heat transfer liquid is circulated through copper or silicon
tubes contained within the flat surface plate.
(iii) Thermodynamic solar panels are a new development in solar thermal technology.
They are closely related to air source heat pumps in their design but are deployed on
the roof or walls like regular solar thermal panels and do not have to be south facing.
The concept behind thermodynamic solar technology is that it acts like a reverse
freezer and they differ from conventional solar thermal in that they do not use solar
radiation to heat up heat transferring liquids
(iv)Solar thermal air collectors
Solar air heaters are mostly used for space heating and can be both glazed and
unglazed. They are among the most efficient and economical solar thermal
technologies available and are mostly used in the commercial sector. The top sheet of a
glazed system has a transparent top layer and an insulated surrounding frame and back
panel to prevent heat loss to the surrounding air. An unglazed system uses an absorber
plate which air passes over while heat is taken from the absorber.

(v) Solar thermal bowl collectors Bowl-Solar-Thermal-Collector A solar thermal bowl is

similar in fashion to a parabolic dish but has a fixed mirror instead of a tracking mirror
which a parabolic dish would use. A tracking mirror is designed to track the suns
movement which is very costly on a large scale. A spherical or bowl mirror gets around
the problem of tracking the sun in order to focus the light in one spot. A fixed mirror is
at a disadvantage with regard to energy output as it cannot track the sun in order to
focus the sunlight, however a fixed bowl will save the energy output that is associated
with having to move a giant mirror to track the
(b)
Sl.No. Flat Plate collector
Concentrating type collector
1
It is less efficient solar collector It is the most powerful type of collector.
2.

Maximum Temperature of fluid Fluid temperatures up to around 5000oC can

is 300oC
be achieved

It can be used in water heating. It can be used in solar furnaces and solar
power plant

(c) The construction details of a flat plate collector

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box
with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing)
on top and a dark-colored absorber plate
on the bottom. The sides and bottom of
the collector are usually insulated to
minimize heat loss.
Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up,
changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing
through pipes attached to the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly painted
with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat better than ordinary black
paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metaltypically copper or aluminium
because the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive, but is a better
conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminium. In locations with average
available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately one-half- to onesquare foot per gallon of one-day's hot water use.

Q2.List on the following terms used in wind mills:

Teetering, Ekman layer, pitch angle, chord, attached flow, separated flow,
Stalled flow and Betz coefficient
AnswerTeeteringThe rotor assembly of a teetering two-blade wind turbine moves with two mechanical
degrees of freedom: as it rotates, it teeters on a hinge between its hub and main shaft.
The technician works in the pitch and teeter mechanism of a two-blade turbine
Ekman layer
The Ekman layer is the layer in a fluid where the flow is the result of a balance between
pressure gradient, Coriolis and turbulent drag forces. In the picture above, the wind
blowing North creates a surface stress and a resulting Ekman spiral is found below it in
the column of water
Pitch angle
Blade pitch or simply pitch refers to turning the angle of attack of the blades of a
propeller or helicopter rotor into or out of the wind to control the production or
absorption of power. Wind turbines use this to adjust the rotation speed and the
generated power
Chord
Chord refers to the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an
aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the trailing edge and the point on
the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge
Attached flow
Boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from the surface into
a broader wake. Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion of the boundary
layer closest to the wall or leading edge reverses in flow direction
Separated flow
Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against an adverse
pressure gradient that the speed of the boundary layer relative to the object falls
almost to zero. The fluid flow becomes detached from the surface of the object, and
instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices.

Stalled flow
Airflow separating from an airfoil at a high angle of attack, as occurs at the stall. In fluid
dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of
attack increases. This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded.
Betz coefficient
Albert Betz was a German physicist who calculated that no wind turbine could convert
more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a
rotor. This is known as the Betz Limit, and is the theoretical maximum coefficient of
power for any wind turbine.

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Q3.

(i)Detail on the process and need for transesterification of vegetable oils.

(ii) Explain floating drum biogas plant & Its Advantages.

Answer(i) Transesterification of natural glycerides with methanol to methylesters is a

technically important reaction that has been used extensively in the soap and
detergent manufacturing industry worldwide for many years. Almost all biodiesel is
produced in a similar chemical process using base catalyzed transesterification as it is
the most economical process, requiring only low temperatures and pressures while
producing a 98% conversion yield. The transesterification process is the reaction of a
triglyceride (fat/oil) with an alcohol to form esters and glycerol. A triglyceride has a
glycerine molecule as its base with three long chain fatty acids attached. The
characteristics of the fat are determined by the nature of the fatty acids attached to
the glycerine. The nature of the fatty acids can, in turn, affect the characteristics of the
biodiesel.
During the esterification process, the triglyceride is reacted with alcohol in the
presence of a catalyst, usually a strong alkaline like sodium hydroxide. The alcohol
reacts with the fatty acids to form the mono-alkyl ester, or biodiesel, and crude
glycerol. In most production, methanol or ethanol is the alcohol used (methanol
produces methyl esters, ethanol produces ethyl esters) and is base catalyzed by either
potassium or sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide has been found more suitable
for the ethyl ester biodiesel production, but either base can be used for methyl ester
production.
The figure below shows the chemical process for methyl ester biodiesel. The reaction
between the fat or oil and the alcohol is a reversible reaction, so the alcohol must be
added in excess to drive the reaction towards the right and ensure complete
conversion.

The products of the reaction are the biodiesel itself and glycerol.

A successful transesterification reaction is signified by the separation of the methyl

ester (biodiesel) and glycerol layers after the reaction time. The heavier co-product,
glycerol, settles out and may be sold as is or purified for use in other industries, e.g.
pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and detergents.
After the transesterification reaction and the separation of the crude heavy glycerin
phase, the producer is left with a crude light biodiesel phase. This crude biodiesel
requires some purification prior to use.
Biodiesel has a viscosity similar to petroleum diesel and can be used as an
additive in formulations of diesel to increase the lubricity. Biodiesel can be used in
pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in
most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses
in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend
to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with Viton type
seals and hoses which are nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel's higher lubricity index
compared to petroleum diesel is an advantage and can contribute to longer fuel
injector life.
Biodiesel is a better solvent than petroleum diesel and has been known to break
down deposits of residue in the fuel lines of vehicles that have previously been run on
petroleum diesel. Fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick
transition to pure biodiesel is made, as biodiesel cleans the engine in the process. It
is, therefore, recommended to change the fuel filter within 600-800 miles after first
switching to a biodiesel blend.
Biodiesel's commercial fuel quality is measured by the ASTM standard designated D
6751. The standards ensure that biodiesel is pure and the following important factors
in the fuel production process are satisfied:
Complete reaction
Removal of glycerin
Removal of catalyst
Removal of alcohol
Absence of free fatty acids
Low sulfur content
Biodiesel is, at present, the most attractive market alternative among the nonfood applications of vegetable oils for transportation fuels. The different stages in the
production of plant/seed oil methyl ester generate by-products which offer further
outlets. Oil cake, the protein rich fraction obtained after the oil has been extracted
from the seed, is used for animal feed. Glycerol, the other important by-product, has
numerous applications in the oil and chemical industries such as the cosmetic,
pharmaceutical, food, and painting industries

Benefits/Advantages of Biodiesel:
Biodiesel is bio renewable. Feed stocks can be renewed one or more times in a
generation. Biodiesel is carbon neutral. Plants use the same amount of CO2 to make
the oil that is released when the fuel is burned. Biodiesel is rapidly biodegradable and
completely nontoxic, meaning spillages represent far less risk than petroleum diesel
spillages
(ii) Floating drum biogas plants
Floating drum biogas plants consist of a digester and a moving gasholder. The
gasholder floats either direct on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own.
The gas collects in the gas drum, which then rises on this positive pressure. If gas is
drawn off, the drum falls again. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guide frame
Advantages- Simple, easily understood operation, constant gas pressure, volume of
stored gas visible directly, few mistakes in construction

Q4.Explain the utilization of following renewable energy sources

(i) Geothermal energy
(ii) Open cycle OTEC system
Answer(i) Geothermal energy
Geothermal springs for power plants. Currently, the most common way of capturing
the energy from geothermal sources is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal
convection" systems, where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated up, and
then rises to the surface. Once this heated water is forced to the surface, it is a
relatively simple matter to capture that steam and use it to drive electric generators.
Geothermal power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more effectively
capture the steam. There are three basic designs for geothermal power plants, all of
which pull hot water and steam from the ground, use it, and then return it as warm
water to prolong the life of the heat source. In the simplest design, known as dry
steam, the steam goes directly through the turbine, then into a condenser where the
steam is condensed into water. In a second approach, very hot water is depressurized
or "flashed" into steam which can then be used to drive the turbine. In the third
approach, called a binary cycle system, the hot water is passed through a heat
exchanger, where it heats a second liquid such as isobutene in a closed loop. Isobutene
boils at a lower temperature than water, so it is more easily converted into steam to
run the turbine
One concern with open systems like the Geysers is that they emit some air
pollutants. Hydrogen sulphide a toxic gas with a highly recognizable "rotten egg"odor
along with trace amounts of arsenic and minerals is released in the steam. Salt can also
pose an environmental problem. At a power plant located at the Salton Sea reservoir in
Southern California, a significant amount of salt builds up in the pipes and must be
removed. While the plant initially put the salts into a landfill, they now re-inject the salt
back into a different well. With closed-loop systems, such as the binary cycle system,
there are no emissions and everything brought to the surface is returned underground.

Direct use of geothermal heat. Geothermal springs can also be used directly for
heating purposes. Geothermal hot water is used to heat buildings, raise plants in
greenhouses, dry out fish and crops, de-ice roads, and improve oil recovery, aid in
industrial processes like pasteurizing milk, and heat spas and water at fish farms
Ground-source heat pumps. A much more conventional way to tap geothermal energy
is by using geothermal heat pumps to provide heat and cooling to buildings. Also called
ground-source heat pumps, they take advantage of the constant year-round
temperature of about 50F that is just a few feet below the grounds surface
(ii) Open cycle OTEC system
Ammonia (or another low-boiling, heat-transport fluid) flows around a closed loop at
the heart of the system. That's the white square in the center of this illustration. Hot
water enters a completely separate pipe near the surface of the ocean and is piped
toward the central loop containing the ammonia.
The hot water and the ammonia flow past one another in a heat exchanger, so the hot
water gives up some of its energy to the ammonia, making it boil and vaporize. The
vaporized ammonia flows through a turbine, making it spin. The turbine spins a
generator, converting the energy to electricity.
The electricity is carried ashore by a cable. Having left the turbine, the ammonia
has given up much of its energy, but needs to be cooled fully for reuse. If the ammonia
weren't cooled in this way, it wouldn't be able to pick up as much heat next time
around. How is the ammonia cooled? In a third pipe, cold water is pumped up from the
ocean depths. The cold water and ammonia meet in a second heat exchanger, which
cools the ammonia back down to its original temperature ready to pass around the
cycle again.The cold water from the ocean depths, now slightly warmed, escapes into
the ocean (or it can be used for refrigeration or air conditioning).The hot water from
the ocean surface, slightly cooled, drains back into the upper ocean

Q5-Compare the working, application, merits and demerits of any 2 fuel cells
Answer(i)Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
(ii)Alkaline fuel cells
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells also called proton exchange membrane
fuel cellsdeliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and
volume compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an
electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum or platinum alloy
catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate. They are
typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or reformers.
PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80C (176F). Lowtemperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in
less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires
that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's
electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely
sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional
reactor to reduce carbon monoxide in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from a
hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor also adds cost.
PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary
applications. Due to their fast start-up time and favourable power-to-weight ratio, PEM
fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.
Alkaline fuel cells
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and
they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical
energy and water on-board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium
hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a
catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years, novel AFCs that use a polymer
membrane as the electrolyte have been developed. These fuel cells are closely related
to conventional PEM fuel cells, except that they use an alkaline membrane instead of
an acid membrane. The high performance of AFCs is due to the rate at which electrochemical reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated efficiencies
above 60% in space applications.

A key challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by carbon
dioxide (CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can dramatically affect
cell performance and durability due to carbonate formation. Alkaline cells with liquid
electrolytes can be run in a recirculating mode, which allows for electrolyte
regeneration to help reduce the effects of carbonate formation in the electrolyte, but
the recirculating mode introduces issues with shunt currents. The liquid electrolyte
systems also suffer from additional concerns including wettability, increased corrosion,
and difficulties handling differential pressures. Alkaline membrane fuel cells (AMFCs)
address these concerns and have lower susceptibility to CO2 poisoning than liquidelectrolyte AFCs do. However, CO2 still affects performance, and performance and
durability of the AMFCs still lag that of PEMFCs. AMFCs are being considered for
applications in the W to kW scale. Challenges for AMFCs include tolerance to carbon
dioxide, membrane conductivity and durability, higher temperature operation, water
management, power density, and anode electro catalysis.

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