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Htbrarj*
BF 133.W96 1896a
Outlines of
Psy*^'^'''"^)?,',,,,,,!!!!
Cornell University
Library
The
tine
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book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014474534
OUTLINES
OF
PSYCHOL O GY
BY
WILHELM WUNDT
TKANSLATBD WITH THE COOPERATION OF THE AUTHOR
BY
Ph. D.
LEIPZIG
PUBLISHED BY WILHELM ENGELMANN
LONDON
WILLIAMS & HOEGATE
1897.
NEW YOKK
GTJSTAV
E.
STECHEET
Br
d-
C2l (^x^ y^
TMNSLATOE'S PEEFACE.
1 HIS
who has
read
the cooperation of
and suggestions
criticisms
made with
the author,
many
valuable
all
the press.
making
the
into
somewhat
discussion
clearer.
The
for
respect
derived assistance
especially
the
differs,
would be
only
unusual.
is
'-History
Human and
however,
the
in this
If
it
The
for
at
the benefit of
translation of the
were translated
many
glossary
word
'perception'
it
possible
nehmen", and
''
equivalent
Ansdiauung"
of
"Wahrnehmtmg",
'^ivah.r-
Iranslaior's Preface.
IV
by
''Perception^''
by
the English
word whose
is
so entirely different
word
perception,
it
seemed best
accordingly, nsed,
was
for
employ a
to
Apprehension was,
translation of "Auffassung"
The thanks
it
with the
work.
Mr. G. H.
Stempel has kindly aided in the task of preparing the proofsheets for the press.
C> H. J.
AUTHOE'S PEEFACE.
my
purpose of
on Psychology.
psychology,
for the
own sake
who
aims to give
it
are interested in
sake of
for the
or
its
applications,
which
is
most important, or
to the
examples that
are properly
I
aids to
made use of
have based
The
in the lecture-room.
this treatise
fact that
have come
no special
justification.
Still,
to point
with references in
The
relation in
2),
and
which
this
book stands
to
my
earlier
to
The
bring
the
means
employed by
the
natural
aims
sciences,
Author's Preface.
VI
especially
by physiology,
give a critical
and
to
of view.
The second,
revised
und
edition
Thierseele"
')
first
of
(the
more
and
to
which are
also of
more general
"Grund-
by the
relations
is,
defined
by
philosophical
present psychology in
its
this
interests-,
own proper
Outlines aims
to
me
to require.
what
is
book
this
In doing
will not be
who
this,
however,
essential.
It
it
is
takes up only
my
hope that
my
earlier
works as
my
2. Aufl. II,
2. Abth.).
I
it
my
" Grundxiige''\
1)
Translated by Prof.
"Lectures on
1894.
E. Creighton
and
to
make a more
Prof. E. B. Titchener:
Sonnenschein"&
Co.,
Author's
VII
Prefcu:4}.
appeared in
this
For the
literature that
has
" Gi-undzilge^'' (1893), the reader has but to refer to the last
to
psychology: to
und
of Psychohgy",
three contain
chology.
and the
also reviews
As a
Arbeiten" edited
"Psychological Revieiv".
The
last
by
E. Kraepelin
to
may be
mentioned.
Leipzig, January, 1896.
W. Wundt.
CONTENTS.
INTEODUCTION.
Problem of Psychology
Older definitions.
1.
immediate experience.
page
1
2.
3.
2.
faculty-psychology.
tualistic
trends
6.
5. Descriptive psychology:
Explanatory psychology: intellec-
logical theory
Methods of Psychology
3.
].
18
2. Application to psychology: particular significance of experimental methods for psychology. 3. Pure observation
psychology. Analysis of mental products: social psy-
chology.
4.
Analytic and synthetic problem of psychology. Psychical elements. 2. The various synthetic problems in order:
1.
Laws
of psychical
phenomena and
their causality.
24
Contents.
PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS.
I.
page
5.
of Psy-
chical Elements
28
Common
4.
attributes of
Homogeneous
and complex, one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and many-
psychical elements
and
6.
5.
Distinguishing characelements.
aflfective
6a.
Remarks
6.
Pure Sensations
38
Rise of sensations.
Sense-stimuli. 3. Physiological substrata of the sensational
systems. Mechanical and chemical senses. 4. The so-called
1.
law of
specific
sensation.
energy of nerves.
of changes in sensation
and
2.
5.
in physiological stimulation.
45
7.
Sensational systems
8.
B. Sensations of sound
9. Simple noise-sensations.
system of tonal sensations.
C.
tions
48
10.
Tone-sensations.
The
52
12a.
Classes
qualities.
olfactory
of
of taste.
11.
13.
13 a.
SensaMixture
stimuli.
D. Sensations of light
54
15.
17.
Sensation of
Brightness of
18.
Complementary
colors
and color-mixtures.
23.
The
XI
Contents.
\
24.
Inference of
25.
and
26. Light-contrasts
tlie
photochemical
color-contrasts.
siological theories.
Simple Feelings
7.
1.
2.
General
74
characterization
the
of
simple
feelings.
feelings.
3.
Relations
4.
Influence
8.
7.
6.'
Great
directions
Inter-
9.
II.
PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.
8.
pounds
1.
90
3.
2.
Com-
Classification of the
same.
Intensive Ideas
9.
93
Difference-tones.
and tonal
10.
7.
Noise. 7
a.
5.
Compound
clangs.
Theories of clang-analysis
fusion.
Spacial Ideas
102
General concept of extensive ideas. Special characteristics of spacial ideas. 2. Psychological problem of analysis of spacial ideas. 3. Kinds of spacial ideas.
1.
A. Spacial touch-ideas
4.
104
XII
Contents.
page
touch.
9.
10.
Ideas of one's
115
B. Spacial sight-ideas
13.
14.
General factors
of such ideas.
a.
The location of
the elements
to
one
116
another
15.
16.
Keenness of
to localization.
23.
b.
ception of points
at
different
28. Theory of
Varying conditions
distances.
130
29.
30.
Bi-
another
31.
and
their location
Erect vision.
32.
in regard
to the subject
....
136
The complex local signs of depth and binocular paral33. The stereoscope.
34. Monocular ideas of depth.
Influence of accommodation. 35. The elements of perspec32 a.
lax.
tive.
11.
Temporal Ideas
General conditions for temporal ideas. 2. Characteristics of temporal as distinguished from spacial order.
2 a. The forms of temporal ideas and their names.
1.
142
Contents.
XIII
page
A.
Temporal
3.
toiiclt-ideas
144
ments.
B.
5.
beats.
148
9.
Subjective conditions of
rhythmical time-ideas.
C.
153
11.
The inner
The continuous
fixation-point.
12.
character of time.
12.
13.
Composite Feelings
1.
158
2.
Character of inten-
sive affective combinations. 3. Component feelings: and resultant partial feelings and total feelings. Interlacing of the
affective elements.
pound
clangs.
4.
3 a.
Common
feelings.
5. Pleasurable and
unpleasurable feelings. 6. Contrast-feelings. 7. Elementary
aesthetic feelings.
Agreeableness and disagreeableness.
8. Intensive and extensive feelings.
9. Intensive feelings:
color-combinations and clang-combinations. 10. Extensive
feelings: feelings
12.
11.
Psy-
Principle of
13.
1.
Emotions
169
Definition of emotions.
course of emotions.
movements.
ments.
5 a.
4.
2.
Names
of emotions.
3.
General
Classification
Quiet, sthenic
7.
Connection
9.
page
emotions.
10.
qualities.
aflfective
straining
12.
Emotional
of emotions.
183
3.
opment of
tive acts.
4.
2.
7.
6.
8.
Weakening
9.
Development of internal
10.
Retrogra-
10 a.
Critique of theories
1].
-will.
significance
reaction-experiments.
of
Chronometric
ap-
paratus.
ni.
ditions.
201
2.
Physiological con-
scious processes.
contents of consciousness.
consciousness.
6 a.
Methods
9.
7.
momen-
perimental methods.
object.
6.
Interconnection
10.
Self-consciousness.
of processes
of
Further development of
XV
Coiiienfs.
page
13,
Associations
16.
1.
224
2.
The
ordinarily
3.
tive processes.
A. Simultaneous associations
a.
227
4.
Assimilations
228
of assimilative processes.
analysis
these processes.
b.
11.
10.
Psychological
Differences
among
Illusion.
231
Camplications
12.
235
B. Successive associations
Interconnection with the assimilations. 14. General
character of successive associations. 14 a. Serial association.
13.
a.
Sensible recognition
15.
..
and cognition
..
237
Differences
of cognition.
b.
241
Memory-processes
Rise out of processes of recognition.
IS.
18a.
Inter-
cognitions
processes.
20.
and
22.
cognitions.
memory.
17.
Appeeceptive Combinations
1.
2.
Relation to associations.
apperceptive combinations.
3.
General classification of
248
XVI
Contents.
page
(relating
and comparing)
250
5.
Discovery of agreements and differences, "i- Measurements of psychical elements and compounds. 8. Difference
between psychical and physical measurement. 9. Methods
Stimulus -threshold and
10.
of psychical measurement.
10 a. Weber's law in
difference-threshold. Weber's law.
11. Psydetail and the methods for its demonstration.
chological contrast-phenomena. Interconnnection with the
6.
3.
Aggregate
ideas.
260
15.
activity of "imagination".
18.
Talent.
Psychical States
267
Changes
in elements.
3. Changes in ideational compounds: hallucinations and illusions. 4. Abnormities .in affective and
volitional processes: states of depression and exaltation.
5. Abnormities of consciousness.
6. Changes in association
and in apperception. 7. Dreams. 8. Hypnosis. 9. Relations
between sleep and hypnosis. 9 a. Physiological theories of
sleep, dreams, and hypnosis.
1.
IV.
19.
2.
PSYCHICAL DEVELOPMENTS.
276
of their functions.
of the instincts.
3.
Animal
instincts.
4.
Development
5.
Theories of instincts.
XVII
Contents.
page
1.
ments
2.
3.
....
283
ideas.
speech.
pulse.
9.
10.
in child-psychology.
Differences betv^een
Products of
296
human communities.
298
A. Speech
4.
Gesture-language.
late language.
5.
4.
B. Myths
7.
its development.
myth.
C.
303
'
Personifying apperception.
9.
Animism and
8.
fetishism.
10.
The nature306
Oustoms
II.
Relations to Myths.
of customs.
morality.
14.
12.
14 a. Critical remarks.
V.
22.
Concept of Mind
310
parallelism.
causality.
10.
Necessity
of
an independent psychical
XVni
Contents.
page
23. Psychological
Laws of Relation
321
psychical resultants.
4.
5.
contrasts.
7.
first
two laws.
325
Glossary
329
Index
336
INTRODUCTIOK
Two
1.
PROBLEM OF PSYCHOLOGY.
1.
prominent in
the
one, psychology
infer
the
nature of an underlying
inner
readily
to
psychical processes
it
possible
is
to
metaphysical mind-sub-
is
the "science
are here
looked
to
distinguished
known through
it
According
science.
this
upon as belonging
is
of
stance.
of
history
is
regarded as
are
psychology
of
definitions
"introspection",
or
its
contents are
"inner
the
sense"
as
from sense-perception
it
The
first,
is
satisfactory to
or metaphysical, defini-
But
it
is
"mental sciences"
partment of
methods of
its
own; and
since the
scientific
investigation, distinct
free
from
all
metaphysical
theories.
WnxDT, Psychology.
Introduction.
The
ogy a
it
to
may
experience",
inadequate because
is
do with objects
different
totally
It
is,
objects
from a
ogy.
not a
is
single
natural
such are
science:
On
not to be
but are
become an object
of psychol-
not,
etc.;
For psychology
of psychology.
seeks to
account for the genesis of these ideas, and for their relations both
to other ideas
and
to
There
then,
is,
etc.
less
are directly
is
and
volition,
known through
to external objects.
2.
experience
do
and inner
we
We
and
are natur-
1.
Problem of Psychohgy.
We
experiencing subject.
One
which
objects
is
of experience in
its
accordingly, be
it is
psychology,
of
whole content
and
it
of this
of
designated as that of
all
actual experience;
The assignment
in its attri-
The standpoint
3.
other
ex-
of
The
all its
problem
purposely
it
consequences.
maldng
to psychology,
supplementary to
it,
is justified
by the method
and
political
as determined
and acting
by the interaction
subject.
None
of
and
the
All
social
experience
of the
all
basis.
knowing
natural science
accompanying subjective
then made
effort is
reality
activities as
immediate
and the
reality.
The
This method
must
also be the
mode
of procedure
in
psychology
itself,
being the method required by the subject-matter of psychology, the immediate reality of experience.
1*
Introduction.
4
3 a. Since
perience
natural
is
By
of
subject,
experiencing
tte
meant the
The problem
the
is
psychology
sometimes
has
"self-knowledge of the
its
acquirement of "knowledge of
stated as the
usually
sum
from
abstracting
after
problem
ex-
of
content
the
investigates
science
subject".
lem of psychology
Furthermore, the
that
perience
pendent
perience
attributes
the
are
as
subject.
single
components
or that
they
contents
of experience,
is
of the
mean
expression
can
at
be distinguished
least
whereas,
in
of
ex-
inde-
as
outer ex-
truth,
functions
ideas
interconnection
necessary
the
is
experience
reality
is
result
of
the
fact
that
in
ments,
its
when we remove
entirely
ings,
or
must be regarded
ties
the subject in
thought,
the feel-
as,
of sensations.
ject of treatment
as
as,
the
content
of experience
quali-
its
in its
sub-
imme-
diate character.
/
then,
for
the
division between
natural
science on the one hand, and psychology and the mental sciences
on the other,
is
to
be found in
the
fact
that
all
experience
contains as
its
periencing
subject.
logical
aration
definitions
of the
and an ex-
it
is
by no means necessary that
two factors should precede the sepfrom one another, for it is obvious that
Still,
of these
sciences
such definitions are possible only after they have a basis in the
investigations of natural science and of psychology.
All that
it is
Problem of Psychology.
1.
accompanies
first,
is
experience, that in
all
experience
this
objects
are
the
of
and subject in
object
application to the
The forms
ogy
are
considers
this
first
by developed
logical reflection.
of interpretation
supplementary
not
in natural science
only
subject, while
as
and psychol-
in
far as possible,
first
from the
that each
sense
takes a
different point
it
In place of the
conceptual.
sets concepts
produces
continually
Scientific
experience
as,
to
therefore mediate
or
it
objects
necessary,
is
elements.
in cosr
ject.
of view
analysis
These objective processes in their objective character, independent of the subject, can therefore never
of objective
processes.
be a part of experience.
Science makes up for this lack by
forming supplementary hypothetical concepts of the objective
properties of matter. Psychology, on the other hand, investigates
the
contents
complete
of experience in their
processes
that
cluster
about
objects,
them.
knowledge
is,
in
thought.
is
all concrete
by avoiding
natural science.
Introduction.
both empirical sciences in the sense that they aim to explain the
contents of experience, though from different points of view,
it is
psychology
2.
is
The view
1.
still
problem,
its
that psychology
is
immediate contents of
experience,
all
is
of recent origin.
It
still
earlier
stages
development,
of
turn
in
On
I)
as being the
Each
number
empirical analysis
physics,
its
metor-
further divided
of special tendencies.
Regarding
is
psychology
chief
values
very
as
effort is
part
of
little
processes.
meta-
philosophical
the
discovery of
deduce from
ence.
The
it
of psychical
is
empirical psychology
processes, not
is,
made
experi-
from
2.
from the
At
this
attributes
off in
tially different
is
the
assumption
of
mind and,
connection with
Sometimes the
immortality.
its
added.
also
is
the assumption
is
in
Materialistic
connected
processes,
with certain
like
life.
life
is
supersensible
nature
mind
psychology.
Both
theories
but to derive
it
as
have
of the individual
The metaphysical
psychology
of
material
of
determined by
this trend of
to this
organizations
up
phenomena. According
its
in
and broken
character
of
denial of the
asserted by
this
are
particles
spiritualistic
common,
that they
From
is
consistently carried
psychical processes
out,
it
strives
either
Wherever
to
arrange
it
started.
Introduction.
it
several varieties of
may be
In general, these
empirical psychology.
The
first
classified
has refer-
of
from these
psychical
facts,
and
reference
which are
processes.
Every
its
On
nature of psychical
two views already mentioned (1) on account
of their decisive significance in determining the problem of
3.
experience, the
The
perience.
first treats
province
totally
of
the
different
difference
distinction
natural
from
assigned as the
The second
recognizes
no real
first of
the older.
is
unitary experience
The
it.
sciences,
is
It arose
effort to
is
establish
it
In thus coordinating
sees
the equal recognition of both spheres in their entirely different objects and
modes
This view
First,
it
it
gave
other
or
between these
demand,
it
was
two kinds
of
experience,
In regard to the
different.
first
chiefly the
this
( 3
2).
In
at-
psychology was
it
is
impossible to
must
itself in
sense
These presuppo-
it.
mediate experience".
Eegarding, as
it
does, outer
and inner
it
can not
sought most of
all to
cultivate
It has, therefore,
the only
differences being
It holds
basis of a scientific
Introduction.
10
It follows,
custom,
all
to be regarded as
is
In
methods,
its
from
same content
different objects at
all,
after abstracting
in that of psychology
from the
in their immediate
All meta-
and phy-
solve a
had been
correctly stated.
in that
subject,
if
the case
dispense
od
of procedure
is
still
another meth-
Wherever
for the
reverse
method
be thus supplied.
of filling
up the
means
of elements
Only on the
of
knowledge
which
is it
sets the
two forms
2. Oeneral
ogy to become in
Only
the
Theories of Psychology.
fullest
sense an
\\
empirical science.
become the true supplementary science of psychology, and psychology, on the other
hand, the auxiliary of physiology.
5.
above
(2),
is,
the investigation
varieties
are, at the
of psychological interpretation.
descriptive, the
The
in the development
first
corresponds to a
gave
processes,
fication.
rise
the need of an
to
appropriate
classi-
made
to satisfy
Such concepts
standing,
and
will.
of a given
They correspond
are,
for example,
and hght.
may
serve for a
first
grouping of the
facts,
but they
Still,
ing
this
description
with explanation.
nating or united
6.
Opposed
activity.
to
this
method
descriptive faculty-psychology,
ogy.
When
to their alter-
is
of
treatment
found in the
must base
its
inter-
Introduction.
These facts may, however, be taken from different spheres of psychical processes, and so it comes that
explanatory treatment may be further divided into two vaexperience.
rieties,
that go to
ject,
make up immediate
on the
chief emphasis
is
intellectualistic
psychology results.
psychical
all
laid
objects
and sub-
When
experience.
objects of
the
immediate experience,
especially
processes,
factors,
the
subjective
feelings,
they
may
knowledge.
ject,
If,
on the way
in
is
laid
attri-
must be conceded
to
volitional pro-
Of
general
experience
(3),
on the
question
of
from the
towards intellectualism.
the inner sense
is
This
is
manner
It
attributed
is
to
alone
of
all
of objects
the contents
of
can be
psychical
objects
presented
accordingly, looked
upon
to
the
outer
senses.
Ideas
are,
13
own body,
or,
finally,
as
effects aris-
The psychology
hand,
immediate experience
of
toward voluntarism.
tends
It
is
on the other
(4),
held to be the
psychology
Intellectualistic
7.
has in
of
its
logical
of
typical forms
nations
course of
the
In one, the
successive
The
such.
logical
theory
is
most
closely related
modem
It
still
finds
The
times.
is,
the
to
therefore,
associatiorir-theory arose
in
The two
first
theories
attempts
it
to lower and, as
fail to
it
is
Both are
assumed,
one-sided,
start,
but
intellectual processes.
8.
The union
intellectualistic
has been in
may
of
many
"We
the
nature of things
to ideas.
Not
Introduetion.
images of the
latter;
and
so
it
which
attributes
to
and
clearly perceived
stimu-
is
and according
to the
In
all
to intellectuaHsm.
and
While the
voluntarism
is
all
that which
general, that
is,
opposed
is
closely
identical with
but of
is
latter
sum
content of
of objects,
of experience in
reflection.
This
objective
concept
an interconnection of processes.
of process excludes
and more or
less
the attribution of an
all
In
this
sense
psychosis,
but
merely
volitions
Voluntaristie
that,
with
is
are typical
psychology
does
closely
related
and emotions,
it is
just as essential
15
a component of
sum
generally assumes
intellectualism
It holds,
of
permanent
objects,
consequence
in
of its
The
phenomena from
The analogous
all
imaginary
psychological
processes
of
all
it
concerns
itself,
In
fact,
The governing
0.
of
may be summed up
in
but
is
is
immediate experience
its totality.
2)
is
not
made up
of
unchang-
and
human
experiences
Introduetion.
Each
3)
of these
and a
subjective process,
ditions
both of
all
including
thus
knowledge and of
human
practical
all
activity.
As
1)
mentary
to
from the
their abstraction
objective,
mediate
fact can,
strictly
subject,
contents
speaking,
is
which,
Any
be understood in
particular
sig-
full
its
In
this
then,
sense,
and the
supple^
experience.
of
it is
in consequence of
is,
certain laws,
it is
human
its
is
experiences,
and
their effects.
problenLjUie_mvestigatioa_of_the
activities^- it
science,^ a,nd
the
is
at once
psychology
Since
foundation^for
and
objective
pays
equal
attention
whose
to
and
the
juris-
results are
both the
it is
and
ethics,
psychology
is
the two
since
in the in-
vestigation
ledge
all
cipline
the most
etc.
subjective
it
prudence,
3)
The
foundations of philosophy.
knowThus,
in
\'J
10a.
it
way
not a
is
difference
in the
objects of
problems of psychology,
is
scientific
from
from the fact that the natural sciences are
possible only after abstracting from the subjective factors of
experience, the more general problem of treating the contents
of all experience in the most general way, is sometimes assigned
tendencies
Instead
derived
of starting
to natural science.
is,
longer
of course, no
subordinate to
them.
give
of
tents
definition
Instead
of "subject"
is
is
possible
a),
is
only
as a
a finished concept
on the con-
that an
result
formed exclusively
is
is
Now,
for
adequate
of psycho-
ogy
of this subject
of recognizing
as
This posi-
"psycho-physical materialism",
Natural
science,
component of
all
is
metaphysical presupposition.
ogy has
Wdsdt,
not
yet furnished
Psychologj'.
such an
interpretation,
and
2
never
Introduction.
18
be able to do
will
so,
because of the
between
difference
the
natural
in
chology.
It is obvious, too, that such a form of psychology,
which has been turned into hypothetical brain -mechanics, can
never be of any service as a basis for the mental sciences.
The strictly empirical trend of psychology, defined in the
principles formulated above, is opposed to these attempts to
renew metaphysical doctrines. In calling it "voluntaristic", we
are not to
Indeed,
of will.
one-sided
hauer's
it
in
psychological
this
itself,
stands in
metaphysical
which
voluntarism,
Schopen-
derived
all
alism.
will,
its
characteristic of psy-
of
all
forms of psychology,
it
to reduce volitions to
mere
sizes the
typical
ces,
character
Volitional acts
perience.
refuses
made up of a
They are
intensity.
of being occurrences
ideas,
is its
relations
its
for
all
to
other
attempts
psychological
series of
exclusion
of volition
typical in
is
In
continual
ex-
occurren-
all
characteristic
the
contents of
psychical experience.
1.
)
3.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY.
its
tents of
character,
it
its
immediate
of facts.
The
circumstance,
ogy does
not,
way
in
fields,
though
The natural
Methods of Psychology.
3.
19
sciences,
make use
Experiment
is
interference
on the part
connected
observation
phenomena observed.
course of the
observation.
an intentional
with
the observer,
of
and
in the
Observation, in
rise
its
proper
and
inter-
the
in
continuity
of
possible, it is always
circumstances, even
all
Wherever experiment
experience.
when
the
phenomena
in
for
themselves
an advantage
to be able to
is
under
it
and
phenomenon.
Still,
sciences
It
is
the
two
their spheres
end
may
vation.
If
relations,
we
general division
of
phenomena
natural
correspond to the
into
processes
and
objects.
Experimental interference
is
any natural
sound-waves, an electric discharge, the formation or disintegration of a chemical compound, and stimulation and
in plants
and animals. As a
is
moment
at
is
rule,
such interference
possible only
when
another.
desirable
of a complex
metaboUsm
is
As
commence.
components
a
2*
rule, this
Introduction.
20
is
The
case
is
different
They
are
relatively
particular
and ready
vestigation
and
examination.
for
is
Here, then,
experimental in-
when
the production
In
such a case, they are regarded either as products or components of natural processes and come under the head of
processes rather than objects.
only question
is
When, on
objects, without
mere observation
is
generally enough.
If
we apply
these
considerations to psychology,
exact
observation
is
its
it is
subject-matter,
The contents
of this science
with
exactness
In order to
progress
of
these
we must be
This
is
able
and
first
and purposely
possible here,
is
all to
another,
natural
phenomena.
In the
Methods of Psychology.
3.
we purposely
latter case
regularity of
abstraction by
its
suitable
this
only
in
determining
in
debarred from
is
fundamental principles
as
objective
objective
phenomena,
the
astronomy,
abstract from
21
states.
It
The
cidence
observe,
is
especially improbable
which
is
a necessary
coin-
condition of all
observation,
cesses.
Observation of nature
tention
from the
posely abstract
is
of
state
is
The
the subject.
chief
it
can be
in
perimental
the
mode
On
and physiology
of procedure.
are, to
originate,
caused by
an external sense-stimulus,
tone-sensation
from an
as,
object
it
example,
is
for
The
idea of an
plicated cooperation
to study the
way
in
of
external sense-stimuli.
which an idea
is
If
we wish
IntrodiCelion.
22
this,
of being able
we
to
it,
and
of thus learning
exercises
not be
itself
of the impressions
the combination
by changing at
single condition
Memory-images,
on the product.
it is
true,
can
dii-ectly
will
Still,
it
riot
their chance
by waiting for
may be
aroused,
ceding impressions.
The same
true of feelings
is
and
voli-
tions;
exact
investigation
when
those
impressions
are
purposely
produced which experience has shown to be regularly connected with affective and volitional reactions.
no
fundamental
psychical
process
to
There
which
is,
then,
experimental
Pure
observation, such as
ments of natural
chical
science,
is,
is
possible in
many
depart-
Such
them.
independent
permanent objects
There
are,
indeed,
certain
facts
at the disposal of
and indepen-
is
Methods of Psychology.
3.
23
common
experiment in the
facts are the
These
and customs.
The
origin
and development
of
pro-
these
which
may
chological analysis
can,
Psy-
All
condition
the
existence
of
community com-
mental
are
Because
of
psychical
the
investigation
its
oil
community,
chological
attributes
dependence
this
is
this
the
of
the
individual.
community,
par-
in
designated
as
social psychology,
or
as
it
individual,
may be
called
much
still,
being
the
mental
name,
case
products.
in this
of
due
mental
be the
gain
subjects
the
become
of
necessary
objective
degree
of
collective.
The phenomena
constancy only when they
observation.
like
natural
science,
two exact
observation
of general
IntrodueUon.
'2'i
system.
For
monly
called
this
reason
experimental psychology
is
also
com-
it
under
require
special
discussion with a
"Physiological psychology"
is,
accordingly,
an intermediate dis-
assigning to
the
first
the
psychological interpretation
of inner
aids,
because of the
has
been shown
( 2, 10 a) to
among
the
representatives
of both
1.
4.
The immediate
all
circumstances
Sense-perceptions of ex-
ternal
4.
25
objects,
feelings,
a more or
itself
some
may be
tone
ever so simple
which
of external space,
volition
or to
is
which
is
it
of
is
an ex-
but we localize
it
in
highly composite.
feeling
or
investigation has
scientific
third
is
willed.
solved in succession.
into
The idea
an object
kind,
this
made up
is
these processes
of
composite whole.
less
but each
The
is
^e
the elements
three
problems to be
composite
discovered
by analysis enter;
the
The
In the
partial problems.
unite
to
form
first
is
made up
of several
composite psychical
separate and relatively independent of one another in the continual flow of psychical processes.
Such compounds
are,
for
before.
feelings, emotions, or
volitions.
Then
In
this
way we have
the interconnection of psychical compounds as a class of synthetical processes of the second degree, consisting of a union
Introduction.
26
The
psychical compounds.
in turn, unite to
form
still
In
their components.
which we
arise,
this
designate
developments.
into
developments of
different scope.
or of the
From a number
personality.
degree
will,
human
since
total
of
development of a psychical
animals
and
in a
still
higher
more appropriately
ethics,
and
in
In part they
We
shall, there-
last
The
depends
nations
into
of
of
apon
different
compounds,
of
interconnections
vestigation
is
the
the
investigation
degrees, the
compounds
into
of
all
the
combi-
combination of elements
into
interconnections,
developments.
And
as
this
and
in-
we can
discover the
attributes
4.
tents
of
which iinds
of psychical causality,
27
its
expression
their
in
various
combinations.
We
have,
accordingly,
to
consider
in
the
chapters
1)
Psychical Elements,
2)
Psychical Compounds,
3)
4)
Psychical Developments,
5)
its
Laws.
following
I.
PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS.
5.
l.^^AlLJlie conten ts of psychical experience are of a comIt follows, therefore, that psychical elements,
posite charactei:.
This abstraction
by the
possible
in different ways.
is
b, e,
possible to abstract
we hear a
may be
is
now
it
.,
in
from
is
of
all
is
As
.,
If,
it.
for example,
in this direction,
now
it
in that,
and may
But
since the
possible to
we have
2.
is
rendered
another with
simple tone
located
is
If the element
it
of psy-
we have
psychical
we
call
subject.
1, 2),
The elements
of the objective
when we
neglect
for the
moment
all
the connections
of
5.
with
sensations
these
others,
The
temporal relations.
and
subjective
all their
spacial
29
and
on the other
elements,
We may mention
sations of hght, sound, taste, smell, hot, cold, or pain, the feel-
ings aroused
and the
by the
feelings
moment
of
sight of
a voHtional
an agreeable or disagreeable
in a state
arising
of
act.
object,
attention or at the
is
in a
connected with
is
furthermore a
component
of
The
consist
of
continually changing.
is
actual
contents
various
of
psychical
always
experience
much
of these elements so
psychical compounds.
and
affective
is
as
little
chemical
But
and a vo-
elements.
Specific
character
properties of
siaAehmeiiia/r-y
concepts.
Every psychical
element
is
specific
experience
is
at the
Many
acts, are
specific
but not
elementary
processes.
a particular kind, but since these compounds regularly contain other elements as well, their special characteristics are
30
to
I-
be attributed to the
Psyehioal Elements.
mode
Thus,
a momentary sound-sensation
than to the
of union, rather
we always
refer
to
by
possible only
is
relat-
so
arise
its
isolated,
Again, an emotion of
present
of
in
these processes
is
composite, for
regularity,
itself is
feelings.
attributes
have in
and
determinants, which
we
and
qualities,
value which
ment.
Our
entirely
upon
and
feeling
from
off
must
we
al-
distin-
in
designations of
their
psychical
quahties; thus,
hand,
it
this quality
Accordingly,
of intensity.
They
call quality
has
common
also
common two
intensity.
all
each of
still
it
we always
we
and
elements
are
ele-
based
and sorrowful.
such feelings
On
the other
These expres-
first
5.
of concrete elements.
31
Language
Names
and
( 15,
and
tones.
indistinctness,
But^^ince these
intensity.
and
as
attributes,
will
quality
and
appear later
4),
-of
psychical elements.
5.
Made
up, at
it
quahty.
one we
is,
it
is
possible to pass,
by continual
and
ino'ease in intensity,
in only
two directions
The
a straight Hne.
statement:
This
may be
as the case
In contrast with
may
be.
it is
possible to pass
But
same
quality.
ities
which we may
In these two
respects,
we may
32
I-
Psychical Elements.
many-dimsn^
of quality.
one quality.
it
entirely to
The
truth
is
geometrically,
it
sldn show,
arise
it.
Such
differences,
body,
are not
to
dull,
psychical compounds,
however, as
qualities.
They
of simultaneous sensations,
from another
a rough or smooth
be reckoned as different
beyond
number
we were to
limited;,, if
different
really only
is
merely very
is
a single point.
from
pressure
be inferred from
in
of different qualities
represent
It is not to
different grades.
would be impossible.
Complex systems
of quality differ
distinguishable
mediate
forms
between which
elements
exist.
Li
this
class
all
affective
of clearly
possible
inter-
we must include
the systems of
color-system,
systems
smells
the
and
the
many systems
color-feelings,
etc.
It
is
which
5.
33
of
to the different
com-
binations of tones.
The
differences in
the
The ordinary
is
one -dimensional.
is
two-dimensional;
and
their
while the
is
three - dimensional.
6.
hand, in
attributes
essential
certain
and
sensational
far,
They
differ,
which
on the other
are
connected
When
same
where
red and green, blue and yellow, or in the tonal system, the
lowest and highest audible tones, are the maximal, and at the
qualitative, differences.
the contrary,
of opposite quality.
This
Every
when continuously
is
affective ele-
varied
in
most obvious
the
As
qualities
by maximal opposites.
WoNDT, Psychology.
maximal
In general, then,
differences, affec-
34
is
It
Psychical Elements.
feeling
not noticeable at
is
all.
The
on a change
in sen-
disappear which correspond to the high and low tones, but the
other,
still
This
is
to be
complex
affective
as a rule,
is,
system, in which
a component of a
it
of tones
ities
and
may be
and
arranged.
marked
tone
of middle
pitch
in the indifference-zone
and
The passage
clang-feeling.
of affec-
observed
only
accompanying
when
care
is
affective elements.
The
Wherever such an
in-
elements,
we speak
from
feelings,
and
of
irreducible,
subjective
com-
of
composite
ideas
or
5.
processes.
Thus, there
35
is
as a feeling,
character
may
of
an irreducible
unit.
just as irreducible,
clangs.
itself at
Still
most various
in turn be of the
as
is
compound
Here, again,
clangs.
Simple feelings
are, then,
much more
color,
belonging to
Sensations
or, in general,
According to
this criterion,
each of
the four special senses (smell, taste, hearing, and sight) has a
closed,
contains four
homo-
and
pain).
single
which
All simple
feelings,
is
is
no feeling from
we may
But here
too
colors,
tones,
from
from
satisfied
differences
may
expectation,
belong to the
3*
36
I.
Psychical Elements.
exist
example,
When
tones.
This
distinguishing
third
it is
confusion of the
characteristic
is
number
we
that
shows
conclu-
is
of differ-
the same
feelings, as
modem
only in
6 a. It is
they were
sometimes
used indiscriminatingly,
Even yet
changed.
sensations
of
sponds,
it is
feeling is
known
is
as
touch
by
and
sometimes interthose
from
This corre-
the
same
as
the
physiologists,
of touch itself
them
touching,
still,
after
the
very
where
useful
this
avoided.
circumstance
definition of the
is
term
entirely
is
irrelevant,
unjustifiable.
5.
37
renders
in
it
Sensations
feelings
may
oscillation
way
are
cause
the
is
constant
great difficulties
of the
present
in
all
disappear in certain
immediate
special
but
experiences,
in the case of
ings,
easily arise,
either
In this
way two
The
these
opinions
is
views
false
may
that sensations
first
of
false
objective
and
subjective
and equally
essential,
factors
feelings
belonging to
are to be
though everywhere
phenomena.
In
all
psychical ex-
interrelation
elements
sensational
the
of psychical
elements appear as the more constant; they alone can be isolated
this
external
objects.
It
of both,
we must
start
we
abstract
Simple sensations,
we can never
speak of "pure
can never be thought of apart from the accompanying sensations
and combinations of sensations. This fact is directly connected with
the second distinguishing characteristic mentioned above
(p.
34
sq).
Psychical Elements.
I.
38
1.
PURE SENSATIONS.
6.
which
united.
it is
We
2)
as
shown
in 5
the
1)
this
is
each
of pressure, of
tone, or of hght, is either a homogeneous or a complex continuity (5, 5) from which no transition to any other system
can be found.
2.
The
gularly
their
dependent
the
We
If the
we
call it
stimulus
physical;
if it
is
is
as sense-stiTn-
a process in
a process in our
Physiological stimuK
call it physiological.
us,
or sensation- stimuli.
own body we
world surrounding
external
cesses with a
us, is re-
partly in
origin
partly in
uli
rise
may
according
is
attended by
all
itself.
In many cases a
Thus, to
stimulus on the eye; in the eye and optic nerve there arises
finally
a central phys-
and
may be
present; as,
where the
of
quadrigemina
when we
violent
ocular
movement.
is
In
present; as,
still
other
when we
cases
the
recall a hght-
6.
Pure Sensations.
39
The
central stimulus
is,
When
it
must be
a physical must be
of
development renders
of the various
it
sensational
The
development.
taste, smell,
of
differentiations
it.
and
sight,
It may,
it.
skin
The organs
of
later
be surmised that
the sensational systems corresponding to these special senseorgans, have also gradually arisen through differentiation from
and
cold.
alike.
is
now
It
From
is
also apparent in
it
none at
all.
Pressure, temperatiu-e,
There
ture renders
and corpuscles
it
In the
hand,
we
find
at
all.
on the other
effect
40
Psyehical Elements.
I-
stimulation which
sensational
is
qualities.
the
senses
special
The
appears to
more
and sup-
The
particles
its walls.
it
the nerve-bundles.
recalls this
primitive type.
still,
first
fine
into
distributed
membrane, as
acoustics,
it is
be thrown
sound-waves
strike
must,
called
into
the
is
This membrane
basilar
sympathetic
ear.
the
It seems,
therefore,
to play
At
ent breadth
in
its
The
basilar
membrane has a
it
way
it
lengths.
acts
like
And
differ-
grows continually
In
this
just as in
maining the same, the longer chords are tuned to lower and
the shorter to higher tones, so
we may assume
the same to
^'
Pure Sensations.
6.
41
may
surmise
that the
have a
otoliths
perhaps
to
We
simplest
our
systems
of
sensations
of
The
pressure.
it
Still,
this originally
homogeneous
the best
possible
to the
ulus.
sensations of pressure
may be
so,
in the
its
special re-
ceiving structure.
With
ent.
taste,
and
stimuli
uli
smell,
is
essentially differ-
metamorphosed
and modified
Everything
goes to show that the receiving organs here are not merely
for the transfer of the stimuH, but rather for their trans-
formation.
we have
is
the causes
of
probable
it is
we have
light as
cells;
42
Psychical Elements.
I-
senses,
be distinguished
It
is
One
and
seiisation
in chemical senses,
lasts
only
a very
that in the
is
little
first
persists very
much
longer.
Thus,
sounds,
it is
lights,
tastes,
and
smellSj
on the other
very natural.
In attempting to solve
this
is
problem, physiol-
ogy generally considers sensations as the result of physioassumes at the same time that in
and that
all
is
this
cause
is
to deter-
of the relations
Now,
sensations.
its
it is
result
was generalized
and
elec-
This
every receiving
its
central terminus,
is
sensation of fixed quality; that the various quaUties of sensation are, therefore, due to the various physiological elements
of nerves",
for the
6.
Pure Sensations.
43
is
moment
it
we
if
neglect
It
is
If,
as
from systems
originally simpler
however,
This,
also.
may be
that organs
That
them.
to
is
is
condition
say,
determine the
aroused in them.
If,
The
principle
of
many
specific
senses the
we can
in
energy
is
number
all to
contradictory to
of different sensory
the organs
tinguishable
of
forms of the
we
find
and
color;
no clearly
sensory elements,
dis-
while even a
Where we have
44
is
Psyehical Elements.
it
will, of course,
auditory
is
way
in
3) Finally,
can
ficient interval,
must at
least
centres
These
As
a result of
adaptation to ihese
its
adaptation,
this
however,
it
may
happen that even when some stimulus other than that which
has effected the original adaptation of the sensory elements,
that
is,
when an inadequate
corresponding
this does
to
the
stimulus
adequate
all
acts,
may
stimulus
stimuh or for
all
the
sensation
arise.
Still,
sensory elements.
cutaneous
when they
act
stimuli produce
upon the
retina,
sensations of Hght
Pure Sensations.
6.
sensations, but
it
When
taste.
chemical disintegration,
causes
it
45
an
electric current
is
produced.
From
5.
it is
impossible to
and physiological
stimuli.
the
all;
belong
first
An
to the
interrelation
exist,
ulation
correspond
always
to
different
stim-
of
This
sensations.
and in
is
In the
of sensation.
first
case
it is
used in producing
by means of intentional
in the second
it is
defi-
varia-
same
principle
theoretical
6.
The
precedes
is
and
life
of our
In point
all
of
the
of time,
others
Furthermore, the
A.
factors.
is
"general
and therefore
In
its
spacial
includes two
sense"
belongs
is
to
attributes,
that which
all
beings
the general
46
Psychical Elements.
I-
the
such as
tendons,
The general
sense
made up
The
of
sensation
raixture
is
of
and
Not
pain.
of these
different
of hot
and
In a similar manner,
pain.
we may
often
sure,
systems (
5,
5).
earlier
all
and movements
name
The
complex.
genetically
is
hot, cold,
and
pain,
and
touch-
sensations,
and those
sen-
organs.
lation
of the
sensations
to
to
ideas
its
and concomitant
feelings,
in themselves.
7.
The
organ to
receive
stimulations
and give
rise to
sensations,
The only
facts that
Pure Sensations.
6.
47
the internal parts, are that the joints are in a high degree
to pressures, while
sensitive
much
On
no point of the
at once
pain.
The
is
of
is
pressure,
is
hot,
not sencold,
and
and
to pain
and pain
stimulations
to
points, in such a
to hot,
tendons are
cold,
the
and
skin
external
parts of the
sitive
of hot,
in the internal
joining
muscles and
the
so,
less
way
to cold,
Sensitivity
and
face,
it
On
appear to
pressure, hot,
and
be most favorable
for
stimulations
cold.
pressure-spots, hot-spots,
and
cold-spots.
They
hot
stimulus
applied
to
still,
stimuli.
Spots of
dif-
temperature-spots always
and pain
as
seem
by pointed cold
respectively,
are distributed
of
causes a sen-
to be stimulated
stimuli.
sensations of pressure
relations either
These
last two,
opposites;
is
It
48
Psychical Elements.
I-
accompanying
For,
feelings.
and partly
rise,
hot
may
as,
pain
to the
conditions of their
rise,
"When one
an absence of both.
of these
sensations passes
gradually arises.
Then,
too,
and that
dis-
arises,
of hot
character are connected with hot and cold, the point where
In
still
They are
to a great
extent depen-
A
is
perceived as hot,
same
itself,
is
which
itself
while a con-
the indifference-
The
fact that
in this respect too, both systems are aUke, favors the view
B.
9.
We possess
SENSATIONS OF SOUND.
6.
Pure Sensations.
49
Simple noise-sensations can be produced only under conditions that exclude the simultaneous rise of tonal sensations,
as
when
air-vibrations are
either too
is
when
the
sound-waves act upon the ear for too short a period. Simple
sensations of noise, thus produced,
tively alike.
also
may
duration,
It
is
exist
differences
The
guishing names.
pound
noises
commonly
so called
com-
ideas
a great
distin-
are
first
to
The auditory
develop.
is
of
vesicles
probably
the lower
In the case of
may be
man and
it
probable that
such sensations
(p.
41).
vesicle,
auditory organ.
We
is
supposing that
a product of
the'
sensations,
case
where
this
development'
has taken place, the simple system has remained along with
the higher.
Wdndt, Psychology.
50
Psychical Elements,
The system
10.
of simple tone-sensaUons
We
of one dimension.
tones pitch.
of the system
we can vary
one we call
a given pitch,
opposite
directions:
experience simple
actual
two
only in
quality
the
a continuity
is
In
it.
never pre-
of
noise.
since,
many
they
cases
are
relatively
weak
But
1),
these
and
since
comparison
in
The names
for simple
or of the
of tonal sensations
c**,
d**,
and d stand
tones,
human
c,
voice
too,
by
noises.
But
weaker
they become
very
really simple
means
tuned
of doing this
to its
is
it
is
If the
has
fundamental only,
so
The
fundamental tone.
ducible.
weak,
the
other,
accom-
generally
sound -vibrations
corresponding
that
irre-
to such
oscillating in
Pure Sensations.
6.
That these
5|
we can even
and that
vibrations,
The
basilar
membrane
tuned to tones
oscillatory
of
in the cochlea
different
sound-vibration
same rate
of oscillation
so that
pitch,
strikes
is
the
ear,
will vibrate in
when a simple
only
part
the
sympathy.
If the
it
will
be affected by
while
it,
in the
same way
to their pitch.
11.
The system
shows
of tonal sensations
it
is
its
character
always possible
changes in sensation.
selection, however, is
themselves.
We
shall
extremities,
the tonal
return
line.
This
to
the
discussion
of
these
The natural
1)
this
inter-
of the
by considerable
Pendulum-oscillations
may be
50,000.
52
I.
C,
12.
arrangement
is
Psyehiecd Elements.
still
is
AU
unknown.
we know
is
that there
Olfactory
a continuity of
is
may
qualities
many
dimensions.
be grouped in certain
classes,
may
Such
qualities.
classes
are,
etc.
known
as aromatic,
sensations which
many
concerned,
This
ties.
is
when they
others,
are
chemically
other
Finally,
as
acetic
such as caoutchouc
mixed
it
so
far
in
the
number
the
as
proper
sensation
intensi-
but also of
acid and ammonia
and wax or tolu-balsam, which do
,
different
olfactory
of
surfaces,
cells.
when
one
we
are
hibited
by complementary
central
inhibition
colors
sensations.
(22)
6.
Pure Sensations.
53
13.
investigated,
qualities.
tastes,
pendent
and
Besides
as inde-
But
qualities.
takable relationship
perhaps of saUne
sensations
show
alkaline quaUties
an unmis-
Sweet and
The
saline.
bitter,
of
When
opposite qualities.
saline are
made up
(alkaline
these two
known
is
as "insipid"), even
is,
a two-dimensional continuity,
is
in the middle,
and the
between
this
a.
In these
attributes of taste-qualities
is
we seem
to
liave
it
probable
system
is
perhaps connected,
character
of the
sensational
on the sensations in
depends, not
themselves, but on the relations between the physiological stimulations, just as in the case of sensations of
It
is
well
known
that
very
commonly
(p.
chemical
effect
the
48).
of
certain substances can be neutralized through the action of certain other substances.
54
Psychical Elements.
taste-cells.
we may
and
saline
parallelism of
relations
the
possibility
is
liable to neutralization
the same
cells.
Of
different
course,
processes
cells.
of physiology in stimulating
single
no
Whether we
complementary colors
partial
22)
is
a question.
still
SENSATIONS OF LIGHT.
D.
14.
(v. iaf.
The system
of
light-sensations
is
made up
of
two
light.
exist.
The sensations
we call black, in
line,
we
insert grey
light
grey).
sensations
This
differs
one -dimensional
system
of
and
achromatic
6.
in the direction
Each
in intensity.
and
quality
inite
Pure Sensations.
is
qualitative
seen as a decrease
a degree of brightness
The use
of the
word "pure"
one-dimensional
The system
sations of color.
in
and every
in intensity,
ingly
55
for,
of
series
absolutely
each point
is
belong to one
intensity
of pure brightness
It
is
gradations
in
Simple
intensity.
tone -sensations
thus
into
when we attend
to
is
both determinants.
brightness, in
so far as quality
sity,
series of grades
15.
when
qualities
Unhke
upon
itself
we
start,
difference,
and going
we reach
for at
first,
after
further
we
find
The
color-
If in these cases
the spectrum,
we come
first to
we
start
of
56
I.
Psyehieal Elements,
and
to
finally
violet,
more
like
orange, which
lies
next to red.
which
is
The
of the colors
all
line
of colors in the
starting-point, because
its
that
we have
in sen-
sation.
jective
Only when we
spectrum.
them,
system
the
is
is
fill
complete,
color- sensations
actual
of
a closed
circle.
This characteristic
to its beginning.
by arranging according to
objects presented in
of sensations
can be found
colored
have never observed attentively a solar spectrum or a rainbow, and can, therefore, begin the series with any other color
just as well as with red, always arrange
The system
dimensional.
of pure colors
we
when the
others
direction.
Its
circle.
From
sensation
similar to
the
is
gradually varied,
most markedly
first
first to similar
different,
quahty, but in
and
the
This color
may be
maximum
finally
opposite
order.
itself.
to
same
would be a
pass,
in the
is,
them
to
one
of difference in sen-
and
in
colors
are
same diameter.
to
Thus,
for
example,
violet,
purple-red and
green,
The
6.
Pure Sensations.
the color-system,
minations,
in distinction to
In
The
quahtative
sense the
this
tones.
other
is
57
etc.,
deter-
name borrowed
simple names of
In
to the sensations.
brightness.
reality,
we
Saturation
call
its
saturation,
peculiar to
is
the
other
its
chromatic sensations,
By
16.
saturation
by virtue
tions
transition
we mean
sensations of
to
tinuous passage
of
is
is
less
pigment.
some
colorless
to think of a
still
is,
by the more or
saturated, yet
it is
possible
whatever.
color
same time,
color-sensations
as the
is
pure brightness.
sation
of white,
color-circle,
all
color-sensations, and,
at
attribute
of
grey,
aU the grades
sensation
of pure
by that radius
any
thought of as an attribute of
the
"satura-
end
The term
of
saturation that
brightness,
of the circle
can
arise as
this particular
58
Psychical Elements.
we have
metrically represented,
as
corresponding to the
brightness,
the colors
thus geo-
whose circumference
a circular surface
all
are
the system of
is
is
absence of
all
saturation.
may be
the white
is
is
fulfilled that
both
in
differences
cases
of pure bright^
saturation
A pure
grades of brightness.
ingly
at a time,
ness
that
is,
Brightness
color-sensation as
this
case,
too,
at
is
it
just
is
of
a quality
once
as necessary
an attribute of a
if
and
is
in
degree of intensity.
if
The
and
black,
From
we have
between white
in saturation:
6,
Pure Sensations.
accompanied by an increase
white,
sensation,
in the intensity of
on the
we
As
two
the
other,
first is
the
59
way
are in this
of pure
at the
of inten-
opposite extremities
and
brightness,
also of
It
From
greatest.
this
direction
positive
negative direction
same for
all
way
it
blue.
that
when
when
colors,
and
is
the saturation
for
in the
The grade
not the
is
most intense
is
saturation
its
most favorable
of brightness
which
color, at
a certain
is
for
twilight,
when
color-tones
of brightness
the degree
for
of paintings,
small,
is
example
are
the blue
still
clearly
18. If
we
maximal saturation
the
relation
brightness
that
and
between
exists
those
sensations
of chromatic
white on the
manner
in the simplest
as follows.
First,
maximal
saturation,
draw through
its
way
plaiie,
the
by a
centre of
that where
it
circle,
cuts
this
is,
as
above.
circle,
of pure
the plane
of
we may represent
Then we may
perpendicular
to
brightness, in such a
! Psychical Elements.
60
it
to
minimum
the
started.
pendicularly
line,
But
from the
grow continually
ities
of
must be expressed
first circle,
the fact
in the short-
sponds to
These
color the
maximum
mum
circle
centre,
radii
above
per-
may be arranged
of brightness,
this
of greatest saturation.
which we
of
mini-
its
corresponds to black').
19.
color-tones,
whose
or colors
of greatest
and
Of
directions,
and black,
is
pointing in different
The only
thing
of the
for example,
white
course,
as,
pure
of
cones with a
system
saturation,
which finds
its
decrease in
the
expression in the
Now,
sufficient.
Pure Sensations.
6.
gj
may be
by a
represented
circular
light belonging to
When we
unite
The equator
sphere.
polar axis
is
is
may
be represented by a solid
the surface
This
indeed arbitrary, in
is
the sense that any other sohd figure with analogous attri-
butes
may be chosen
in its place;
it
still,
presents to view
closed continuity
The
of three dimensions.
three-dimen-
sional character of the system arises from the fact that every
and
colors
are to
series of
be regarded as the
saturations.
color-tone,
brightness.
The
closed
other,
from the
system
is
those of color-tones
quality,
while
every
that of brightness,
and
special characteristic
of the
intensity.
As
is
and
movement
in
or
saturations,
or
a consequence
is
of this
circumstance, the
it
20. Certain
principal
sensations
are
prominent in this
62
we use them
system, because
arrangement of
Psychical Elements.
the others.
all
and
yellow, green,
in the
bltie,
chromatic.
Only these
six
names
in the early
de-
velopment of language.
either with
We
as,
These
late origin
20 a.
by
From
for example,
show
all
purple -red,
their relatively
mentioned, the conclusion has been drawn that they are fundamental qualities of vision, and that the others are compounded
from them.
Grey
declared
is
to
be
a mixture
black and
of
Psychologically there
sensations
compound
is
in
no
justification
for
calling
any
Grey
is
light-
a simple
is
sensations
are
it
is
greatest differences.
all
When
given,
however,
connected by a series of
case of color-sensations
circular
Pure Sensations.
them,
between
sensations
6.
form of the
is
extreme
the
since
all
63
possible grades
differences
of brightness.
are
The
on account of the
differences.
and
affective
We may
natural conditions of
of certain
intensity
human
light- impressions
due to the
existence.
contrast
may
well have furnished the earliest occasions for the choice of cer-
the
sensation
from the
qualities
sensation.
when
all
certain
principal
The
color-tones.
difference
conditions.
21.
is,
If these conditions
The
is
and the
essentially different
from
of
Most
is
of evidence
! Psychical Elements.
64
and that
in question
In the
of tones.
ciple of parallelism
(p. 45),
corresponds
to
simple form
of simple sensations to a
and a plurahty
yibration,
well.
of
sound-
compound
form.
so that
in
both directions
its
quality
the subjective
differ-
is
Like objective
entirely different.
To be
sure,
interference
we know
Those seen as
waves.
light
and
In
in rate
of like wave-length;
of the
corresponds
and
to
slowest
waves,
violet
too,
the
is,
to
simple
vibrations
sensation varies
to
shortest
the longest
and most
between
here, however,
red and
more
are
and
a
of.
and rapid
from 450
this case,
rapid,
still
790
is
question, but
violet,
an
changes in wave-length.
Even
which
lie
between').
1)
is to
tone has in
its
But
this
similarity, as
we
6.
Pure Sensations.
differences.
1)
65
Every change
in
even though
be made up of
it
all
2)
All
much as objectively
made up of only one kind of waves, as
immediately apparent if we make a subjective comparison of
vibration,
simple
is
the
is
which
light,
is
From
the
first of
physically simple
these facts
may produce
pHtude of
it
it
The
tude decreases.
is
vibrations increases,
its
it
may be
In the
case,
first
however,
there
is
from a mixture
of all
the rates
of vibration
waves,
but
it
may
namely
also result
those
of
ligh1>
shall see ( 9), does not exist between simple tones, but depends on
the actual sympathetic vibration of the octave in all compound
clangs. Attempts to support this supposed analogy by finding in the
color-line intervals corresponding to the various tonal intervals, third,
fourth,
fifth,
etc.,
have
WoNDT, Psychology.
all
been entirely
futile.
Psyohioal Elements.
I.
jectively the
in proper
most
different, that
Since opposite
proportions.
objectively,
is,
produce white,
they
colors,
mixed
when mixed
called complementary
are
As examples of such opposite or complementary colwe may mention spectral red and green-blue, orange
colors.
ors
may
also,
When
several sources.
lie
nearer
we
started.
very
much
The
diminished
when
is
is,
indeed,
is
absolutely indistinguish-
violet
is
In
this
way,
all
violet,
all
and
violet.
The whole
By means
ors.
same three
of the
its
and
purple,
violet gives
of green;
colors
intermediate stages.
and
this is the
complementary color
tary colors,
when mixed
23.
way
to
The
may be used
in this
6.
Pure
fundamental colms.
called
Sensatio7is.
57
signif-
them
at the
angles
is
The
is
de-
special signif-
Along the
of the triangle.
sides
are
while the
other
on the triangular
surface.
Theoretically,
any
ors,
mentioned,
those
Practically,
and
green,
red,
First,
violet,
are
by
when
ends of
slowly in proportion to
the extreme
colors
of
by mixing
tained
is
sensations
simple
relation
does
not
exist
light-
between
the
as
the physiological
1)
stimulation.
(3)
The
to the
visual
character of
sense
is
to
be
This
is
68
Psychical Elements,
I-
produce
of physical light
and
chemical
like
this
of parallelism
logical stimulation
45),
(p.
it
may be assumed
all
produce
many
In
sensations.
fact,
that
all
we know, up
upon
The
this assumption.
is
based
is
in all probability
a chemical process.
25.
The
it, is
the retina
This persistence
(3, p. 42).
At
this
first
the
stimulus,
chemical processes in
is called,
appears
after-image
same
color.
when
it
is
black,
and
with reference
of the im-
after-image
if
it
when
is
in
the
same
the object
colored,
is
in the
it
complementary after-images.
it
lct
so
Pure Sensations.
69
may be
times.
several
negative,
6.
second positive
so that
on,
The
an
repeated
oscillation
positive after-image
may be
readily
The
light,
lasts
substance
most
directly
and
concerned,
corresponding modification
of
the
this
results in a
photochemical
processes
images.
of
result of continual
is
also
existence
still
after-images
latter.
it
is
is
Whether
there
a question;
its
trasts
tially
In
do,
speaks
for
The
70
Psychical Elements.
I-
so that
we
of psychological contrast,
will
later,
when we
enter
of such phenomena.
most simply interpreted on the assumption that every colormade up of two physiological components, one
is
stimulation
corresponding
stimulation.
to
the
To
this
for certain
condition, that
the
chromatic,
assumption we
medium
other to
may
easily
achromatic
the
chromatic
complementary
that
is,
when mixed
This phenomenon
is
most
easily
understood when we assume that opposite colors, which are subjectively the greatest possible differences, represent objective photo-
readily explained
by the presupposition
accompanies every
therefore
all
chromatic
that is left
when
that
stimulation
is
very
such a stimulation
from the
first,
and
is
normity
Pure Sensations.
6.
it,
any admixture of
is
This
color.
we apply
If
the
of parallelism
principle
separated
a color that
that
by a
The
short distance,
limited,
to
that
two
when mixed
give
is
color-stimulation
is
chromatic
the
first is
This indicates
and in such a way that the stages in red and violet are
green, where the mixture of colors fairly near
longer than in
effects of
complementary
action.
Such a
that certain
is
definite
atoms
is,
maximal
are
or
molecules.
The
which correspond to
colors,
subjectively
are
opposite
differences,
is,
ing processes
stimulations.
First,
this
operative
Still,
in the
case
of antagonistic
achromatic
opposition
in
the
character
of color- stimulations
is
not limited to one case, but appears for every color distinguishable
in sensation,
so
supposition, that
that
we must
for every
conclude, according to
stage
is
of the
to be
our pre-
photochemical process
is
in
two
opposite
directions.
complementary action of
two
In a similar
way,
the
objective
72
these
two
directions.
Psychical Elements.
We
may, then,
infer
from
this
twofold
corresponds to a repetition of related photochemical processes, on the same grounds that led us to infer the
from the
it
two
We know
aU color-sensations
such stages,
different directions.
lack
adequate
foundation.
Sometimes they
indis-
into
sensations
and
violet,
of light,
from the
different mixtures of
(Young-Helmholtz hypothesis).
Sometimes
which
are to be derived
is
not due to the influence of certain external objects, but to the real
significance
All other
such as grey,
light -sensations
objectively
orange,
violet,
mixed colors
etc.,
(Her-
hypothesis).
The evidence in support of the first as of
second of these hypotheses has been derived for the most
part from the not infrequent cases oi partial color-blindness.
ing's
the
Those who accept three fundamental colors, assert that all these
are to be explained as a lack of the red or green sensa-
cases
tions,
that
or else as
partial
lack
of both.
color-blindness
always
red-green-blindness
6,
Pure Sensations.
73
An
or yellow-blue-blindness.
unprejudiced
assertions.
is
total
color-
in contradiction to cases of
is
is
conditioned physiologically
way
circle
of processes in
relatively
Various changes as a result of the action of light have been observed in the living retina, all of which go to support the assump-
light
red
is
(bleaching
of
the
visual
purple);
microscopical
the
rods
phenomena
stimulation,
clusion
1)
rods and
or
elements,
cones;
sensitive
use
form
Attempts
and cones themselves.
any way for a physiological theory of lightThe most probable conare certainly premature.
to
these
in
is
is
that the
made by
difference in the
fundamental colors, that two opposite colors are related just as bright
and dark achromatic stimulations, that is, that one of these colors
other to
is due to a photochemical disintegration (dissimilation), the
a restitution (assimilation). This is an analogy that contradicts the
actual facts. The result obtained by mixing complementary colors
on its subjective side a sttppression of the color-sensation 'while
the mixture of white and black, on the other hand, produces an
is
intermetUaie sensation.
74
Psychical Elements.
function.
vision in the
human
rods
the
parts
are
is
retina,
the eccentric
in the centre
is
much more
are
sensitive to brightness.
from these
connected
we
7.
SIMPLE FEELINGS.
Simple feelings
may
as
less
is
originate in very
(p.
in
Even
5.
connection
sucli feelings
more
with
or
34
sq.).
Several tonal
harmony, so that
it is
a compound so far as
is
so different
simple
sensations
sensational
from that
difference
its
to
Still,
is
of the
both classes of
The only
essential
we employed
hand,
that
are
connected
(p. 38).
with
in dis-
compound
as
subjective
complements
of the
7.
Simple Feelings.
sensations.
the feeling of
it
75
impossible to separate
is
e,
and
The
g.
latter
may,
the feeling of
indeed, be
harmony
they always
3a),
( 9,
form a unitary
to
total
The
2.
monly known
satimi.
com-
is
in
two opposite
by
"sense-feeling"
senses.
There
is
may be
exists
by
may be regarded
isolated
imme-
of
through abstraction,
itself.
must
is
a ne-
In reahty, however,
is
and
of cold,
and muscle-sensa-
tions,
When,
still
especially in physiology.
prevalent,
called "feelings",
and
due to the
it is
feeling
(p.
As
36)
which
a result of
in the case of
it
would be
real truth
of the
many
is
dis-
In the second
sensation a definite
The
is
neglected.
feeling
fixed in
quahty and
intensity.
is
only one
76
/.
Psychical Elements.
we can
ysis
part.
and abstraction:
as separated
first,
we must think
affective elements
is
play
"affective
is,
are^
changiag
various
the
all
under
an essential
tone"
conditions that
The
meet,
first
if
these conditions
of
we keep
comparatively easy to
is
in
The second
is
very
of the
difficult,
systems, the
possible to
infer
remove
means
of the
never really
it is
"We can
a sensation
is,
only by
5,
Here,
p. 28).
for
too,
referred
tone.
are
to
is
generally
as
closely
connected
connected with
may be
color
this idea
entirely independent
itself, it is
feeling observed
of the
affective
tone
of the
is
presented,
is
7. Simple
pure
Feelings.
77
affective tone,
or a combination of both.
2
This
a.
difficulty
has led
many
psychologists
argue
to
They
some accompanying ideas and
action of the sensation is due ia every case
the
that
affective
But the
to these ideas.
conditions
for
attendant
ideas
light-sensations,
tell
when
necessarily be strongest
The
of
maximum.
The pure
These colors
tone.
those
of the
might
refer.
are,
natural
There
is
for
spectral
colors
affective
which
accompanying feelings
to
little justification
may
It
can not
be aroused through
still,
example,
by no means
when its grade
is
strongest
just as
the
would
it
the
objects
a single tone
This
reaches
saturation
If
feeling,
the case.
view.
against this
and sad
feelings,
The
more obvious when
is
still
are
derived
ideas.
the
general
When,
for
The
numerous.
varieties
The
of
feelings
since, in general,
a change
78
At
I-
Psyehioal Elements.
essentially different
sensational systems,
so that
to
quality
and
intensity.
varied,
it
both.
is
only in intensity,
is
is
and
intensity
agreeable.
one of sour or
bitter,
for
sweet sensation
it will
be
bitter
eral,
In gen-
by a twofold change in
and
in the quality
The way
feeling.
which changes
in
series
between
of
affective
(p.
33) that
tative
In accordance with
correspond to
differences in sensations
and
to
maxima
the
quah-
greatest
of affective in-
is
sational system
a point which
is
is
concerned.
when
This absence of
absolutely one-dimensional.
In
all
other cases,
same time
to another
Simple Feelings.
7.
79
number
of such dimensions,
it
Thus, for
In passing grad-
stands
in
contrast with
affective
is,
it
like
its
every
other,
But green
opposite
color,
saturated
color,
it is
through abstraction, as
we
impossible to iso-
we
The
made up
is
sensational
tones,
affective
in
at
due to
its
system.
is
be carried out.
sensation,
the
fusion
is
The
as a rule,
of
several simple
feelings,
though
it
further consequence
is
that the
is
(cf.
still
12,
as
3).
go
I.
Psychical Elements.
dimensions to which
the
it
belongs.
the many-dimensional
sensational
in just the
is
obviously
for
fulfilled
cases in which
it is
In the one
medium
sensations of
case,
human
voice),
quality.
On
The
tones
affective
(as,
the
of
makes
it
qualities.
possible for
The
5.
variations in
and
quality
affective
intensity that
simpler.
sensational
systems
is
systems
of
the
Each
general sense.
homogeneous
of
these
and can be
fairly
these
affective
zone
is,
and
cold,
of
and
the
that are
medium
neutral indifference-
sensations of
this
hot,
in-
can, in general,
feelings,
pressure,
ordinary sense-stimuli.
both sides of
urable
of
It corresponds to
tensity
The
series
on the other,
side,
to unpleasurable
the
to pleas(v. inf.
6).
Simple Feelings.
7.
Through habituation
sensation.
to
moderate
such an
stimuli,
intensity
when
can produce
quality,
In
feehngs.
noticeable
medium
sations of
The
regular
affective
intensity.
relation
of contrast,
case
of
taste.
At
sations
first
sations to a
medium
maximum, then
it
sensational intensity,
increases
The
6.
two
sen-
and
when
finally,
maximum
is
this intensity
reached.
much
facts.
and
with weak
still
great,
of smell
certain sensations
sensation of the
is
spacial,
course
the
feelings,
emotions
and
are so
arising
have corresponding
volitions,
It is greatly to
Secondly,
compounds
(p.
76),
due to
is
many- dimensional
and
exceedingly
This
irreducible,
feelings.
of feeling
is
pleasurSible, agreeable
and
quiet, etc.
Whsdi, Psychology.
/ Psychical Elements.
82
general
pressions,
as,
affective
character
for
of
many musical
and
objects
which give
life
simple affective
logical mistake,
which
the
Then,
is
of tone,
a gross psycho-
makes an
it
is
a complete
The
do
above,
con-
why
possible.
is
difficulties indicated,
more than
To
first.
In consequence of the
7.
list
of
names
a corresponding poverty
is
adequate investigation
is
themselves,
qualities
rise to the
their
a psycho-
is
writers in
This poverty
logical
used
cases,
similar, are
is
in describing the
of single
In other
character.
of Yery different
simple feelings
number
large
each includes
that
and are
feelings,
by
of light, or
of taste,
manifold, interconnected in
it
would be im-
as
do the sensations
all its
parts
(p. 35).
Furthermore,
most
delicately
shaded quahties,
(p. 75).
In
this
it is,
of a great variety of
it is
nevertheless possible
may
predominant character.
Such
directions
Each name
is,
however, to be looked
upon
as a
collective
Simple Feelings.
7,
name
them the
ing) feelings
Any
laxation.
is
all
affective directions
may
belong to
that makes
will
all of
these
The
last
possible to distin-
it
The combination
of
different
79) influences
of feelings arising
why we
we
and unpleasurable
mentioned possibihty
(p.
distinguished;
finally
concrete feeling
directions or only
mentioned
of
and
may be
of pleasurable
direction
feelings, that of
number
including an endless
feelings differing
call
go to explain
all
good examples
A sensation
forms.
of smell
of
pure
and
taste,
may be
regarded
and unpleasurable
pleasurable
regularly accom-
is
may be
Thus, red
is
always
the
connected
with
temporal
course
of
processes.
and on the
of relaxation.
arrival of the
satisfaction
may be
Still,
strain
or
may be
or,
unpleasurable
entirely absent,
84
Psychical Elements.
I-
specific
The presence
may be
more
of
in quaUty, just
the feeUngs of
seriousness
sions of low
colors, are to
and unpleasurable
direction.
We
are
ities,
but
number
affective qual-
directions, within
of
quality of seriousness
is
may
etc.,
the case
of
the
affective
of strain
tones
of
and
relaxation,
The
rhythms.
when we
of this regularity
is
in
regular
attended
by the opposite
Then,
too,
cases,
9.
chief
depend on
sents
of psychical processes.
In
this
succession every
moment;
this
modification belongs to
impleasurable direction.
2) It
state
the
exercises
1)
It repre-
of the present
pleasurable and
certain
definite
Simple Feelings.
7.
85
guished in
3)
It
ing state
opposite
its
determined in
is
essential
its
render
also
this
improbable
it
and
that
relaxation.
other
itself in
the given
These conditions
chief
directions
of
feeling exist.
Of the three
9 a.
aifective directions
nized;
as
we
it is
emotions.
But the emotions,
come from combinations of feelings;
shall
see
in
13,
must have
their
psychologists
antecedents
in
affective
elements.
Some
feel-
feehngs,
concrete states
so
that,
for
Still
all
regarded as identical ia
They
indicate
0.
and
to contrast the
contrary, the
but for the most part without the support of adequate empirical proof.
feelings
must be based
on
86
Psychical Elements.
demonstrable physiological
actually
our
as
processes, just
sations
the sense-organs.
feelings,
it
follows
we should
that
directly
are,
first
processes.
observation of compounds
elements, that
affective
easily
The
is,
of
of
concomitants
perceptible
made up
are
always external
move-
The
derived
same
direction.
analysis of sensations,
of
the
feelings,
impression-
and
of the
method only
method, that
indirectly.
is,
of psychical processes,
of feelings
On
is
of them, because as
shown
affective
the organism
is
outwardly expressed,
Such
may be
utiUzed as aids
movements
and cardiac
and contraction
of these
is
of the pupil
the beating
of the heart,
in
It
is
only for high intensities, where the feelings always pass into
emotions, that
7.
we have
Simple Feelings.
,87
other,
Of the
11.
chief
directions
shown
of
feeling
mentioned above,
and impleasurable
feelings can
feeling
is
is
When
be
the
effects
3, 5).
seem
beats,
For feehngs
in either case.
weakened
of strain,
of relaxation, accelerated
is
in
many
is
is
not
same time;
in-
confirmed by
is,
as a result, the
cases so
the predominance
The conclusion
other direction.
it
and
tensified pulse.
long as
of rate
of one or the
however, uncertain so
direct
observation
the
of
feehng.
11a.
the
may be
presented
in.
Pulse
weak
strong
accelerated
retarded
accelerated
retarded
pleasurable
feeling
exciting
feeling
feeling of
relaxation
feeling of
strain
subduing
unpleasura-
feeling
ble feeling.
I
then,
show themselves by
But
Psychical Elements.
I.
88
this scheme,
which
of complex
emotions,
is
vations
when
we can
in psychical experience,
a particular feeling
infer particular
is
given
resulting inner-
infer the
symptoms.
highly valued from a psychological point of view as the impressionFrom the very nature of the case, the impressionmethod.
method
is
feelings,
The
variations
the
results of a
originate indirectly in
belong to
the
tenth
source
the
medulla.
in
cranial
may be
first
may
may
inter-
be due to an increase of
We
many
that
in
the
case
of feelings
It
is,
therefore,
and emotions, we
have
7.
Simple Feelings.
may
It
its
89
originating in the brain
veell
assumed that
be
to
of the
are
inhibitory nerves
thus affected,
of
we do
are
leads
in
all
the
heart.
all
Which
central regions
not know.
that
probability to be found in
the
cerebral
inhibitory innervations.
is
Further-
complete
to
centre,
but
the
goes more
show that there is only one such region, which must then
same time serve as a kind of central organ for the con-
at the
central
compare
15, 2 a.)
region,
and
its
PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.
11.
8.
PSYCHICAL COMPOUNDS.
compound" we mean any composite
component of our immediate experience which is marked off
from the other contents of this experience by particular
].
By
"psychical
characteristics,
demands
in such a
way
designated
it,
by a
is
apprehended as a
when
practical necessity
that
relatively
it
is,
In developing
name.
special
general rule
the
that
only classes and the most important species into which phe-
shall
compounds
is left
to immediate
perception.
voli-
designations,
are based
anger, hope,
So
far as these
be retained by science.
But
characteristics, they
science
joy,
each of the
contents of
chief-
must
and
give
may
an account
In doing
sitions to
this,
first
two presuppo-
naislead us.
The
first is
easily
compound
is
an
The second
example,
for
truth
and
is
independent
absolutely
rience.
as,
Definition
8.
is
have
ideas,
compounds
that
91
the
nature
only
are
of
The
things.
independent
relatively
units.
relatively simple
more composite
ones.
Then,
compounds,
again,
moment
moment,
which
many
so that
it
indeed, in-
is,
cases,
that
they
( 2, p. 13 sq.).
2.
is,
and simple
feelings.
an essentially
The
7.
sensational ele-
the
form
to
like
systems
sensational
already
to
The
considered.
one of
affective
in the
compounds,
qualities, accordingly,
compounds
ities
arises,
continually
actual
nature
Connected with
increase.
is
this
psychical
processes.
The
increase
is
of
ele-
attributes, peculiar to
com-
n. Psychical Compounds.
92
and
of the sensations of
spacial
{irrangement
not only
made up
may be
single acts
of
the
characteristic
Again, a volition
and
the ideas
feelings into
new
affective elements
of the complex
which
its
which are
specif-
Here, again,
vohtion.
In the
different.
first case,
on account
of
but
arise,
When, on
are
of the constancy
new
the
simple feelings
arise,
is
of
do not have.
elements in themselves
it,
w-
The
3.
classification of psychical
compounds
is
naturally
Those composed
up.
called ideas,
the
those
case
of
the
among
is
chiefly
elements.
of
of
sensations are
of affective elements,
limitations
corresponding
or
consisting mainly
The same
processes.
affective
entirely
hold here
as in
Although
com-
immediate discrimination
still,
affective process,
As
to
in
we can neglect
when dealing with ideas,
Still,
these ideas
may be
affective pro-
We
distinguish,
accordingly,
1)
intensive ideas,
Intensicc Ideas.
9.
spacial ideas,
2)
3)
1)
93
com-
intensive afEective
for
cer-
1.
is
INTENSIVE IDEAS.
way
an intensive
called
is
Thus,
idea.
for example, a
is
9.
obvious at once
if
we compare
the
compound
this
different
We
ideas.
is
This
of.
may
etc.,
define intensive
are
ideas,
of
flie
It follows
eletnents
be indefinitely varied.
any
may
characteristics,
way
in
by means
of
Such a resolution
is
Thus,
and
a.
idea are
state.
Still,
less
This
a,
d,
clearly distinguishable
fact,
that the
elements
of the whole,
of great
im-
94
11,
portance for
it
Psyehieal Compounds.
intensive
ideas,
with others
and
the
If
fusion.
so close that
is
"We
all
call
for intensive
in -particular,
it
If,
in
into
the
is
we
call
characteristic qualities
eleme^its.
their
dominating
call the
mediately recognized
recede somewhat
we
than
others,
The concept
a psychological concept.
It
really
we
call
of fusion as here
defined
entirely
different
and
external
im-
It
pressions into a
when complementary
is,
colors unite
and
For example,
In
reality,
and temporal
spacial
compound clang
and
is
other,
at the
is
combinations.
cei'tain duration,
indefinitely.
attributes
But
since
these
we may
sive attributes.
2.
Among
we have
intensive
temperature or pressure.
dominating element.
and
Intensive Ideas.
are incomplete,
of smell
9.
taste
95
is
no decidedly pre-
sensations
obviously
In such cases
the
composite impression
is
usually regarded as
a taste-quahty
only.
The
life
smells.
tions
The
and
relatively
most
most simple
of these ideas
As
sijigle
of a series
clang
is
made up
of tonal
quality.
The pitch
The
of the tone
other elements
all
The
is
are
overtones
tone.
color are placed along the tonal line at certain regular intervals
tone.
The complete
first
series of possible
cipal tone, the fifth of this octave, the second octave of the
principal
tone,
and
fifth
of this
//.
9g
second octave,
Psychical Compotmds.
etc.
number
(principal tone), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
When
...
(overtones).
can vary according to the number, position, and relative inIn this way we can explain the
tensity of the overtones.
great
clang-colors
of
variety
musical
in
instruments,
as
changes somewhat
with
case of low
while they
Even the
single instruments
clang-color in
to be explained in the
From
in that
same kind,
of the
are
same way.
is
predominating
element.
distinguish with
As
the unaided
rule,
it
is
impossible
to
perceptible
by the use
of resonators (re-
in this
experimental
if
the attention
directed to them.
is
even without
if
there
is
to be
Secondly, in
its
quah-
of
series
This
coincidence
is
all
must be uniformly
objectively
guaranteed by
is,
producing
9.
Intensive Ideas.
97
The
result
is
result
which can not be secured when clangs from several sources are
The
united.
first
form
of their combinations.
first is
the least
is
not
predominating fundamental
series of tones is
is
when both
fulfilled.
when
The
If the second
the
first
is
member
of tuning-forks
series
which should
a com-
an intensive combination
of single
reality the
idea
clangs.
compound
It
is
in
clang
is
predominating elements.
There
are,
as a rule,
possible
all
by the
Wdndt, Psychology.
98
II-
Psyehiml Compdunds.
when
made up
In such a
composite quality.
of single clangs of
it is
case,
in itself,
a compound clang
made up
So
those
comes that in
it
correspond
the
to
The
of overtones.
and
c'
clangs
the
their relation
related
this
complete
is
and g,
and
the fusion
are incomplete.
e,
between
may be
which he
and the
times,
relative
is
is
these cases by
all
for a very
whether he perceived
This experiment
of
less
Still
measure for
compound clang
to decide
number
e^.
obtained in
and
is
repeated
many
6.
They
mary
tones.
number
fuse
more or
sensations of
name
indicates, to
of vibrations in
less
are
origin,
two
either
pri-
from
the
tympanum
or chain
of
9.
Intensive Ideas.
99
nation-tones), or
The
in
first are,
The second
relatively very
weak.
are generally
stronger
tones in intensity.
in the case of
It
class,
first
original
appear only
The fusion of
compound is the
the former are, and the more
less intense
As
components of
clang-colors of
its
com-
ponents vary.
7.
all
possible inter-
within a series
and
disturbances
number
for
in the
compound
to the difference
clang,
which correspond
in
in the primary tones, and are due to the alternating coincidence of like and opposite phases of vibration. These dis-
turbances
are
either
interruptions
of
the
clang-sensation,
II. Psyehical
IQQ
beats, or, especially
Compounds.
in the case
of
number
the tones at
made up
dissonance.
,
we have pure
dissonance.
of a mixture of beats or
The
If the differences
numbers mentioned,
first
disappear,
appears and
is
first
dis-
Ordinary dissonance
and pure
harshness
just
had taken
of the con-
place.
if
is,
may
be designsited bisonance.
Qn
side this
is
the result.
all
the psychological
tense elements
longer, the
is
of the beats,
etc.,
also
has an influence.
Human
forms of noise.
and
The
short
"lioises.
duration.
The circumstance
on their noise-elements.
It
is
probable that simple
all
9.
Intensive Ideas.
101
sensations of noise
The
ii-regular air-vibrations
enter into
49)
(p.
in the
vestibule
the
of
arising
both the
excite
labyrinth,
which
fibres themselves.
7 a.
It is
given
rate
always
correspondingly
in
set
This
tuned.
explains
in
way
general
the
we
in.
compound
clang,
but
in a single clang.
for this
purpose,
is
one of those
that produce
elements
sensations and
the
total
idea.
still
give
an
intensive
up
their independence
Tonal fusion
is,
made to
The tonal
is
clang-idea persist
then,
as
more or
real
in
less
But
since this
when
that are
fictions
as,
fusion
is
for example,
for their
explanation
If
is
we assume
the
by the
total,
substratum
unresolved clang,
analyzing
still
hypothesis.
we have
a sufficient physiological
The
observations
it
Compounds.
!! Psychical
102
(p.
on birds deprived of
41)
of the labyrinth
of beat-tones
make
may
99),
(p.
their labyrinths
resonance hypothesis.
SPAOIAL IDEAS.
10.
1.
an
in
that
when
the order
is
itself
changes.
Of the
possible forms
distinguished
are
of
by the
fact
spacial
of the parts of a
that the
as indefinitely varied.
The
torsibility
may be thought
of
is
in which such
limited.
arrangement
fixed
movement and
They may
each of which
it
all
is
torsion
may
take
place,
is
possible
to
advance in two
opposite
directions.
a single
in
to
is
directions in which
is
what we
may be arranged
the same
as
movement and
the
with reference
maximal number
of
This
10. Spacial
single spacial idea
103
Ideas.
as a
three-
definition neglects,
arrangement of the
parts,
to
of indefinite variation
the
This
which occur in
reality.
When
these
must
of necessity include
one-dimensional and
In such
cases,
is
present in
renders
it
from the
first
is
really
psycho-
is
not admitted,
it
this coexistence.
at-
is
its
location
all
all
concrete
our ex-
and development of
all
II- Psychical
104
Compounds.
or of visual sensations.
other sensations with either tactual or visual ideas, the spacial relation
may be
and
cases of touch
In the
sight, it is
and
equipment with
their
The
the- sensations.
here in
question,
it
it
many
much
respects
where vision
greatly
is
much
in
plainer,
organ
does..
present,
the
influenced by those
sight.
A.
The
4.
SPACIAL TOUCH-IDEAS.
relations
to be noted that
ideas
spacial
from
is
is
organisms
of
tactual sense
for
is
presented even
when
is
an impres-
Introspection shows
approxi-
single,
If such
is
we we should expect
it
to
be
is
present
if
not im-
is
it
depends
Localization
is,
therefore,
since
these
is
possible because
of the
bounding
The arousal
even when the
lines
uniform
are more
of a visual idea
10. Spacial
gives to the touch-sensation
which
105
is
and
sion
Ideas.
is
is
never
is
rapidly on the tip of the tongue, on the ends of the fingers, and
on the
lips;
trunk.
So long
of the skin.
is less
as spacially separate.
The
is
On
the pressure-spots
applied,
still
(p. 47),
and
leg).
(tips
the threshold
is
is
Then,
too,
As
when
of tongue
a result of the
first,
for example,
the threshold
those
is
who have
As
a result of practice,
bHnd than
of
The
where vision
is
as just described,
present,
ment
of a
original
number
spacial
of
and the
such impressions
quality
of
cutaneous
is
not due to an
points
or
to
any
Compcmnds.
II- Psychical
106
On
made
it
use
of,
local signs,
the
There
qualitative
to
it is
signals to
The keenness
be aided by
fore,
all
of localization will,
there-
in local signs.
We
may
already present.
visual
images
of
the
a consequence of the
The union
is
corresponding region
and
may, then, be
The
is
the
same,
it
when the
it
is
so
state
seems invariable.
the visual images are pushed so far into the backgroimd that
they can not be perceived with any certainty, even with the
greatest attention.
is
The apprehension
(v. inf.
and distance
6).
it
is
As a
rule,
however, more
by attempting
10. Spacial
to
make
more
Ideas.
107
distinct.
The
6.
when
essentially
different
vision
present, are
is
in cases of blindness,
memory images
some
But these
Blind per-
of familiar visual
come more
make use
and more
to
movement
The
of movements.
(p.
sensations
serve as
46),
same
at the
of
a
time,
the
of
the
to
for them,
substitutes
only
fading
are,
an idea of the
single
gradually
impressions.
relative
We
in
observe in
images and
congenital blindness,
first
position
visual
for
the
formation
Added
to
these movements
are
more
Still,
opment
itself in
surfaces
is
much
less
perfect
of
making a blind-alphabet
by various combinations
of raised points,
is
a striking proof
H-
J 08
two points in a
most
all
vertical line
C,
With
etc.
points at
six
enough
far
Psychical Oamponrnds.
to
be perceived
finger.
The way
apart
in
as
with the
separate
which
this alphabet is
used for
As
this purpose.
The
and appre-
points successively
single
thetic
same
object.
to the
no more
is
is
of which
same part
as the
accompanying visual
ideas
An
46,
(p.
6).
is
The
assumption that these inner tactual sensations are immediately connected with
it
in
would not
perception
of
same
assumption.
(p.
103),
This
is
but
it
inner
particular
and outer
still
differ
in
that inner
sen-
and
of the spacial
arrangement of the
10. Spaeial
memory
the
sensations
movements
of
109
Ideas.
arising
of innate ideas,
for
Apart from
7.
its
and
of
There
differences in movements.
other
way except
as in
is
no
106),
(p.
to the combinations
These
local
sensations,
a and
signs,
c,
always have a
accompanpng
a,
the
ment,
y.
bination
strictly
For
of
bhnd
the
inner
arid
there
outer
is
touch-sensations.
it
From
the
ment
results regularly
we can
of the two.
On
this basis the spaeial ideas of the bhnd, arising, as they do,
graded
local
graded according
signs,
with internal
to intensity.
The
tactuM sensation
of
movement
attributes,
so far
no
especially con-
due to a complete
arity,
in contrast,
is
is
fusion.
and supplementary elements are difand at the same time related to one
ferent in character,
They
the local signs form a pure qualitative system, while the iimer
interval
interval,
organs,
tual
for the
so that,
in proportion
related,
The
8.
movement.
ments
fuse,
system,
to
which
is
is
thus
sensations of movement.
first
union.
Of
course,
of
place successively, but in one and the same act, for the local
signs
stimuli.
Still,
external
whose mutual
rela-
pressions vary.
This
is
itself, in
attri-
9.
elements by
itself,
In
is
able
and even
to
this
individuals with vision, but also the blind, even the congen-
itally blind,
apart,
Of
course,
movement
The same
the other.
here
the
to
movements are
only
one factor,
inner
the
really present,
tactual
sensation
is
merely a memory-image.
10.
The
may be a sum
of inner tac-
This
is
still
ideas
To be
sensations that arise from the torsion and folding of the skin,
play some part here too, but they are relatively unimportant
in comparison with the internal sensations
from the
joints,
is
present, this
112
limb with
surroundings, which
its
This connection
that
it
may
arise
is
is
so close
tactual sensation
idea,
as
is
will
movement
certain
really executed.
of
own
present,
on incomplete
vision
is
that
is,
seems
signs,
show certain
cles
outer
to
series
knee-joint, hip-joint,
Introspection
of local differences.
we move
If
alternately
the
little
quality of the
the
sides,
different^
even
if
we
neglect
how accompanying
Then, too,
it is
impossible to
Hmbs
moment.
11.
vision,
own movements
arise in the
in
their
mth
they are
present.
as to
case.
In
when vision
their own move-
here than
10. Spaeial
Ideas.
113
The
the same.
proof of
some
so-called
this.
from
perceive
for example,
Now,
a neighboring wall.
can be experi-
it
is
made up
is
The
step.
resistance,
latter acts as
and a change
in the
a signal to concentrate
The
can be perceived.
ingly,
when
12.
we have
also
body.
an idea of the
it
is
only
when
that
they
considered
in
The organ
become
absolute.
idea
the head.
is
position
of
the
connection
We
head;
with
the
latter
other
organs
are
localized
in
it,
is
The
and
organ of
specific
The
Paycliology.
by assuming that
8
114
Psychical Compounds.
II-
marked
probahle
highly
that
movements
violent
which
This
of this fluid.
is
is
from rapid
in
same
of the
of the
It
is
rangement
them.
fills
comes
which
dizziness,
differences in
localization,
canals bring
and complete
de-
is
The antagonistic
a.
formation
of
empirism.
space
spacial
The
from
nativistic
connate
theories
ideas,
are
theory
properties
in
regard to
generally
the
called
influences of experience.
and
centres,
psycHcal
nativism
it
sense-
from the
may
above,
space-perceptions
are
regarded
This
as
is
as
products of psychical
psychical compounds.
the
and genetic theories. It is to be noted that the widespread nativistic theories contain empirical elements, while, on the
other hand, empirical theories contain nativistic elements, so that
nativistic
the difference
istic
ward
is
effected,
tude of objects,
plurality
of
spacially
10.
Spacial Ideas.
115
separated impressions to
terpret each
idea
single
sight,
space;
localization
In the theory
in
of
space due to
this
spacial
ideas
from
is
the theory
in
as
of tactual ideas,
original
spacial
qualities
Thus,
in
empirism
the
concrete
actual
theories
In this respect
they are different from the genetic theory, which seeks to show
the
the
nesses,
set
us,
nativistic
psychological
the
and
to
bring
by means
rise,
light
to
great
number
of
facts
for
its
solution.
B.
13.
The general
in the visual
sense,
its
skin,
we
fine
mosaic of sensitive
points.
we have
lines.
Still,
is
pressions,
it.
and the
number
of
so
small that
simultaneous im-
neighboring
makes
to
it
yield
116
II.
impressions.
Bsyehical Cdmpoimds.
much
incomparably greater
than
distances
Furthermore,
sound.
indirect,
this locaKzation
is al-
visual
14.
idea
and
Even
of the
2) their loca-
the idea of
selves.
erate abstraction,
never in reality,
point in space to
its
the analysis
determines
its
environment, regularly
of visual ideas
compound
in regard to the
subject.
a.
Tfie
15.
In
between elements
apprehension
of
of
the
a visual idea,
reciprocal
relations
much more
highly
we immediately connect
idea of
its
is,
we
give
it
a certain
localization
is
as
in
with the
impression the
touch,
it.
defi-
This
by the
of the sense-organ
vision,
which
itself,
but we project
subject.
touch, for
into
it
a field of
lies
as in the case of
in the
distance at
The
this
the
case
distance
is
as
sensory surface
vision
may be thought
of
placed
as
on
itself,
just
not given
it
is
at
The
any
field
distance
best to use as
localization, not
a linear exten-
the lines passing through the nodal point of the eye, from
the points in the field of vision to the corresponding retinal
points.
size of
is
field
may be reckoned
If an equivalent
is
diameter of the
directly
retinal image.
it
This
of
the eye,
was found
ceptible
intervals
of vision,
105).
field
here
many
are
all
very
much
smaller.
Then,
over the tactual organ, but only one region of finest discrimination
in
the field
of vision.
This
is
the middle,
which
118
//.
Psychical Compounds.
From
this
region
is,
The whole
field of
vision or the
whole
much
retinal
very
it
sponding to 60"
degrees
it
a distance corre-
extension
3' 30",
is
and
at
eight
1.
increases to
we wish
to gain
that they
lie
more accurate
way
"We speak
seen directly, of
all
others, which he in
The
The
is
line
is
known
we reckon
If
it
will
equal
be found to be .004
to
the
diameter
of
may be perceived
to .006 mm.
This
a retinal cone,
as separate,
distance
and
since
is
the
are
in
direct
contact,
it
arate in space.
This
if
view
may be concluded
must
fall
upon
with
at least two
and
cones,
10.
Spaeial Ideas.
really
16
when they
Because of
upon
act
different elements.
interrelation
this
property
its
the
of the visual
objects
subject,
in
sense
an external
to
a connate
field
sight
confirm this
to
When some
assumption.
seem
region
There
at
first
of the
neath,
phopsia, arise.
it is
images,
so-caUed metamor-
the
retinal
But
normal positions.
tinually
it
is
most
cases,
readily observed
when one
fact
that
distorted images
a stationary condition
is
gradually reached,
If,
the metamorphopsia
sumed
it
may be
as-
but even in those cases where such a return is entirely iniprobIn cases like
able on account of the extent of the affection.
the latter, the development of a new connection between the
single retinal elements and their corresponding points in the
.field
Psychical Compounds.
11-
120
must be assumed >). This conclusion is supported' bymade with normal eyes on the gradual adaptation to
distorted images which are produced by external optica,l appliances.
If a pair of prismatic glasses are worn before the eyes,
of vision,
observations
disappear entirely
glasses
are
direction.
if
17.
elements
that
always take
part
arrangement of light-impressions.
ties
original,
in
the
The
reciprocal
spacial
physiological proj)er-
touch
are,
The
grosser conditions of
The
delicate
much more
which
is
fixed in
all
its
It
is
is
'
10. Spacialldeas.
121
The movements
in the
and
the
to
closely observed,
Furthermore,
two
lines of
In
point.
this
way a cooperation
of the
two eyes
is
mination
of the
most
made
essential
spacial relation
means
objects
of
more
to the
subject
(24 seq).
18.
The phenomena
of
vision
ent
through
this distance,
of the
depend-
two
dis-
of
is
idea
its
true
its
of
outward
inward move-
ments.
The
influence
of sensations of
movement on the
locali-
from
ances
correspond
exactly
of energy required to
to
the
move the
changes
eye.
These disturbin
the
The general
amount
principle
122
II'
of such disorders
PsyeMeal Compotmds.
is
points
more
in
The more
movement.
difficult
lie
difficult
movement has
As
in the
same
direction,
may appear
through,
it is
not moved.
19.
not exactly
this is
same amount
The reasons
so.
various
still,
The neighboring
in
of exertion,
its
functions.
environment, on
at.
For
sible
movements
convergence.
of
obHque)
downwards
the
(superior
and
inferior recti).
of muscular activity
and
special
inferior
downward movements
As
a result of the
(superior
of
pos-
facilitation
greater complexity
tion
This general
of convergence has
auxiliary
easiest, particu-
downward movements
of
recti act.
convergence
The
sides,
relative
shows
itself
10. SpacialMeas.
123
downward convergence
upward too
(p.
is
121),
and
involuntarily
small.
ilkmons depending on
optical
of
of vision, which correspond to these differences in the motor mechanism. They
the object in the field
the direction
mag-
nitude.
end
is
incUned 1
really vertical,
two
ular vision.
It
is
downward movements
of
the
we
refer it
to
the
vertical
object as
is
This deflection
not
a deflection
in
noticed,
but
the opposite
direction.
An
we compare
field of vision.
the
asymmetry
arises
when
This, too,
in
the
is
straight line
vertical
is
posi-
judged
whose base
^
is
square,
accordingly,
shorter than
its
appears as a rectangle
sides,
downward movements
is
for inward
!!
24
Psychical Compounds.
The consequence
the
case
partially
of
direcfiion of the
more
paralyzed
difficult
is
the same as
distances
eyes,
movement appear
in
the
greater.
19 a.
distances,
are
marked
less
is
differences
we
9),
when
to the
is
ilines,
for if it were applicable, the illusion
most be about equal to that found in the comparison
of the two halves of a vertical line, while in reality it is approximately three times as great. The fact that this greater illusion
would
at
bounded by curved
lines,
is
circle,
The
slight overestimation
but as a
real
due most probably to the asymmetrical activwhich arises from the relative ease of convergence-movements.
zontal line
is
also
20.
Added
to these
two
illusions,
which
arise
from the
purposes of
vision,
other
variable optical
illusions
tliat
are due to
25
These
tactual organs.
may
illusions
movements
also
be
of the
divided into
The former
follow
the
of
dii'ection
For the
varies correspondingly.
illusions of
intersecting
lines
magnitude we have
Any
marked
overestimated in
accordingly,
is,
several
dividing lines
The
dency
overestimate
underestimate
large
small
ones.
articular
is
over-
line.
comparison
off
is
the ten-
movements and
to
This
expenditure of energy
is
nomenon analogous
is
when
movement than
it
it
is
passed through in a
is,
of
course,
^^-
;^26
necessary.
If
we tend
one,
Psychical Compotmds.
we compare such a
estimate the
to
with a continuous
line
first
ond
is
As a
eye.
phenomena point
result
line.
normally
has no
This
magnitude.
influence
is
eccentric
are distinguished at
all,
are
the
so soon as they
The
size
of this
is
not sensitive to
spot
fall
is
and
6,
considerable
size,
distance of six
when
as,
feet,
may
human
disappear entirely
and
left or
it is
Images
on
of
face at a
it.
Still,
resulting
in the
break
in
the
field
falling
of
on
vision
it
shows
are
itself
only
10. Spaoial
through,
127
Ideas.
of objects lying
on
ments
to
directly that
as original
spacial ideas
from
sight
The
spacial order
is,
here too,
a similar independence.
Tactual
we must presuppose
22 a.
impressions
can gain
To be
sure,
spacial
the sensations
and
in like
man-
qualitative
gradation
of local signs on
1) In this connection, we have the fact that the blind spot does
not appear as a break in the field of vision, without sensational contents, but as a continuation of the general brightness and color of the
whole field; for example, as white when we are looking at a white
surface, as black when we look at a black one. This filling out of
the blind spot is possible only through reproduced sensations, and
is to be considered as one of the phenomena of association to be
discussed later
( 16).
H. Psychical Gompounds.
128
Still,
by the use of
colors
it
can be established in
general that for greater distances from the retinal centre the sensational quality gradually changes. The colors are not so saturated
the
are
much
finer,
tendency to translate
the
sen-
been noticed in
we have
differences
As
a confirmation
at
and disappears
which are
at least
such
when
so
relation to local
great
that
surfaces
of
uniform
in themselves considerable,
to their
relatively
relation,
entirely
at.
differences
special
differences.
disappear
as
a result of this
23.
more slowly
space
may then be
intensive sensations of
will
The formation
of visual
and b there
at
of" vision,
movement.
of
local signs a
129
serving as
will
longer distance a c
of reference,
Just as
y.
the centre
is
retinal centre is
this
fact,
such
from the
is
of vision
field
is
reflex
Any
organ.
it
upon
of eccentric
This
itself.
stimuli to
is
of the
at the
same
time,
ing objects
This difficulty
in iadirect vision.
when the
reflex impulse
attention
As
favored points.
it,
evidently
is
toward a point
concentrated upon
is
is,
of observ-
difficulty
in indirect
than toward
tance which the retinal centre has for ocular movements, the
point of fixation necessarily becomes the centre of reference
in the field
and
of vision,
distances
all
in
this
field
are
due to
The
is
nal stimulus,
second the
and
stimulated points
elements
is
act,
local
may
to
either
Psycliology.
the sen-
first,
of the exter-
signs
depending
third,
the inten-
relation
or,
of
The
to-
The
retinal centre.
sive
and both
the
latter
this
at rest, are
9
130
JI-
Psychical Compounds.
Because
intensity.
qualitative
local
signs
The
The
arrange-
a pro-
is
caused by the
ment
of
and
and
number
In comparison with
so obscure,
and
ity
intensity,
Connected with
determines the
is
still
complex process
fusion,
which
vision,
another.
this
of
in
to
the subject.
We
now
pass
to the
b.
to
the
Ideating Subject.
24.
sion
The
and the
subject,
If a single point of
vision,
both
lines
hght
is
is
a visual idea,
reduced to a
presented in the
in
upon
by the stimulus
it
(p.
is
single
field of
as a
i-esult
129), in such
10. Spacial
way
that in
At
centres.
Ideas.
131
upon the
fall
retinal
is
repre-
and
at a certain
The
subject
may be
by a point that
as a rule,
represented,
is
the
defined as
two
line
is
to
it
of orientation.
When
line
"We
will
and
field of vision,
extemaL fixation-point,
a point in space
is
the
fixated, there
This idea
orientation.
is
when
They
are
sensations
much
of
their
Such
intensity,
zation in direction
is
In the former
vision.
The
25.
much more
always
really
1)
distance
of the
from the
objects
subject,
is
idea of the
indefinite
inclined
is,
as
to
than that of
ideate
this
its
-with
two eyes
"We are
direction.
distance
shorter
it
results
than
it
with a standard
in exceptions to
Often when one eye is closed, the line of orientation remains the same as in binocular vision and does not coincide with the
line of regard. In such cases the closed eye usually makes the corresponding movements of convergence upon a common fixation-point
this rule.
132
Psychical Compounds.
II-
field of vision
In
of orientation.
this
way we
perpendicular to the
that the distance
find
always
difference
much
The
The only
becomes.
is,
nected with the position of the two eyes, that arise particularly from the convergence of the Hues of regard
and
somewhat
of a
this con-
vergence.
In
the outer,
sations
26.
the
a given position
to
inner
convergence
of
it
an idea of a
orientation
of
can be developed
only through
This explains
why they
angle
increased, from
is
The sum
decreased.
is
it
It follows that
the Hne
mainly from
corresponding
distinguishes
of
changed;
is
when
when
of the eye
fact, it is possible to
the convergence
give
why
many
the sen-
by
have a relatively
On
famihar objects.
fine
is,
for
the relative changes which the length of the line of orientation undergoes
For
positions in
when
which the
changes in convergence
to
lines of
may be
perceived
increases,
this
least
that
parallel,
correspond
10. Spacial
Ideas.
133
differences in
intensive
sensations
fixation-point
of changes in the
Among
a development.
improved
greatly
inclined
these
by
is
distant
as
is
and
of differences in distance,
Children
practice.
to localize very
development,
of experiences
is
objects
in
are
the
generally
immediate
congenitally
bUnd
are,
it
It
is
mere
of vision not
isolated
objects,
to
the
natural
or at least a
number
Let us consider
first
by a
is
straight line.
always
secondly,
first,
local
signs
convergence
gives us here,
too,
convergence,
and
a sensation of movement,
difference in
and connected
accompanied by a change in
brings about,
of retinal
different depths
a,
and,
corresponding to the
This
The
J 34
II-
this fusion
product of
in both its
Psychical Compounds.
is,
and
when a
over
(p.
it differs
In
128).
and sensations
of
movement
two
in the
are opposite
eyes.
For when
will
and
vice versa.
of the retinal
versa.
it
The
left,
eye,
right eye,
left
the
when
takes place
first
left in
the
eyes
Such
in the
turn from a
fusions arising
in
from movements
and
intensive
of
way
in
in the
28.
two
is
entirely
different
cases.
of convergence
form a system
of
(p. 130),
but
still
mentary to the
latter in that it
ideating subject
is
pecuhar
objective
supplerela-
is
ideational
The
relation to
elements,
the
characterized
that of distance.
tation
the
in
Both
which
135
external ohjects
of
in
lie
subject,
hne
of orientation
All such
when they
when taken
An
29.
way described
The
varies
deter-
of vision,
is
Even the
deter-
is
along which the points of fixation for the two eyes can move
in
We
b.
may
call
The
principle
may
then be for-
which
when they
plicable
may move.
This principle
is
ex-
regularly
of
convergence,
that
is,
the
we found before
when impressions are pre-
is
When
arises either
an imperfect and
is
not
fulfilled,
there
else
^I-
136
Psyohical Compounds.
ways
arises
in the idea;
is
rigidly
change
Under the
fixated.
phenomenon
points
is
al-
seen as
single,
is
double.
i.
e.,
left
images, and. where, on the other hand, the latter are absent,
the localization in depth
phenomena stand
that,
when
it
is
when a
definite
in such a relation
present,
images removed.
for
is
point
to
The two
exact.
localization is
aided
and double
is
rigidly fixated
Still,
is
and
this
rule
be present.
This
is
mentioned above
(p.
133).
Just
c.
to
When
is
to the Subject.
thought of as merely a
represent
it
to ourselves as a surface,
and
we
jects
137
the ideas
trast to
depth.
of
two
of
two ways.
in a
First,
on the subjective
particular direction
The
is
(p.
Secondly,
131).
though
may be
this distance
line
seen
is
of
orien-
very indefinite.
an inverted
eu'ect
retinal image.
is
is
middle
of regard
upward on
The
if
location at
we
effects of
fine
this
of
movements
orientation
a direction downward in
32.
or,
direction
is
line resulting
of fixation.
in
itself
Our
movements
lies,
It follows
some distance or
other,
all
which
is
also
the points of
in
monocular
is
Now,
two-dimensional
plane geometry.
a rule plane;
figures
But
as
it
in such a
is
way
tln-ee.
^- Psychical Compounds.
138
32
a.
sensations of convergence
more
signs
local
of
Such
depth.
is
signs
local
be called
may
or the reverse,
complex
distance is always
a particular
a particular fusion.
When
distances
the
fixated,
is
unequivocally represented by
other
is
by the
characterized
different
position of
The same
its
true
is
When we
bodies.
We may
eyes.
a certain
difi'erent
other
extended
points
as the binocular
is
or
it
point in the
This parallax
parallax.
of points
series
position
relative
different
connected
for
distant
for
it
we
fixate solid
borhood in the
in
position in the
two
eyes.
All points
in.
its
neigh-
images corresponding
of the object located
size.
These differences in the images are just what produce the idea
of the
solidity
are present.
of the
For
in the
object
ular parallax for the image of any point lying before or behind
This
angle
of parallax
for
given objective
depth,
decreases
proportionally to the distance of the solid object, so that the impression of solidity diminishes, the further off the objects are,
is
so
great that
all
angles
of parallax
disappear, the
body
discussed later (
33.
The
will appear
flat,
I39
16, 9)
of binocular vision
influence
on the idea of
depth
may
cope.
renders
possible
a binocular
combination
way
that
two plain
of
The
way, be studied
much
better than
at actual three-
To
by looking
it is
at will.
movements
Furthermore, the
effect
at stereoscopic pictures
the
relief
arises.
to each other.
ia
of the
of
which answer
on the distance
of
the
exactly to
corresponding
This parallax
dependent
is
so that
effect,
by combining
This
is
much
fur-
real
landscapes,
from a
short distance.
34.
In monocular
vision
all
the conditions
are
absent
may be
^^-
140
Psychical Compounds.
artificially
not
Still,
all
the
in
more imperfect.
is
Still,
movements
like
accommodation from
distant
neighboring
to
For
points.
As
is
it
eye, is
35.
of
of the
so-called per-
These are
due to atmospheric
absorption,
etc.
depend on associations of
35
a.
in
and
will,
there-
16).
114).
(p.
for
The
over to touch.
In such cases
it
has tried to
explain
only
how
a localization of visual ideas can take place with the aid of experience, on the basis of already existing spacial ideas
Such an interpretation
it
also
conflicts
is,
the reverse
(p.
from touch.
104).
The
not
10. Spacial
141
Ideas.
the more primitive sense, can not be applied to tlie development of the individual. The chief evidences in support of nativis
istic
theories are,
first,
1 1
9) and,
dislocation of
(p.
1 ),
first.
stationary.
first,
but that
it
this
line
is
Still
19,
(v. inf.
2).
The
genetic
nativistic
difficulty
single
"identity of the
as soon as
the actual conditions of binocular vision in three dimensions began to be investigated. Especially the invention of the stereoscope thus brought with
vision.
it
new
era for
42
//.
Psychical Compounds.
TEMPOEAL
11.
IDEAS.
1.
Just
spacial relations
as
from these to
so
other sensations,
all
carried over
secondarily
are only
from
in the
of
difference
first
for
are merely
These conditions
of temporal ideas.
wanting, however,
any sensations.
of particular sense-organs.
structures
fact that
even when we abstract from the ideas that enter into any
series
of psychical processes,
of the
phenomena accompanying the ideas, such as feelings and emotions, we still ascribe to the affective processes
thus isolated through abstraction exactly the same temporal
subjective
generally been
form
drawn from
of perception", that
is,
there
is
time
is
may
that time-perception
is
more
a "universal
absolutely no psychical
though such
This conclusion
universal, arising, as
it
does, from
erroneous and
is
is
Temporal Ideas.
11.
143
attributes
from
we
of sensations,
affective processes
also give
them secondarily
doubted whether
their related ideas,
to feehngs
and
affective
may
It
processes
with
equal
right
themselves,
in
attributes, for
among
The
spacial
and temporal.
enter into
ideas
all
The
of
be
without
in
from certain
Temporal compounds
2.
like spacial
and
by the
contrast to
in
definite,
component elements.
unchange-
If this
order
is
its
In spacial
temporal compounds,
of one element
is
at the
is
subject.
In
There
ject.
is
the ideating
it
a.
able,
ment,
relation
however
of every temporal
short,
has,
to
the
ideating subject,
Every moment
on account of
in
time
this flow,
is
filled
time-ele-
what we call
by any con-
such a relation to
n. Psychical Compoimds.
144
the
for
it.
of
ity
With
other
moment can be
element in
subject for
substituted
is
is
its
relation
what gives
to
the
rise to
we express it, by
The idea of absolute dura-
tion,
is
so
far
differ
tion
cept.
as
their
We
change continually.
when
sion as lasting,
The
itself.
sensational
strictly
speak of an impres-
its
is
relation to
exactly alike
only in their relation to the subject. The concept of durawhen applied to time is, therefore, a merely relative conOne time-idea may be more lasting than another, but
We
two
relations
forms
found
its
of occurrence
one another
to
the
is
in
alone
subject,
is
fact,
time
tion
In
even
prior to
an exact psycho-
attended
to,
temporal modes
come
to be discriminated,
changing,
etc.
If,
on the contrary, the relation of the subject
attended to and the objective forms of occurrence abstracted
from, we have as the chief forms of this relation the temporal
is
A.
3.
touch.
The
and future.
TEMPORAL TOUCH-IDEAS.
rise
of both the
spacial
and temporal
145
The spacial
(p. 104, 3).
come from the outer tactual
while the inner sensations which accompany movehowever,
of touch,
functions
sensations,
contents
of
the earliest
temporal
ideas.
The mechanical
properties
limbs
of the
are
important
legs
their muscles,
of gravitation drawing
As
them downward.
to the action
a result there
we
First,
ried
we
at every
movements.
Secondly,
rhythmical movements.
consideration the
it is
and to maintain
We
may
this
neglect
for
arhythmical movements
aU
moment
we have
is
and accommodated
movement
our present
exhibited in the
and
movements
4.
is
possible.
the case
is different.
Their
is
ism of osciUations of
like
amplitude.
less,
10
aids.
146
II-
Their oscillation
Psychical Compounds.
is
they furnish
because
made up
continuity
of their
of the movements.
a continuous
of
movement
is
marked by a complex of
outer tactual sensations: the beginning by the impression
accompanying the removal of the foot from the ground, the
The two
accompanying
end by that
sensations
They
of inner
series
arise
its
Be-
is
are
sensations
outer
Connected with
mark
this
off
the periods.
regular succession
of
there
always at
is
expectation.
with the
If
movement,
is
its
rising
maximum
and sinking
to
zero,
make
to
of a rhythmical
touch-movement
again repeated.
of
moment
feeling of fulfillment.
is
qualitatively
fulfilled
of two
is
con-
from
we
of rhythmical movements,
its
first
sensations
From
this point on
consists,
on
antagonistic feehngs.
In their general
and relaxing
that
is,
feelings
one that
rises
(p. 83).
One
is
very rapidly to
a momentary
its
feeling,
maximum and
then
11.
Temporal Ideas.
is
147
made
all
and inner
at this instant,
its
sensational substratum
as above mentioned,
so
we have a complete
rise
of the
feehng of
hmbs.
5.
The
made up
of
in
out.
But even
accompanying
is
In
fact,
first
of tico
feeling,
In
rhythm
of
movement begins
of the second.
to be metrical.
^/s-time.
It
one rhythmical
in marching.
In the
The same
is
into
But
in such composite
148
-^'
TEMPORAL AUDITORY
B.
The
6.
adapts
reproduced with
is
corresponding
succession
of
psychological properties
first place,
stimulation; so
of its
all
of the temporal
is
sensations.
which most of
IDEAS.
to the
it
Psychical Compounds.
they
differ
of
In the
touch in that
make up
marked by
In such
sensations.
such iatervals to
neously
filled
intervals
that
lie
sations.
This
is
case
of
rhythmical
auditory ideas.
of
of strokes,
in
periods are
for lasting
tonal
qualities
consideration to
may
of the
confine our
We
continuous
successions
easily observed, is
made by means
case,
of certain
also.
as
single
may
In
he
accents
applied to
it.
A series
7.
Temporal Ideas.
11.
of regular strokes
plest
made
149
way
in this
ideas, is
as the sim-
distinguished from
147),
The
all
objective
sensational
Still,
but are
by subjective
filled
which correspond
Most emphatic
These
vals.
course
and suddenly
rising
the
fully to
affective
of
sent
it is
Then again
tympanum
as in
Even
the
is
same
it is
nothing but
in their various
it is
ment
in cases
But on account
series.
is
of the
much more
It follows
clearly perceptible.
First of
all,
of time-ideas
this
shows
is
itself in
medium
Now,
It
is
it
is
number
is
is
most favor-
is
the rate
If
the rate
is
150
II'
made much
Psyehieal Compov/nds.
is
more unendurable.
on the contrary, the rate is accelerated, the rapid alternation of feehngs becomes fatiguing.
Thus, in both directions Hmits are approached where the
If,
The upper
longer possible.
Then
8.
and
sations
is
this
of temporal inter-
itself just as
of
Thus,
it
is
viously
much
(p.
125).
to that observed in
The
overestimation
This
is
ob-
sensations
greater
its
objective length.
its
into intervals
is
no
is
sec.
again,
feelings
shows
vals,
limit
and
feelings in
influence
than
an
the
interval of time
interruption
of
in
have a much
the
movement
Furthermore,
single impressions
are
if
in
is
the
emphasized impression,
vals
of the
same
in
inter-
however,
a certain rhythm is
produced successively with weak and then with strong beats,
series.
If,
These phenomena
ence of the
sion
are
sensational
distinguished
and
from the
first
also
explicable
from the
affective changes.
rest,
An
demands a change
influ-
impresin the
151
The
satisfaction.
feeling of
expectation
The
following.
made up
case
different
is
at one time of
weak
lengthens
the
impressions,
and
series
is
at another of
Here
stronger beats.
in the
between temporal
differences
9.
ideas.
still
itself in
degree.
in
shows
stronger impressions.
In tactual
movements,
under
With
re-
will, this
in the
itself
and form a
and
on external
alike,
this
illusion.
conditions,
tendency
In a
and
may
series of beats
of time,
in-
certain
that
when
is,
there
is
The time
nothing to determine
it,
is
the 2/s-t^,
A slight
152
Psychical Compounds.
II-
modification of this,
This tendency
is also very common.
mark time can be overcome only by an effort of the will,
from
the very nature of the series, the limits of rhythmical perception are nearly reached.
For medium
which are
rates,
a sup-
possible.
made
is
to unite as
the
many
and
hardly
phenomena become
the series
is
impressions
members
of
thus,
comprehended
The presence
and
in
of
-Yg-thne, the
and
74-time,
a single idea
two
More than
^"^l^-iime.
we have
is
counted,
and
^/s-time
or,
when
of
intensity,
rhythmical ideas.
tion
considerably increased.
is
mark
ideas, in a
we produce more by
voluntarily formation of
way analogous
to that in
( 15,
6)
marks the
limits
of
their
length.
The phenomenon
fluence
of subjective
on the sensation
of
accentuation and
rhythms,
its
in-
temporal ideas, like spacial ideas, are not derived from objective
impressions alone, but that there are connected with these,
subjective elements,
hension
of the
objective
impressions.
I53
always to be found
is
and concomitant
and sensations of movement. This increase in the in-
feelings
objective impression,
The
intense.
is
seem more
latter also
may
expectation;
this
or
strengthening
effort
may
take
to perceive
place
with-
a nxmiber of im-
and
sational
C.
10.
If
affective variations.
IDEAS.
just
and
discussed,
of the
must
there apparent
it is
it
by
when
we
itself,
attri-
single
number
as
much
of psychical
characteristic,
and
essentially
different
of
union
is
ideas.
The members
of
a temporal series a b c d e
f,
can
/,
just as well as
In the
latter
case,
if
all
series
^- Psychical Compounds.
154
be arranged in relation to
reflexes,
times,
moment
When
in relation to
In time-ideas,
f.
it is
which
all
of the present
prehended as
its
subjectively different,
still,
will
it
though the
be ap-
affective
state
to
there
/",
is
b, c'
a, b'
f, in which a
sational elements are concerned.
companying
feelings
Then a and
a',
'bj
^ and
jS
fi',
c,
y 6
etc.,
V d
a'
d'
and
s cp
y and
y',
c
e'
'
/?'
y'
ac<p'.
s'
be similar
will
etc.,
8'
feehngs, because the sensations are the same; but they will
it is
immediately con-
by the
from what
c
.,
it
was
members
The
a'
member
series
when
repeated.
These
istic
relation to
c'
a,
.,
while no
Analogous
differ-
how-
its
character-
d'
a has already
is
of the series a b
a' arrives,
If
we
abed,
series
a'
and
a",
b equals
contents
al
a'
11.
b",
concerned,
are
affective conditions,
155
d',
and
b'
Temporal Ideas.
etc.,
still,
a"
it
is
like in themselves
from
differs
a'
in its
for a'
which a equals
differences
and
a'
between
a,
Besides
a.
impressions
11.
in relation
remarked,
it
is
arranged
to
follows
It
will
more
be
clearly
in
and
distinctly perceived
But
idea.
there
is
a great
is
not connected, as in the case of spacial ideas, with the physof the sense-organ, but
iological organization
due entirely
is
affective
processes.
The momentary
clearest
its
the
part
of
apprehension.
feeling
impression
We
may,
accom-
what helps
is
accordingly,
forms
the
call
immediate
we may
The
fixation-point.
inner fixation-point
ideated
and
he outside
have
preceded
They
the
of clearness,
temporal idea
is
present,
a regular
from the
are
the inner
are arranged in
degrees
is,
most
corresponds to the
sions that
that
call it figuratively
clearly
The impres-
is,
impressions
indirectly perceived.
gradation
of diminishing
fixation -point.
unitary
156
II-
its
When
idea divides
components.
its
The inner
12.
essentially
in that its
but by
tional,
Psychical Compounds.
elements.
affective
ele-
conditions
point
flow
is
is
and that no
This fact
a).
character
dimensional
time,
of
By
of time.
is
inner fixationcontinuous
moment of time
moment can return
that no
any other,
sup. p. 143, 2
(cf.
we mean
like
of psychical Hfe,
changing.
always
also
such
is
which
due to
is
very
this
continually
never recur.
moving forward,
so
The arrangement
of time in
one dimension,
itself,
is
what
fixation,
gives rise to
in
the
not only with respect to one another, but also with respect
to the ideating subject
13.
If
we
try
(p.
143,
2).
an account
give
to
of the
means
and
it
for
order of
itself,
We
may
call
The
first
are.
In the course
mical
series
every impression
by the concomitant
tion
may be
This
feeling of
as
of
any rhyth-
characterized
it
when a rhythmical
series is
components of
sensations of movement.
sensations
of
clearly perceived
suddenly interrupted.
of
is
immediately
is
157
In the case
movement belong
to
all
of tactual
ideas these
immediate elements
the
in
that are brought into the time form, they are always present
as
may, accord-
ingly,
the sensations of
of
We
movement
a temporal idea.
upon as a fusion
The idea
of the
itself
sensations,
quality
13
a.
by the concomitant
The
sensations of
formation of both
give a uniform
series
as
characterized
in
feelings.
movement play
time-ideas
and space-ideas.
This like
sen-
same way from the most widely differing kinds of sensation, since
they are not dependent on the objective content of these senThese characteristics
sations, but on their subjective synthesis.
^- Psychical Compounds,
1^58
tlie
we
attribute
(p.
8 sq.)
and
nativistic
we had
genetic
in the
It usually
developed a theory in any proper sense.
the general assumption that time is a "connate
has never
limits itself to
form of perception",
as,
The genetic
demonstrated.
for example,
theories
of
elements
only.
This
is,
12.
COMPOSITE PEELINGS.
1.
ponents
of sensational
immediate experience
in
is
it
and
purely
appears clearafEective
ahstraction.
com-
product
of
impossible,
ideas only
ment
the
when
looked
feelings.
into,
when
They
is
sensations and
up
of affective elements,
name
affective p7vcesses.
12.
Composite Feelings.
159
This
elements in the
is
among
must be the
them the
affective
first
the
momentary
In
state.
therefore,
momentary
cesses
or composite feelings,
discussed,
the products of a
feeling,
processes
The
because in
cordpound are
description of the
exact comprehension of
respect,
this
relation to emotions
extending
processes
affective
intensive
ideas
do to extensive.
Intensive
of
same
consist of
time,
psychical
as
com-
pounds, in the broadest sense of the term, include, accordingly, intensive ideas
pounds include as
and composite
special forms
feelings.
of temporal
Extensive comarrangements,
Composite
feelings,
be preceived.
We
may
distinguish in
components
every
such
feeling
of these
may
compound component.
1)
2)
into
single
total feeling.
These
to
make up
the
^- Psychical Compounds.
160
Where we have
take place.
partial feehng
interlacings
may
exceedingly complicated.
character,
its
of lower
Such
may
even when
its
a.
feeling
the
c,
harmony whose
and
g.
may have
total feeling
partial
feelings
of the
one of
e,
intensified,
hold for c
g.
e g.
or
may
all
of
while
Similarly,
g and
for example, c e
If,
par-
as
The character
feelings.
feeling stand,
will be
of
these
feelings
of the
feelings
these
or partial
elements,
last
first
6,
tial
of
as
c^ e g the effect of c e
g follows e e a the same will
a number of colors may have a differii
one
g follows
c e
or the
other
partial
combination
predominates.
In the last case, however, because of the extensive arrangement of the impressions, the spacial proximity has
an influence antagonistic to the variation in the manner of combination and, furthermore, the influence of the spacial form with
all
its
accompanying conditions
is
an
essentially
complicating
factor.
4.
The
exceedingly complicated.
of
Still,
there
is,
thus, in general
are different
degrees
161
and
visual
ideas.
The
sensations
is
common
feeling
it is
smM
and
iaste.,
must
sational substratum
of the
common
cases,
feeling,
feelings
In
affective complexes.
single
may
ly.
substratum,
the
common feehng
is
always
its
sensational
the
immediate
is,
when
4 a.
was
common
feeling
the intensity
The combination of
first
is
chological laws
and, as
unusually great.
is
of this
distinguished from
Common
underlying sensations.
its
feeling
state",
or again as the
of sensations" which
come
As
the
a matter of fact,
of partial feeling.
it
the
is
rather a
same time
But
to
common
it is
from
is,
possible composition,
WosDT, Psychology.
all
feeling
however,
made up
or unanalyzed
"totality,
us
parts
consists of a
sum
chaos
of our body.
number
of these feelings
of unitary character.
a total feeling
of partial
of the
feelings
of the
11
At
simplest
first
162
Psychical
II-
order, tliat
is,
of single
Compmmds.
sense-feelings
do
which generally
not
to
by
own
our
subjective
upon
it
directing
In such
state.
case
our
the
The common
5.
feeling
is
feelings.
This distinction
pose
it,
all feelings.
Pleasurable and
feeling, as
an
infrequently
indifference-zone.
may be
to
may not
lie
though to be
dis-
sure, this
or,
as
On
entirely uniustifia,ble to
feelings,
oscillate;
make up one
it is
may
is
sometimes
done,
make
to
all
their
other
appH-
common
feeHng, pleasurable
and unpleasurable
number
^S
feelings of the
same
12.
Composite Feelings.
Ig3
class results
we
(cf.
p.
82
common
feeling
sq.)-
6.
The composite
there are
common
character mentioned
feelings
is
the reason
v^rhy
strictly speaking,
may
made up
called contrast-feelings.
common
feehngs
is
and
Such
It
is
among the
of a weak
made up
weak external
and
may be
combination,
that of Uclding.
predominate.
tactual sen-
muscular sensations
These
reflex
impulses
cause inhibitions of
may
spread more or
respiration
and often
less,
may vary
the
dia-
greatly in
and composition.
ceptions
cial
As
a spe-
by the
aiad-tjaig,
effects in the
The
in
this
relative
those which
narrower sense.
by no means
we have
case
to
the
simple, but
distinction
it
be-
aesthetic feelings.
feelings of sight
still
serve
as
representatives
of
all
the com-
11*
54
II-
Psychical Compounds.
For
feelings.
complex
and higher
aesthetical
of these
affective
forms
is
with feelings and emotions that arise from the whole interconnection of psychical processes.
"While the extremes between which the
move
common
we
feelings
call pleasur-
same
affective direction,
agreeable
and disagreeable
feelings.
any
personal state. It
of pleasurable
terms
is
single
affective directions
(p. 83),
and relaxing
8.
In
If
we
feelings,
neglect
classification
may
sensational elements
By
intensive feelings
we mean
of the ideas,
spacial
by
from the
expressions
165
Intensive
and extensive
subjective concomitants
ly the
but,
and
qualitatively different
of
of both intensive
made up
feeling
may be
and extensive
of
feelings.
an intensive
that are
ject
corresponding ideas,
of the
form.
its
succession
of clangs
sive
coming from
In
and extensive
sive
and auditory
one form
may push
is
this
or
but, of course,
an
it
noticeable.
is
is
Thus,
Or when, on
arhythmical
ideas,
rhythmical
the
is
the other
heard, only
of psy-
is
pres-
When
it
difference
agreeable
has
its
feelings
is
feeling.
Still,
maximum,
also
gives
a maximal
specific
affective
from the
single colors,
and
made up
of
the partial
166
Psyehical Compounds.
I^'
simple
the
color-feelings,
associations
Then,
effect
is
feelings
as in the case of
too,
by chance
complicated
(p. 76).
Combinations of more than two colors have not been adequately investigated.
The
feelings
They
sphere in which
partial
feelings
we
see
(p.
of
160),
The
music.
10.
Extensive feelings
temporal.
Of
mainly to
vision,
these, the
may be
first,
feelings
of rhythm,
The
optical feeling of
preference
of regular
preference
among
form shows
to irregular forms
different regular
symmetry
figures
is
= a;:l
(the
whole
to the smaller).
is
1,
and
to the
to associations,
of the
is
the
human
especially
body.
is
probably due
ed with a sensation
of
movement and
is
connect-
an accompanying
12.
The
ment
that
arises
Composite Feelings.
167
at the
form,
is
thus
As
nents,
secondary compo-
we may have
feeling,
is
entirely dependent
and
on the con-
The
fulfilled
partial
expec-
tation,
The way
of special
and
momentary character
of
in
especially the
is,
an intensive
predominance
dependent on
feeling,
This
especially apparent
is
on the accompanying
cizes
For
feeling.
this
reason as well
particular tem-
transitions
to
of
To be
emotions.
sure,
an emotion
may
case
is
other
for the
is,
rise
of a certain
11.
13,
1,
7).
The immense
variety of
conditions,
Still,
168
II-
Psychical Compounds.
first,
and second,
another,
The
ing.
sive,
are
more prominent
is
But
feelings.
is all
in inten-
in reality they
always united,
one
these factors
first of
feeling:
partial feelings to
reciprocally.
may be more
and more complex the more the relations of its parts accord
with certain rules, and the same holds for a rhythm. On the
other hand, the union to a single whole helps to emphasize
the
separate
In
components.
affective
these
all
respects
The
ideas.
on the contrary,
much more
extensive
arrangement of impressions,
tends,
several ideas.
12.
The
components of
is
connected with a
This principle we
later.
It
state.
may be
is
possible,
or in other words,
moment
present at a given
states
is
obviously
immediate content
belong to
expresses
it,
partial
forfeel-
feelings
form a
all the
will
connected
feeling.
of
with
For
experience
the
the
general
relation
invariably
exists
the "feeling"
between this
13. Emotions.
EMOTIONS.
13.
1
Igg
manent
states.
we must always
feeling, therefore,
of a composite
succeeding one
series of feelings
ing
we
call the
is
as
medium
intensityj such
rhythm.
an individual whole,
and
effect
emoUon.
This very
name
indicates that
feeling,
it is
In
and
is
this
way
it
no sharp
line of
demarcation between
Every
feeling
of
emotion.
greater
intensity
depends on a more or
In the case
that
is
feelings
of rhythm,
speaking impossible.
The
this distinction is
such an abstraction
feeling of
rhythm
intensity of its
by no means
fixed,
strictly
distinguished
is
moving
is
effect
name.
on the
StiU, even
feelings
Mense,
as
is
when
the rhythm
^- Psychical Compowids.
170
is
become
greatly, they
are
for
this
Feelings of rhythm
in fact emotions.
important
reason
both
aids
in
music
in
and
the
auditor.
The names
2.
number
of certain
common
of joy, hope,
characteristics.
anxiety,
care,
in
may
a psychical processes
is,
its single
be
less
Ijai-ticidar feeling.
indicates,
Not
3.
is
by language.
is
An
emotion
it
exercises a
it
is
feeling
The
tion
first
is
characteristic
feeling, for it
The second
it
arises
is
effect
produced by a
As
13. Emotions:
midst of
in
istic
11 j
which
immediately character-
is
quality
its
emotion, and
is
After
an
ings.
feehng comes
this inceptive
by the corresponding
characteristic
differences
feel-
the
in
and
ings
'
the
directly
type
(cf.
4.
into
occurs
case
last
inf.
The
affective state,
especially
feelings
in,
new
of
and
it
passes
emotion.
the
in
This
intermittent
13).
physical
compose
concomitants
as
For
well.
it,
but to the
feelings
single
these
As
86
sq.).
is
essentially different.
affective
stimuli there
is
manner.
mitscles
are
Movements
always
of
the
and
affected
oral
muscles
an
unmistakable
appear at
first
In the case of
172
JI-
Psyohieal Compounds.
ances
of
such as
innervation,
tractions of the
may be
still
more extensive
trembling,
disturb-
convulsive
con-
and
facial muscles,
Because of their symptomatical significance for the emotions, all these movements are called expressive movements.
As a
may
may
entirely
so that for
side,
into
three
classes.
1)
Purely
paralysis bf
movement
expressions of feelings;
most important
cles,
of
for
violent emotions.
these are
Qualitative
2)
mimetic movements,
oi'al
the
mus-
3)
relief,
such as ex-
are expressed
Expressions of ideas
by
these are
13. Emotions.
173
describe
movement
(depicting gestures).
Obviously
first to
tional content.
three forms in
all
of ideas,
is
of
The
6.
for
(cf.
21,
3).
emotions are of
as,
in pulse
effects of the
example,
feehngs that
lengthening
when
respiration-ciu-ve
make up
of
the
the emotions,
pulse-curve
(cf.
sup.
When
and
and a
pleasurable,
unite
The changes
immediate
the second
movement may
concrete expressive
itself.
its
their intensity,
and the
also,
summation.
2)
and that
to
theii-
consist of intensified
itself in
feelings
retarded and
of the heart.
mimetic muscles.
3) If
direction
n. Psychical Compoimds.
174
Under
stances
certain circum-
The
muscles.
facial
of the regulative
first
of the
respiration,
There
is
another
still
distinction,
not important
is
class
effects
of emotions, since
we have
to do
It
is
less
of the inner-
vation appears.
6 a.
mous
reflections
fa-
of logical
a description of them.
expressive
the
changes
of innervation in
pulse
respiratory
organs
in
and
gation of the
has
in
turn
psychological nature
led to
of affective
a classification of emotions
processes.
based
This
entirely
on their physical
gained
expressive movements.
The emotion of sorrow, for example, is
regarded as made up entirely of the sensations that come from
the mimetic movements of weeping.
In a somewhat more moderate
way
lilovements
the attempt
as
general
has
been made
characteristics
to
whose
use
the
presence
expressive
may' be
13.
Emotions.
I75
symptoms are
these
in
one
case
made up
Expressive
is
more or
externally
less
The
essential dif-
psychological.
The emotion
the
on
those
It
succeeding.
follows
directly
that
have
series
deciding
the
must be
psyclio-
7.
Though important
concomitants
sical
stand
in
no
constant
relation
expressive
movements
of stronger emotions.
may some-
It
class so
manner
Thus,
may belong
even oppo-
to
the
same
far as the
concerned.
like
the
to
for'
may be
sthenic emotions.
Joy accompanied by
The
general
in
surprise
its
physi-
phenomena
of
and
asthenic,
the
character
of
This
is
contents
mere succession
to
those
It
is
as,
of
differ-
wliich
may be produced by
of indifferent impressions,
and rapidity
clearly proved
emotions, but
of these
of the intensity
for example,
observed in such a
itself to
H- Psyekical Gompcnmds.
176
when
As
rule, too,
To be
sure,
When
and
an asthenic emotion.
they
ter;
easy,
finally
Still,
exhibit
we
and
is
the emotions
This
is
very
is
we obwhen the
mere hint of
all
its
All that
fulness,
sible to give in
is
is
po8-
position.
7 a.
It
introspection controlled
no value whatever.
They
are
experimental introspection.
of psychical
course
processes
of life
emotions.
is
In the
The
especially useful
as
checks
for
observation
entirely inadequate,
first place,
the
emotional
estimate
state.
how
it is
not possible to
13. Hmotions.
mode
intensity and
For
circumstances.
external
to
177
purpose the
this
simultaneous
moved from
respiration,
the
influence
furnishes
of the
and
is alike,
Both
8.
and
in natural
significance,
This attribute
is
muscles
is
produce certain
sense-feelings.
From
we have such
may
in
indeed
in-
its
where they
be very intense.
On
other
the
hand,
even
consideration
for
the
of factors that
investigation
must be taken
emotions
of
is
the
more
so because each
off
a whole
of
the
class,
numerous
This
into
renders
distin-
is
number
All we can do
is
The general
principles
fundamenof
farms of
here employed must, of course, be psychological, that
tal
em-otions.
division
is,
such
phenomena have
12
178
Psychical Compournds.
II-
only a symptomatica!
value
noted
as
quality
the
to
2)
the
of
according to
entering
feelings
intensity
the
may
classification
of
these
ac-
the
into
feelings,
On
10.
we may
distinguish certain
distinguished
directions
fective
straining
exciting
af-
gives
and depressing,
It
This
83).
(p.
feelings,
There are
affective ele-
elements.
fact that
primary emotion
may
arise.
it
strong,
it
Ordinarily
it is
is
pri-
also exciting,
Sorrow
an un-
is
when
it
may become
comes maximal,
Anger
in
its
is
it
sity
of the feelings
into
rage,
it
depression.
but
becomes greater, as
may become
tendencies
intensity be-
marked
much more
predominant
depressing
exciting,
are
depressing.
always
when
when
Thus,
the
it
inten-
develops
exciting
mere secondary
and
qualities
13. Emotions.
179
and
ings of strain
Feel-
relaxation,
fre-
emotions.
to this state
When
is
may
it
which are
be asso-
easily
according to
In the case
of
of
feelings
of
with those
strain
may be
when
of
relaxation
all
When
they are
feelings inter-
11.
names
opment
of
feelings,
and unpleasurable.
classes.
we
First
tively distinguished,
for
attention in
its
devel-
side
of
three
affec-
sorrow in which either depressing, straining, or relaxing tendencies of the feeling are also exhibited, sadness, care, grief,
and
fright.
referring to
some external
pleasure and,
object,
as above,
Thirdly,
we have names
and
anxiety.
of the latter,
of feeUngs
of
12*
worry
strain
180
II-
Psychical Compounds.
names
fact,
much
greater variety
observation renders
it
In
and that
On
12.
distinguish
more numerous.
we may
of the feeHngs,
dependent not
is
Thus,
well.
urable
become asthenic
such as
The
asthenic.
emotions
is
after a longer
duration,
discrimination
of
joy, are
always
of
may
not only
tially
for
as,
since this
variation from
moment
to
to
moment.
moment
arise
is
may
Then
essen-
from the
177),
it is
esis of sthenic
fluence even
of emotions
discussed above
decisive in-
itself.
The
IS.
third
distinguishing
181
characteristic
more important.
is
First,
there
of
emotions,
Here we
They
rage.
all
maximum
reach their
care,
emotions,
rise
time a
modification
of the
Secondly,
state.
anxiety,
we
doubt,
to their
As
fright,
such as
and
expectation,
These
anger, worry.
distin-
tions,
and
Emotions.
13.
in
just
mentioned
we have
fall
tions,
come
in
All emotions
alternately.
Thus, especially
joy,
of
long
anger, mournful-
of gradually
arising
emo-
The sudden,
tensity.
emotion
the
may
emotions,
irruptive
on the contrary,
also
class.
rage.
In
this case, to
|3e
rise
and
fall;
In their psycho-physical
13 a.
it
may
may be
is
all asthenic,
sudden and
Such
just as
then,
little
however
characteristic
psychological
classification
the feelings.
of occurrence
may
The way
Ig2
11.
Psychical Compounds.
therefore,
joy,
anger,
their
fear,
intensity of their
component
feel-
mittent form
of its
and
occurrence,
a sthenic, asthenic,
finally
its
chological explanation,
single forms
of the
ui
expressive movements.
we have
first,
the
case
of the
succession
second
its
curence,
while
second,
first
in
the
is
component
of
these
feelings,
feelings.
and
The
more
especially its
its
form of oc-
physical accompani-
ments and the psycho-physical changes resulting from the senseaccompanying phenomena (p. 177).
is
We
however, be regarded
where we have to do merely
pulse and
in
that do not
respiration).
(as,
On
the
other
hand we
1.
VOLITIONAL PEOOESSES.
14.
183
of a series
it is,
of in-
may
It
may
Such
affective
result,
of
pass
cases,
into
sudden
in a second class
change in
sensational
and
affective content,
and
eous
close;
state
its
together vrith
result
its
related to a feehng.
one
part
of
the
Volitional act
process,
out of emotions
connection
(p. 1
with
especially true
care,
train
etc.
is
is
that an emotion
the
the
to
name
of only
development of
external
pantomimetic
73) appear.
of the process
which
way
The way
itself
a volitional process.
is
affective
The emotion
volitional acts.
is
volitional process
sensational
movements
chiefly at the
end
of joy,
in the
Still,
in these
causes
this is
of the
mo-
which end
in
certain bodily
movements
resulting
is,
those
n. Psychical Compounds.
Ig4
The
effects
feelings,
may be
volitional
defined as
an
all
the emotion,
effect is
produdng
Such an
all
succession of
emotion.
of course,
is,
is
is,
the
The fundamental
preceding feelings.
and the
itself.
psychological condition
volitions is
most probably in
all
external
movements whose
The
feelings.
seizing of
A volition
tion only
tional
by the
is
sense-feelings,
men and
animals the
origin
added to
common
itself to
may then
an end.
rise to
its
emo-
feehngs
contained in the
The execution
Ig5
content,
into
the
and
affective
ordinary
quiet flow of
feelings.
3.
The
perience, the
There
is
no feehng or emotion
at least
some degree an
effort
may be
tenance or
volitions
effort
affective
This
as their components,
that
is,
affective pro-
still,
While
state.
the fact
In the
in voh-
when
becomes a
it
thought of
as
In
volition.
the beginning
this sense
is
complete only
a feeling
of a volition,
or
may be
a volition
may be
emotion
may be regarded
and an
the two.
The
single feelings in
4.
Certain ones
are
among them,
act.
act, are
feelings
into
an ideational and
186
an
Psychical Compounds.
II-
The
component.
affective
first
we may
the moving
call
"When a
beast of prey
sight
seizes
his victim,
of
the
moving reason
impelling force
may
the
is
be either the
The reason
for a criminal
murder may be
theft,
This
is
it
would be
author of
leading motive.
the
subordinated
are
feelings
under a single
binations of ideas
and
feelings
one;
the
In the com-
call
motives, the
effect,
other impulses
all
predominating
which we
that
is,
itself,
while
the ideas are of influence only indirectly, through their connections with the feelings.
arising
from pure
The assumption
intellectual
considerations,
contradiction in
ideas
It rests
itSelf.
feelings
a volition
of
a decision
feelings,
is
absolutely
distinct
volitions.
The combination
and
of
of a
number
of motives, that
is,
of
Volitional Processes.
14.
187
discrimination of
The
simplest case
volition
of
is
accompanying
a close with
cesses to
Such
idea,
its
be called simple
terminate
by a
single motive,
The movements
volitions.
designated impulsive
are often
in
may
which they
In popular
acts.
ity
element,
impeUing
is
to.
Another
brought
in.
feelings, are
of
discrimination
is
operative.
This
is
By
that
is,
is
it,
fol-
entirely unjustifiable.
we mean a
and
ideational processes.
though
it
may
acts.
development of
To be
sure,
the earliest
acts
all
of animals
In
188
II-
Psychical Compounds.
When
6.
several feelings
and ideas
in the
same emotion
In order to distinguish
we
a voluntary
call it
it
this
from
act.
of
They
single
or from com-t
and operate
as a
motives.
When
a clearly perceptible
preceding
a choice.
it
selective act,
The predominance
strife
we
between
suppose such a
strife
now
clearly,
in the first
case
The
proper sense.
ive
acts
strife
is
now
in
every case.
obscurely,
is
fast.
Still,
select-
in ordinary
and
in imselect-
in
The
which the
final
called in the
of
selective
case
acts decision.
The
first
word
is
in the case
indicates merely
that action
is
189
to
In contrast to the
first stages
of
volition,
which can
They
cess,
marked by accompanying
especially
anywhere but in
volitions,
of all those
first
of resolution
differs
are
appear
and
of decision.
The
latter
They
may be
united
The
able factors.
of decision is probably
ing feeling of
motives.
different
feeling of
when
due to
doubt which
Its
relaxation a
its
attends
opposition
to
this
At
greater intensity.
moment
the
has
its
movement.
character,
volition,
and
is,
is
accompanying the
motives of the
urable elements,
a total
feehng of activity
cess
into
and
finally
passing
tions
feeling,
this
is
As
act.
and emoTaking
90
II-
PsycMeal Compov/nds.
we must
volitional acts,
essentially
and
solution
decision.
from them
of re-
feelings
The
8.
brings with
transition
from simple
it
is
to
act.
to
The
will.
first
of these
an apparently unemotional
tion
never entirely
is
which
arises
in
affective state.
wanting;
order that
in
an ordinary train
it
feehngs
of
easily
the more
bring
this
may
motive
the
we
it.
We
do
combinations of psychical
istic
emotions.
mined by a purely
(p.
186),
volition entkely
without emotion,
intellectual motive,
a psychological impossibility.
is,
deter-
as already remarked
Still,
intellectual
de-
191
may be due
This
which
intellectual
of
generally present,
is
motives,
more rapidly
stronger the
Connected with
9.
for
this
general
in
emotions
component
their
are
the
feelings rise.
another change.
still
volition
process that
symptom whatever.
ternal
tional act.
so
is
The
transition
is itself
itself directly
Such an
acts
effect
called
is
a psychical
which
is
imper-
an internal
intellectual
themselves
are
tions
on the train
of ideas
15,
The
is
some change
ia the train of
9).
some resolution or
decision.
The
feelings that
and the
itself,
accompany
feeling of ac-
Fur-
thermore, action
is
voli-
bound up with
The
is
effect
strain,
so
that obviously
the
only
and
difference
affect-
between
is
to
itself
we may have a
bodily
movement
as the secondary
192
Psyohieal Compotmds.
II-
result of
an internal
volitional act,
when the
to
whose
volition
from the
first,
consider as a
is
is
but requiring
it
an external action
as a necessary
among
which
in
tween
the
in
it
is
two kinds
of
to
volition,
from
different
distinguish
It is
from a
we have a
the motives,
impossible
later
antecedent.
sition
in-
new process
earlier.
we must
of a resolution to execute
expected conditions,
In such
itself
decisive motives
resolution refers
later time.
tran-
clearly be-
processes, an internal
form,
the
if
act itself,
it
decision
and an
external.
In such a transitional
is
may be regarded
as
or one of retrogradation.
When
is
a third process
conflict
between the
The complex
or impulsive act.
processes
into
of
finally disappear
from
of
of
the
clearly
the
utter
concept "impul-
sense-feelings.
opposing motives,
As
a result
there
are
and
intellectual, moral,
Volitional Processes.
14.
193
impulsive acts.
This retrogradation
is
but
one
a process that
step in
unites all the external acts of a Uving being, both the voli-
tional acts
habituating practice of
movements.
reflex
certain
When
weaker
and more
transient.
motive, but
now
it
The
finally
origi-
which operated as a
movement
acts,
stimulus
external
affective idea
the
acts is
In
way
this
it
the impulsive
in
for
and the
reflex,
as a pure physiological
become a simple
reflex
process.
which depends
cesses,
mechanical pro-
to
on the elimination
essentially
may
act,
and end
of
all
of the
acts.
It
is
all
we
in this way.
As
points to
motive.
of
the
acts,
animals
not reflexes,
Wdkdt, Psychology.
tells
are
for
aU
evidently
simple
so
volitional
that
13
here
^- P^ehical Oompounds.
194
too there
made
no
is
that acts
movements.
point
of
will
we can most
Finally,
may
are
voluntary acts
into reflex
to
impulsive
movements
pantomimetic
this
that
172),
(p.
movements
from
easily explain
expressive 'movements
frequently
justification
of
first
many
came
probably
which passed
while
acts,
complicated
from
originally
and then
into impidsive
it
necessary
in-
from the
first
as impulsive
or reflex
later
descendants
20).
For reasons similar to those given in the case of emocome into experience by chance, is an inadequate and easily misleading method
for establishing the actual facts in the case.
Wherever internal
10 a.
tions,
or external volitional
acts
theoretical or practical
are performed in
demands of
itself to
life,
our interest
is
too
much
observe with exactness the psychical processes that are going on.
theories
have a clear
reflection of the
of psychological observation.
we
ones in the whole sphere of volitional processes that force themselves emphatically
acts,
Volitional Processes.
more
motive.
14.
It followed
that
195
the
close
tween impulsive and voluntary acts was not observed, and that
the former were regarded as not belonging to will, but as closely
related to reflexes.
Will was thus limited to the voluntary and
Furthermore, the one-sided consideration of the
selective actions.
of the development
of volitional
acts
that
from emotions,
volitional
and the
acts
upon these motives and bring one of them into the ascendency,
but that volition is a process apart from the motives and inact
voluntary
of the mind, or as
different
motives
its
that
acts,
Thus,
it.
instead
of deriving
volition
all
is
an "unconscious"
only in
its
result, the
of the volitional process preceding the act, has led to the assertion
that no such process exists.
unconscious
will,
before
is still
to a great extent under the ban of this deep-rooted abstract doctrine of will.
plaining
an
first
it
leaves
13*
^- Psyehieal Compounds.
196
sum
images
in
cases
of the sensations
may immediately
precede
th.at
accompany the
as
it
memoryThe
pale
as
the
Here, then,
to metaphysics,
as
however,
here
it
is
the
in
too
theory
lost
In
before.
discussed
reality,
metaphysics in attempting to
in
make up
it shall
Here,
however,
it
is
not presented as an
perceptible
in
we know
the process.
We
can
Of
is
know nothing
this par-
immediately
of an un-
vation.
attention
to
of the
The exact
is,
for
Volitional Processes.
14.
come naturally
acts that
197
way
processes which
which serve
the
of every kind
sure,
at will,
observation of certain
this
The experiments
in external acts.
ments.
acts
To be
ternal sense-stimulus
and then
incited
is
by an ex-
is
Reaction-experiments have
They
furnish
means
for
made
Li
fact,
in these experiments.
however,
experiments,
The primary
the fact
in
consists
significance of the
that
each
one
it is
The
simplest reaction-experiment
as follows.
short interval (2
can be made
that
after
sec.)
At
stimulus
determined
movement
ditions
in
is
perceived,
the
movement
is
a signal that
is
moment when
that
has
been
of the hand,
this
experiment correspond
of a simple volition.
The
sensible
essentially
to
those
impression serves as
198
II-
Psychical Compounds^
If
followed invariably by
by means
of
objectively
that
to be
is
now we measure
elapses
it will
be
possible,
by frequently
make up
the
measurement
will furnish a
in
the experiment and thereby the subjective course of the volition itself is intentionally modified.
way in which
When
known
is
the expectation
is
directed toward
In the
is
more extended,
clearness
of
and
this
obscurity.
expectation
that
is
oscillates
oscillates
affective
in
we have
a pale memory-image of
When
image
The
is
first
between alternating
element
is
a feeling
is
be affected,
as,
tympanum,
muscular,
expectation a pale,
wavering
of preparatory
organ that
to react
is
sensations of
(e.
g.,
199
and a
fairly
continuous
sorial reaction-time is
time
shortest
mean
is
variation
0.020 sec.
Muscular reaction-time
is
for
0.120
The
Sen-
sec. (the
for
of
0.290
the
chiefly
observations.
a mean
sec, with
values of the
different
single
0.190
mean
important as objective
By
12.
sorial
we may make
for the
points
starting
sen-
study of the development of volitions in two different direcSensorial reactions furnish the
tions.
simple
to
complex
easily insert
volitions
means
because we
of passing from
can in
this
case
ment depend on
and then
In
second process.
this
cognition or discrimination
be performed.
This
motive
is
is
let
the move-
this
resiilts
only
one
of
a greater or
come up
in place
of
it;
1)
The reaction-times
In
fact,
we may
and pain are not reckoned in the figures given. They are all longer.
The differences are, however, obviously to be attributed to pure physconditions (slow transmission of the stimulation to the
nerve-endings, and in the case of pain slower central conduction),
80 that they are of no interest for psychology.
iological
H. Psychical Compownds.
200
and
act
perception
the
the impression.
of
the case,
phatically
processes
affective
when we bring
example, an
is
in
still
motive for
decisive
determines the
number
act,
made
right,
are
is
left
is
as its motive, for example, the impression blue for the right
Muscular
left.
reactions,
to
ment.
is
directed
this
entirely
towards the
voluntary inhibition or
external
execution of the
so
act,
sition
impossible.
On
it is
will, is
fades
reflex
and
movement.
finally the
This
is,
a tran-
easy by practice so to
perception
in this case
that
act in accordance
the
of
an im-
process of
movement becomes
reduction
of
volition
just
to a
14.
Volitional Processes.
201
shows
itself in
and
reaction,
acteristic
13 a.
familiar in experimental
psychology under the name of "reaction-experiments", are important for two reasons:
first,
processes,
On
of volitions.
This twofold
importance
volition;
to the interconnection
an appropriate transition
consequently,
dis-
is
to be the basis
of an
component psychical
exact and sufficiently fine
processes,
we must have
with
(reading
exactness
of all
first
to
toVt
arranged that
the
we can determine
stimulus acts
dhronometrie
^^'^)
apparatus
exactly
the
moment
so
at
which
reacts.
This
xrJW
^^^-i
^"^
motion,
of a simple
movement
moment
in
signals),
chical
or
acts
processes)
we may
(discriminations,
cognitions,
associations,
selective
H- Psychical Compoimds.
202
or
If,
we
now,
insert
further
psychical processes
(dis-
of
discrimination
short words)
movements
is
relatively
0.03
simple impressions
0.05";
left
0.4",
etc.
these figures
is
hand)
may
letters,
and
(right
(colors,
while at the
conditions
perimental
pleasure.
which are prescribed with exactness by means of exmethods and which may therefore be repeated at
INTERCONNECTION OF PSYCHICAL
COMPOUNDS.
III.
15.
1.
is
composed of a number
same moment. As a
simulta-
different
somewhat more
psychical
We
loosely.
compounds
call
this
to the
sum
marked
this
faint,
is
it
off as
is
interrupted, as deep
called an unconscious
"disturbances of consciousness"
how they
It
interconnection
that
refer merely
are
mean anything
which
of
consciousness.
interconnection
state;
state in
sleep
or
and we speak of
in
compounds themselves
Consciousness in this
connection of simultaneous
shows
itself in
experience
shovt^
sense,
no changes whatever.
as
a comprehensive inter-
first
processes,
204
-27.
But we have an
although
we may
it is
For
consciousness, etc.
we
that
all
is
of social
sciousness the
foundation
vrill first
it is
to this
2.
phenomena
conditions as psychical
to the
more
As
the substratum
for the
manifestations
men and
In the case of
it is,
particularly
to one another.
of
which
in general, for
which
all
in-
similar
and
fibres
consciousness.
of this
may be
elements
cortical
correlate
of
interconnection of
the
consciousness,
and the
psychical
processes
in
the
functions
of
differentiation
in
of
differentia-
in the
functions
The
always
merely relative; every psychical compound requires the cooperation of numerous elements and
When
definite
the
destruction
disturbances
sations, or
when
it
classes of
ideas,
it
of
in
movements,
or
produces
in
sen-
perfectly
is
central regions.
voluntary
interferes
many
justifiable
to
conclude that
15.
and
Conseiotisness
Attention.
205
The assumptions
ena,
faculties
of
made on
often
that there
is
the
in
the basis
brain
of these
phenom-
cells,
of these functions.
modem
revivals
The
localization
facts
known
of
most
that
as phrenology.
of certain psycho-physical
functions
in
the
cortex,
summed up
as follows:
1)
is
parietal lobe with the tactual surface, and a part of the temporal
lie
The
directly next to or
when
2)
which
are not directly connected with peripheral organs, but are inserted
The
only
certainty,
relation
is
to carry
fail
has
been
proved
with
(its
way
It is a,lso
left
temporal lobe
206
is
III-
time.
which
is
disturbed
(in
cortical
perhaps
disturbances of speech,
it
is
the
memory
and
association,
animals,
late.
human
it
is
such a region.
In the
large development.
It has
frontal brain
noticeable for
its
is
or
result
marked
in
to
inability
other intellectual
in
defects
this part of
concentrate the
which
possibly
are
and of
all
expression
a firmer
it
has
its
however,
(comp. p. 89).
at present.
It is to
is
sustained without
any apparent
may occur
without
probably due to the great complexity of the connections and to the various ways in which the
results.
This
therefore,
of course, employed
by the general
relation of psychical
is justified
is
classes of
is,
in
1,2
sciences,
and 22,
9).
the
other
from
15.
Gonscioitsness
mid
Attention.
207
The interconnection of psychical processes, which constitutes what we understand under the concept consciousness,
3.
is
The sum
moment
is
This
is
A present
either
still
relation
In
state
new
when a
These
the scope
pletely interrupted,
and
it
is
So we come
is
unconsciousness.
is
essentially
different
inter-
consciousness.
The
latter
The
This condition,
in consciousness
successive interconnection.
their places.
disappearance of elementary
Without
is
such an
Any
psychical
what makes up
this change,
consciousness,
is
to
be
208
connection
its
is,
psychical
of
we assume
the possibility
Our knowledge
processes.
of
an
components
future
of
with
coimected
the
to
others
of
as
before
therefore,
the
rise
which
are
for
disposition
psychical
processes
Assumptions
present.
"unconscious" or
the
of
state
For psychology,
renewal.
its
no meaning except
has
it
of
possibility
this
as
to
as
"unconscious
with the conscious processes of experience, are entirely unproductive for psychology.
There
of course, physical
are,
some can be
directly demonstrated,
experiences.
effects
which
As a
system.
we
observe a facil-
itation
To be
easier.
sure,
details in regard to
through
ourselves
processes,
resulting
4.
It
member
such,
very natural
for
example,
analogies
with mechanical
as the reduction
of
friction
was noted
in the case
of temporal ideas,
which
is
other.
that the
immediately
objects,
others.
certain
single
series of spacial
itself.
sharp
the
distinctness
which
15.
from
discrimination
connected
generally
is
with
209
other
objects,
The
clearness.
state
and
The
we
is
call attention.
we
clear comprehension
which
perception
this,
we
attention,
not
is
accompanied by a state
of
Those contents
of
apprehension.
designate
spoken
point,
concentrated are
is
of,
as
brought to
is
In contrast with
call apperception.
fixationr-point.
On
When
seiousness.
moment
is
or the
whole
the
irvriier
content
of
scious
state
useful,
These are
expressions
all figurative
They
literally.
are
If
we
we may say
first
is made up of a continual
compound
comes into the field
some
that
it
from which
it
returns to
of
others
into
compounds
is
also a
coming and
apprehended,
that
is,
clearness.
Wdnot, Psychology.
first
different
class
this
grades of
appears
14
in
210
To
is
illustrate: it
same impression
if
other
the
is
conditions
apperceptions
apprehended,
merely
may be
when
where
all
the components
instant,
when
easily
especially
Some seem
successive
then found,
is
different gradations.
still
most
observed
It
there are
the
usually clearer
are
that
first,
to rise
more
less.
The
Now,
as already
remarked
p. 155),
( 11,
in
any temporal
those components
of consciousness.
hand,
when
it
apperceived at once in
then
its
still
has
its
A spacial
entirely.
only
totahty.
limited extent,
If
it
is
dis-
on the
may be
more composite,
fixation-point
if
visual
idea,
impressions)
are peculiarly
(especially
momentary
temporal ideas
(for
hammer-strokes)
all
15.
may be used
for
21
simple
combinations,
and
of
The smaller
16 to 40
figures are
all to ideational
composite ideas.
6
is
a.
to use
spacial impressions
of sight,
for in
scope of attention
such cases it is
clearest
vision.
that
it
is
scope of attention.
before
experiment,
the
if it
number of
sense,
is
of the
properly arranged,
the observer
knows
that
greater
than
When,
of attention.
made up
is
of letters,
impression,
for example,
it
to
moment
the
are always separated from it by a noticeExperiments made in this way show that the scope
by no means a constant magnitude, but that, even
memory, which
able interval.
of attention
is
14*
212
III-
maximum
the impressions
character, such as
of
them
generally
are
When
are
apperceived
simultaneously,
under
or,
such
Six
of points.
five.
simple
impressions
under favorable
can,
be apperceived in the same instant. When the impressions are familiar but complex, even for vision, the number
of ideas decreases, while that of the single elements increases
conditions,
Thus, we
very markedly.
can
apperceive
two
even three
or
single letters.
false.
is
Then, too, these observations overthrow the assumption sometimes accepted, that the attention can sweep continuously and
with great rapidity over a great number of single ideas. In the
experiment described,
memory
clear consciousness
of objects
number
attempt
The
is,
is
made
to
fill
up
frcyn
required to
bring into
attention.
is
impression,
first;
the
if
first
movement
successive
accordingly,
number
made up of
of attention over a
a discontinuous process,
This discontinuity
made up
is
due to the
jfact
by a period
The period of maximal tension between the two,
may vary considerably in its duration. In the case of momentary
is
of a period
of increasing followed of
decreasing strain.
we
it
is
it is
longer.
But,
a periodic interruption,
This
may be
15.
213
we
too,
we
But
here,
If
when
the attention
other stimuli,
all
concentrated upon
it
next moment.
will be observed
or
again the
it
irregular,
distinct,
is
only to appear
when
the
im-
pressions are
easily demonstrated
stimulus
is
tially
as the impression
an idea of
its
components
which
were
indefinite
not
apperceived.
Secondly,
the
sensations
jective.
activity,
tion
its
relaxation.
more
fully
later.
The
sensations
distinguish the concepts of the clearness and distinctness of psychical contents from that of the intensity of their sensational
elements.
clear.
cepts
The
is
to
strong impression
may be
be found in the
fact
that in general
the stronger
m.
214
with
we
voluntarily
eccentric
may be broken
our
concentrate
regions
of the field
experiments
But, in the
up.
attention
of vision.
can be shown
it
on
point
the
in
is
In this
sciousness.
case
we
start
when they
are all
moment.
we
If
listen to a series of
preceding
it
are
still
is
hammer-strokes,
it
is
obvious
those immediately
apperceived,
Their clearness
we
shall
As
in the experiment.
we
to
that
is,
when
is
a part
is
absolutely impossible
when
the
its
is
reached.
If,
then,
we
present
by a
15.
215
of the
of the expectation.
two successive
time
order
in
quired
that they
may
but what
compared;
be
is
re-
is
The
unitary idea.
in a single
scope
follows that
It
series to
of consciousness
boundary of the
relatively fixed
shown
clearly
is
in
the
that
fact
the
When
of succession
the rate
4", it
special
objective conditions,
impressions
can
be just
impressions
stroke
and
maximum
at once.
is
grasped
together.
The
best
measure
the
medium
accent
on
the
fifth.
In this
first
case
temporal
impressions
pressions,
we
equal
to
the
corresponding
is
compound
spacial
im-
about four
216
7.
of
and
clearness
distinctness
affective
sensations
of
somewhat
variable
Especially
character.
the
eiiter
may
rises
are
what
selves
first
become
is
noticeable.
They begin
before anything
is
mind which we
them-
to force
consciousness
of
This
earher processes.
When
take place.
is
new
This
or revivals of
states of
predominantly states
of
strained expectation.
In
this
last
by feehngs of
recall
state
relief or satisfaction.
is
When we
accompanied
are trying to
may
arise.
Often there
is
vividly
present in such a
tone of
the
forgotten
although the
idea,
idea
ideas
in
acts
of
preceded by special
( 16),
still
In a similar
and recognition
is
always
may be
cognition
feelings.
itself
of a
15.
217
partly
own
in its
some influence on
sciousness has
attention.
partly in
coloring,
affective
of con-
shows
It
All
this
the feelings
The whole
effect of
these
obscure
fuses,
contents
components
tive
(p.
on the
consciousness
of
159),
attention
attending
the
When
8.
new and
consciousness,
the fixation-point of
The
conditions
are of two classes, and are interconnected for the most part
new content
the
forces
on the attention
itself
we
ness
is
elements, there
first of all
is
which
receptivity,
is
rapid
its
gives place to
rise.
in its ideational
this
of conscious-
and
affective
depressing
more
feehng,
and generally
This
feeling
soon
an antagonistic, exciting
sinks
feeling
and then
of
activity.
of receptivity
of relaxation,
is
The
feeling
strain.
Secondly, the
new content
is
m-
218
affective influences
attention
we
is
mentioned above
concentrated upon
the content
is
it
even before
to
its
result the
arrives; this
of
This feehng
may
at the
also
it
may
and as a
(7),
ideational
generally
of excitement;
it
factors, according
This feeUng of
elements.
is
expectation
is
short and
the
moment
is
generally very
Under circumstances
it
may
pleasurable or unpleasurable.
we have
At
be depressing or exciting,
also
After
this
the
feehng of fulfillment
and
different
forms of
apperception can be carried out best with the aid of the reaction-
11 sq.
Passive apperception
may
more
it
is
15.
At
it
is
219
we may
itself upon
case
forces
Li the
rise
act of apperception.
The
act
is
all volitional
acts.
upon the
performed
is
when
it
finally
or
contents
The
existence of
was spoken
litional acts,
it
by
its
namely,
of.
But here
is
only
Then,
sometimes
refer to
difference
the
is
same
class
of
is
psychical processes.
The only
have no external
effects
internal
except indirectly
acts,
that
is,
to
other processes.
10.
we
volitional acts,
which
a formation
220
III-
development.
This
the
is
of
objects
out in
its
still it
has
Even
logical
its
of'
scientific reflection,
in
components
independent
realities
as
is
a division between
this experience.
mentioned above
(p.
131),
mode
is,
when we attend
to
or,
something
is
On
with
it
we saw
tents, as
in 12
These
latter con-
Feelings are parts of emotions and emotions are to be considered as components of voliUonal processes.
may end
before
it
is
The^ process
be
ingly,
p^vcess.
This
is
general
more complex
IVom
this
voliUonal
concept
character.
it
is
and
express, in the
same way,
and
finally,
volitional process
itself.
The
direction of volition
is
obviously
of
15.
feelings,
expression
it.
the arousing
in
some
sort of effort to
The energy of
volition finds
and subduing
directions
of
and
relaxation.
11.
which
to
221
all
made up
we have a
of a volitional act,
which
arise
found
is
the characteristics
all
which
of feelings.
of experience
of sensations.
Now,
As
in their components.
is
most intimately
and then
volition,
is
carried over to
as
will,
all
all
conscious contents
mentioned above.
This
called.
Like
sensations
is
all feelings,
and
however,
The
ideas.
It
are the
separates
it
is
often
common
off
affective
sensations
from the
totality
of consciousness
is
own body.
It
it is
it
no more a
made
up,
reality,
than
is
is
and fuses
called self-consciousness.
but merely
can never
This
222
-27.
shows
itself
most of
distinct
is
all
from
it
and that
12.
and
of subject
to
be
sure,
objects.
by the
consequence
of
this
meanings of
different times
the subject
is
is
separation.
accordingly as a result of
different
among
characteristic differences
its
The concept
it
different scope,
has
each of which
In
its
may
at
narrowest sense
way.
sidyeet
sense
for,
the original
Finally,
in
its
widest
significance
it
embraces
their
the
is,
common
is
is
sensations.
In the
continually giving
it
line of
way
is,
then,
or
less closely.
12
a.
this discrimination
the second together in a general concept
is the basis of all the considerations responsible for the dualism
15.
Consciotisness
and
Attention.
223
world were a fact preceding all experience and that the concepts
subject and objects could be unequivocally distinguished once
for
But
all.
which
are,
it
neither of these
is
fulfilled.
is
therefore,
lutely
conditions
Self-con-
sciousness
different
contents
of
experience,
The interconnection
13.
up consciousness,
necessarily has
its
makes
moment and
one has
its
individual coloring,
case.
which
Still,
is
These
;
each
by the attention
in
the passive
same.
As
short
names
we use
the term
is
active.
to indicate
224
III'
ASSOCIATIONS.
16.
The concept
1.
development of psychology,
a necessary
To be
change in meaning.
sure,
and the
accepted everywhere,
modem
this
original
meaning
is
still
re-
tained,
especially
to-day,
psychology grew up
is
predominantly
p.
( 2,
13
sq.).
intellectualistic,
Hartley and
Hume,
two founders
the
of
association-psy-
could
same character
(p.
13,
8).
as
objects,
or
at
least
as
processes
This led
to
the
view
that
association
first
was a
Furthermore,
of ideas.
it
account for the rise of composite ideas with the aid of psychological analysis,
since
it
sufficient
to
was Hmited
For the
[1)
corresponds to the
as here used
Tr.]
by
association
and
similarity
and
simultaneity
16. Associations.
225
contrast,
and
by
association
succession.
sought
associations".
of
to
reduce
the niimber
Contrast
these laws.
of
generally
is
regarded as a special form of similarity, for only those contrasted concepts are associated which belong
general class
and
associations
as
by
Some
similarity.
Contiguity
then regarded
is
psychologists believe
still
it
possible to reduce
association"
what
of similarity, or,
larity as a result of
association
special
of
form
generally
is
the same
to
brought
under
the
more
general
upon us
tally.
the
we begin
as soon as
The
of
first
psychological
posite ideas,
for this
kind of theorizing
these
analysis
facts
of
ia
irresistibly
is
the
general
sense-perceptions,
result
of
that com-
irre-
processes.
It
strict sense of
is
The second
of memory-
a renewal in
in
associations.
an act of memory
is
all,
its
unchanged form of an
earlier
the rise of a
new idea
in consciousness,
it is
referred,
and
226
III-
from the
It follows
processes
of
first fact
association
of ideas
name
the
The second
generally limited.
is
fact
These conclusions
of excluding
the elementary
Then,
association.
too, there is
The
etc.,
shows, on
combinations, which
may
in
as
we saw
The
intimate
sq.).
of
all
the observation
made on
of conscious processes,
the general
that
it
is
mode
of the occurrence
and
in
association
shows
(p.
203).
is
significance, only
when
itself in
is
way
to subject its
The
complex
ordinarily so-called
and the
In contrast
16. Associations.
227
compounds
and to which
arise
yve
(p.
94, sq.).
Por
it
will
association
contrast
in
with fusion,
we
pounds.
224),
psychical
for
it
refers
compounds
it
is
had
give
the term
one respect an
in
older psychology
in
It
differs
from the
mentary processes.
when we are
we
Secondly,
or,
recognize,
just as
in the
In
fact,
A.
4.
different
classes:
ments
SIMULTANEOUS ASSOCIATIONS.
psychical
compounds
into assimilations,
of like
may be
divided
into
two
place,
between those compounds only which are themselves simultaneous combinations, that
ideas
is,
15*
228
III-
Assimilations.
a.
5.
met
inually
with,
spacial ideas.
of
It
especially
is
an
in the
case
is
of intensive
con-
and
essential
we have
at the
ideational elements.
It
is
clearly
of the
demonstrable when
to earlier ideas.
of
the
itself,
earlier
ideas.
more importance
are, so that
may be
in
when
sense, the
of the visual
change.
6.
Among
intensive
compounds
it is
most
striking examples
Of
They
all
is
continually accompanied by
the sound-impression
by
is
incomplete,
earlier impressions,
so that
but
it
is
we do not
16. Associations.
So
it
'
229
is,
is
ease with which any sound whateyer, as, for example, the cry
of an animal, the noise of water, wind, machinery,
he made to sound
7.
In the case
like
words almost at
of intensive feelings
can
etc.,
will.
we note
the presence
very
feeling,
is
and only
simultaneous.
effect
usually at
is,
first
so long
The
as this
on the contrary, a
true
the assimilation
is
is
when we have
For
this
reason
it is
to the
hardly
clang-impressions or color-impressions
is
As
and what
is
affective influence
upon
is
to
and an
be looked
associative
comprehensive character.
sphere of touch
when
It
vision
is
is
is
(p.
159).
of the
most
on account of the
in
it
is
the
space which
is
230
III-
The
alphabet.
when
cases
arise in
presence
is
easily betrayed
by the
illusions
which may
we touch
The explanation
balls.
is
In
obvious.
balls,
9.
Here they
In
Thus,
the correlation that exists between the ideas of the distance and
magnitude of
in
zenith, is to
moon on
be explained as an
the horizon
and
effect of assimilation.
at the
The
most evident
in the case of
is
all,
The elements
that are
16. Associations.
position
linear
231
eye.
a hollow prism,
according
as
is
we
fixate in
one of the
when
when
lines, starting
movement
the
end of the
line
the assimilation
is
same
moved along
appears in intaglio
from the
direction,
In these and
it
in the opposite
is
lines in the
the fixation-point
a hoUow
solid or to
by three
all like
its
cases
movement
In other
and
20)
secondarily
ideas
certain
of
and
distance,
not in-
these
Thus, to
an interrupted
illustrate,
125); as a result
we tend to project
Here both lines
latter.
the
first to
a greater
perceived
as
because
different,
of
is
effected
when one
by means
of two hues
when one
straight line
is
is
it
the
An
motor
different
elimination of this
whose
more
distant object.
Again,
by
rise,
when the
line
is
long,
(p. 125).
to
an
Here
too the contradiction between the course of the line and the
232
I,
III-
often elim-
is
inated
only
as
the
assimilative
effect
of
ideas
earlier
of
corre-
sponding character.
In none
10.
is
it
possible
to
the
new
must
Generally this
impression.
of ideas, differing in
many
is
impossible because
influence to a large
which intersects a
we
number
Thus,
vertical at
an
of the
hne with
its
accompanying increase
of the
But
these cases
all
attending circumstances.
the length
We
and other
ideas,
are operative.
new impression
-
We
may
in
gain
oMer
to affect consciousness.
some notion
of the
way
in
which
this
effect is
example,
ments
in
the
visual
sensations
ideas.
of
ocular
Obviously
it
position
is
these
eleas,
and moveimmediate
mass
of ideational elements
that of the
pression.
At
rest, of
ihe.
into,
same time
it
elements
memory -images
our
of
and therefore
16. Associations.
233
are
relatively
indefinite
variable,
may
immediate impression
vary
under
special
conditions
chiefly
of preeminent impor-
as, for
and movement
in visual ideas.
These
sponding to themselves.
assimilative
effect
elements.
exercise an
like
For
this
an
as
immediate,
unitary
idea.
made up
that
is,
The
two
apperceived
is
distinguishing
accordingly,
that
1)
it is
components
modify one
another
2) that
the united
ilations.
11.
main
On
this
differences
basis
difficulty the
factors necessary
to such
ordinary
sense-perceptions
the
direct
In
entirely
absent
and
assimilative effect
through
of
the
direct
elements
is
hindered
234
III-
cases where
all
so great that
we
on closer examination,
call
it
is
apparent
assimilation an illusion.
The
makes
universality of assimilation
it
way
mediately modified by
elements.
demonstration.
of
is
interaction
its
in such a case
Still,
we
with
mind
is
im-
memory-
other
in the
In
and
movement.
ComplieaUons.
b.
12.
Complications,
the
or
combinations
between unlike
psychical compounds, are no less regular components of consciousness than are assimilations.
Just as there
is
hardly an
way through
modified in some
the processes
these compounds
is
In
all cases,
of
which
it
not
reciprocal
at the
so
is
other,
compounds
may
that
looser,
is
however regular
direct
it
be, so
there
^S
appear unitary
between
16. Assoeiatiotis.
of the
in spite
components.
its
S^g
recognized difference
easily
This cause
the predominance of
is
one of the compounds, which pushes the other components into the obscurer field of consciousness.
If the complication unites a direct impression with
ory-elements
with
its
ponent,
assimilations
speak,
the
com-
sometimes
have
affective
tone.
their
word-ideas
auditory
the
predominant
elements
through
only
influence
when we
regularly
is
mem-
character,
reproduced
the
while
a noticeable
Thus,
disparate
of
are
the
sensations
and reproductions
of
hand, the visual images come to the front while the rest
become weaker.
In general
of a complication
may be
it
is
predominant
This
idea.
is
due to the
their
tones
affective
(p.
216).
characteristic impression of a
or a gun,
arises
effect
for
example,
the
from a complication
of visual
and tactual
B.
13.
excite.
SUCCESSIVE ASSOCIATIONS.
Successive association
differs essentially
ciation,
is
assimilation
only
and complication.
of simultaneous assoIt
is,
on the contrary,
and
differs
only in
^-
236
two
The
acts.
first
may
of
so
far as immediate
a single instantaneous
act,
the reprodticed
introduced
Here
elements.
by an external
too,
the
first
sense-impression,
act
is
which
often
is
Other
as
re-
as,
later.
and
In
and do not
this
distinct
way we
from the
flrst,
differing
essentially the
formed
is
limited to
two
or complications.
ilations
successive ideational or
manner
New
member
affective
sense-impressions
may
or
of the association.
Less frequently
may be
Still,
especially
when
associa-
ceptional conditions,
called
flrst
division of an assimilation or
process,
some
as,
that
serial associations,
16. Associations.
237
with more than two
associations
is,
Such
4 a.
under the
apperceptiTe
when
conditions of experimentation,
made
purposely
is
may
associations
serial
artificial
suppress
to
combinations.
new
the effort
and
impressions
sensible
resulting
in
such
until
first,
new
sense-im-
new
tions
"flight of ideas"
The way
15.
made up
and
Sensible Recognition
in
of two
Cognition.
may be most
is
and
cognition.
indicate,
cess
The
to these
is
centres.
partial processes,
sensible recognition
generally
of the insane
clearly ob-
and complications
associative processes,
first
member
and,
sense-impression,
of
qualification "sensible"
to
of the pro-
on the other, to
The
of recognition
is
that
time.
first,
or
if
the
first
exciting,
taneous assimilation.
lations,
perception,
is
Such a
feeling
is
never present
238
III-
of those
therefore,
is,
The psychological
between
It
feelings
difference
this
in
arise
the
obscure
regions
of
some
consciousness
assimilation.
is
new
certain elements
case,
may be
they
for example
object,
how
it is
the proper
that the
names
and
or,
of
this is
complications
of the earlier
that
This influence
name
of a visual
of persons,
and often
great
helps
in
the
To
recognition.
serve
as
such helps,
When we
nition of the
man
5 a.
con-
may be demonstrated
take a number of disks that are alike in
experimentally.
all
in
If
we
them
this
is
no longer possible.
very natural
names, white, light grey, grey, dark grey and black. This view
is confirmed by the fact that by purposely using a larger number
of names
more shades
(even as
many
as nine)
are recognized.
In
16. Associations.
is
As
not necessarily
name
a rule the
proper
is
16.
may
for
so,
tlie
passed.
also
ditions are
taneous
is
expecially
239
a succcessive association.
to
If a certain interval
in
consciousness,
the
familiarity,
the perception
can
produce
distinct
feeling
and the
The
recognition.
first
is
of
into
connected
while in
more
accordingly,
The
division
is,
between the
earher impression and the new one. In such a case, not only
is
perception
ceptive processes,
of voluntary attention
As
come
to the aid
apper-
an
object, not
through
This
its
own
when a person
is
it,
as,
for example,
Be-
no
teristics that
still
itself,
And
yet, as
we should
m-
240
appears
generally
in
most
its
form
evident
in
mediate
recognitions.
17.
is
and those
ciations,
of assimilations
processes,
of
is
in
still
more
clearly marked.
to the successive
therefore,
more
as
like the
familiarity
is
generally but
jects.
The
is
easier and,
much
little
less
of
of
individual identity
also
is
feeling
intense.
logical distinction
the
of the
is
the subsumption of
there
Still,
is
an
no real logical
is
of
relating
is
definitely large
number
various
particular properties,
impression in
the
perception
of
to
of objects.
objects
question
to
an
in-
so
of
mere
more
its
psy-
it
16. Associations.
241
and recognition
decrease and
that
disappear entirely,
finally
so
all.
The process
the assimilation
the single
has become
in question
object
characteristics.
successive
when
is
or because
may become
of a cognition
when we
Just in proportion
we have a
of the different conditions for the rise of the two, differs from
it,
b.
18.
Memory-processes.
Essentially different
is
perception unite
when
new
to
form
The
or even
there
is
is
perceived
is
is
a memory-
a memory-idea, or
memory-imMge.
18
a.
psychology generally
ciation.
concept asso-
An
understanding
16
m.
242
the
first,
and
it
is
A knowledge
to be observed in memory-processes.
of these
more
however, only through a study starting with the simpler associative processes, for the ordinary simultaneous assimilations and simultaneous and successive recognitions
complex processes
is possible,
present themselves very naturally as the antecedents of memoryassociations. But even simultaneous recognition itself is nothing but
an assimilation accompanied by a feeling which comes from the unassimilated ideational elements obscurely present in consciousness.
so
form of successive
association.
The impression
is
at first assimi-
ideational
affective
the
case
elements
is
and
With memory-associations
first
are
essentially
earlier
im-
of certain of their
19.
may
The general
exhibit shades
and
differences
of the memory-processes
kinds
of
ordinary
may
assimilation
arise
that
from the
we become
16. Associations.
243
(15, 17),
and
familiar in
is
its
also
of
a subject that
general class-characteristics.
its
earlier perception.
is
hindered by ele-
but to circumstances
itself,
may be
is
relatively clear
and
distinct
we have
first
this
way
and
is
recognized,
and
In
at the
same time
definite
spacial
and temporal
The memory-process is
especially
predominant in those cases where the element of the new impression that gave rise to the assimilation
is
entirely suppressed
may
Such
or "mediate associations".
we
are,
Still,
sitting
in
his
room
at evening,
the case
suddenly re-
is
clearly recognized,
which
obviously
16*
244
background of consciousness by
The not infrequent .experience, commonly known as the "spontaneous rise" of ideas, in which a
memory-image suddenly appears in our mind without any assignable
puslied
are
the
into
obscure
cause,
is
associations.
Memory- processes
20.
that
from
develop
recognitions
the
class,
greater,
own
range
possible
of
in
associations
is
shall
on the
single
and
especiajlly
momentary mood
When
calculate beforehand
as the
does on
it
of consciousness
it is
its
incomparably
act of
memory
is
it is
impossible to
will be.
ended, however,
As soon
the traces of
its
we
circumstances.
all
to be forgotten
that
every
concrete
is
is
memory-process
made up
of a large
these
is
elementary processes
is
by
number
it is
simple ante-
its
never
portant
it is
the
assimilative
interaction between
16. Associations.
245
Connected with
this there
are two other processes that are characteristic for memoryprocesses: one
is
elements
and giving
rise to
a psychical
its
perience
itself
through a characteristic
but
is
in
its
referred
especially
complications.
shows
is
is
related
feeling,
the
to the feehng of
memory-image.
If
we
memory-processes and
we
In general the
first
class
is
predominant when
an ordinary assimilation and recogwhile the second appears more prominently the more
the process
nition,
shall find
contiguity.
all
is
more
like
memory
in character, that
is,
which makes
succession
and
existence,
and
of cause
the
and end,
various kinds
of temporal
of spacial connection, find only inadequate expression in the very
246
general concepts
and "contiguity".
"similarity"
is
studied, every
When, on the
memory-process
may
be called
partly associations
The
assimilations
which serve to bring about the reference to a particular earlier experience at its close, may be called associations by similarity. But
the term "similarity" is not exactly suitable even here, because it is
identical elementary processes that give rise to the assimilation, and
when such an identity does not exist, it is always produced by the
In
reciprocal assimilation.
similarity"
fact,
concept of "association by
the
is
when once
to psychical
the same.
ideas.
When
to
combinations
processes
of assimilation
through
identity
or
made up
of elementary
The
contiguity.
association
form
of
combination between
elements
those
that
hinder
the
22.
The character
memory-ideas
of
is
intimately connected
of these ideas
it
not
only
emphatically
in
their
as far out
Memory-images and
ideas "differ
is
in
quality
elementary
and
The
de-
faithful,
of the
way
direct sensible
intensity,
composition.
but most
may
much as
"We
we
but so long as
like,
16. Associations.
it is
247
perceptible at all
of
pleteness
its
sensational
of bis face
wbat I bave
cbaracteristic
elements.
Por
duced
Tbe incom-
wben I look
in consciousness
an essen-
it is
tially different
of
directly at bim,
all in
tbe repro-
ideas.
little
increased
number even wben tbe attention is intentionally concentrated upon the task, are a series of combinations through
contiguity and of compUcations, such as the environments in
which I saw my acquaintance, his name, finally and more
in
meeting.
tiveness of these
more
and tones
is
seem to bave
of these
we
also
bave,
These various
to
name
of the nose
"memory/".
still,
it is
in place
and taste-organs.
all
included under
(p. 11),
cesses of recognition
tbe
Some
mucb
exceedingly different.
distinct
motor sensations
effec-
distinct-
force, as faculty-psychology
assumed
of a faithful, comprehensive,
^-
248
spacial, temporal,
These expressions
etc.
The
to,
is
phenomenon.
Both
are
of special
im-
One
most
and
striking
symptoms
pathological cases,
It generally appears
as
of failing
is
memory,
in
of the
both normal
first
nary environments,
later
still
abstract
and
words,
finally
This suc-
abstract in character.
and
least
17.
1.
APPERCEPTIVE COMBINATIONS.
Associations in aU their
4-elated processes of
com-
of
volition
and
which
is
characteristic
attention, never
appears
except in
(cf.
p. 217).
Asso-
249
volitions.
This
The
case
is
combinations that
compounds and
formed between
are
second kind of
different
psychical
accompanying variable
it
precedes them
immediatdy recognized
as formed with the aid of the attention. In this sense they are
called active experiences.
2.
thinking,
These are
etc.
all
reflection,
still,
another.
they are
Especially
all
is
imagination,
or pure memory-pro-
this true
of the
so-called
functions
its
at the
same time
to successive association.
effected either
association,
by neglecting the
jective distinguishing
marks
(p.
224),
and ob-
of apperceptive combinations, or
by
popular psychology.
Very often
this
250
-H^-
an absolute indepen-
Of
latter.
true.
as
of
much
Yet, just as
that appear
of
spite
in memory-processes
as relatively
If
we
try to
we may
divide
the
and
apperceptive combiuations,
first
of
all
of relating
and
of synthesis
analysis.
A.
and Compaiing.)
4.
is
associations,
is
itself
inseparably
related,
though indeed
when we
are conscious
of
a relating apperceptive
activity
connected
is
in
both
with the
associations.
So long
process of relating
is
is
added to
new impression
When, on the
association,
either immediately
feehng
this
251
contrary,
is
apper-
suppHed with
The earlier perand the new impression are separated in time and
then brought into a relation of identity on the basis of their
ception
The
essential attributes.
case
when we
similar
is
are con-
which gave
it,
This, again,
is
a process that
is
made
are
is
This function
thg-t
Every act
functions.
of relating
a comparison
is,
of the contents
is
that in
many
in turn,
is
difference
completely subordinated
We
first case,
call it
and
of a process
relating
of
when I think
comof a
it
comparing,
event.
connected
'
m.
252
and
on the
of differences
other.
still
finds
and compounds
The two
is
Of
course, there
must
selves,
we could not
perceive them;
by which we perceive,
activity
the comparing
still
different
is
7.
and
differences
which contains
Then,
intensity.
possible
is
and that
possible:
ness
when
attention
is
paid to the
parison
is
in respect to
too,
way
which
in
it is
a psychical qimntity.
stitutes
of such
a quantity
is
possible
only through
its
comparison
Quantity
is,
and compound.
It
extensive (spacial
and temporal)
states
of
is
value, and,
when
the different
clearness.
But
the
ment
acts
because
the fact
that
comparison
its
objects
the
latter
separated
may be
carried
out in
almost indefinitely in
time,
For example,
we can determine
253
and
after
if
we
Psychical
objects,
compare two such psychical quantities only under the condition that they are presented in
condition has as
its
immediate succession.
immediate corollaries:
first,
This
that there
is
no absolute standard for the comparison of psychical quanbut every such comparison stands by
tities,
itself
and
is
of the
same dimension,
so
such as periods
forces,
are reduced
spacial
to
of time
quantities
of
and
one
9.
by
direct comparison,
but
this
and
2) the
as,
same dimension.
sensational inten-
As
which
two psy-
to the
1)
immediate comparison we
have
3)
of the
the equality
same system.
It
is
obvious
that
in each
of
these
ments and of
differences, are
In the
254
first case
is
and then
first
it
and
changed until
is
are taken
case
third
it
appears
equal at
just
either
the
and
with A.
Finally,
is
whole Mne of psychical quantities, as, for example, of sensational intensities, extending
upper
limit,
is
so divided
from
as a lower to
as
an
AB
is
apperceived as equal to
The most
BC.
and most
easily utihzable
results
by the
10.
direct
The
called.
it is
difference
The
called the
is
example, a sensation,
Observation
stimulus-threshold.
shows
that
is
the
called the
difference-
stimulus,
constant.
is
be
for example,
must be increased
-J-
increased
This law
It
If,
is
-|,
is
one
3, f,
etc.,
order that
the sensation
is
apperceptive comparison.
From
obviously be interpreted to
mean
compared according
may
2 must be
easily
remains
this
it
H.Weber.
as a law of
point of view
it
must
law of
the psychical
is
an expression
of psychical
relaUvity
the
quantities
255
of the general
assumes that
quantities.,
themselves in-
on account of the
physiological side,
Still,
we have
evidence
it
special cases,
naturally to
tity,
its
and sense-organs.
lation of nerves
in favor of
difficulties of
on
threshold,
is
found to be constant.
case,
Then,
differences in pitch.
differences
third
in
sensations
are
differences,
too,
in
many
compared
(p.
according
to
the
under
different conditions:
its
a principle of relative
special conditions
10 a.
of
first
all,
for the
and then, within certain limits, for the comparison of ea;fensie compounds, especially temporal ideas, also, to
some extent, for spacial ideas of sight and for motor ideas. On
intensity of sensations
it
105); and
fact,
it
qualities.
In
of tonal intervals
is
Still,
the scale
m.
256
certain ratio
octave
1:2, a
relationship
fundamental
tone
to
is
overtones
its
unit,
that
the possibility of
is,
the
of
form,
recognition
This
differences.
equality
the
of
in
is
absolute
of equal
is
253),
(p.
lines
AB
BG
In such a case
extreme sensation.
equal
pare
when
AB
difference
B
-;
and
G
(Leber's law)
BG
according to
between
and
we judge
On
B= B A
BG
and
their
in the single
AB
(law of proportionality).
sensational
B and
that
J.,
to be
we eomwhen
the
dimension
is,
when
between sensation and stimulus, and it has been assumed that the
law holds for infinitely small changes on both sides. On this
basis there has been given to
logarithmic
function:
it
sensation
the
increases
in
proportion
the
to
it
is
possible
relations
direct
mode
quantities
follow
to
mentioned
as
of procedure
and 5,
as,
one
of
favorable
is
as
two
for
follows:
for example, A,
is
courses
in
judgment.
one
of
the
finding
first
or
two psychical
is'
is,
-until it
either equals
is
Among
etc.
257
we have
these
the
and then as a kind of modification of this for the case of adjustment until equality is reached, the "method of average error".
A^
methods.
difference).
met
may
The
first
the law
body and
as
mind".
a specific law of
The physiological
and
ideas,
spacial
interpretation
must be
11.
is
for example,
inapplicable.
entirely
"interaction between
special cases
in the
class
The phenomena
in the
entirely
The psycho-physical
(cf.
or,
when
22,
8).
of apperceptive
up
is
for temporal
rejected
As
as,
the
interpretation
com-
we have
relatively greatest
the
serir-
class-name contrasts.
is
258
-2?.
"We may
distinguish these
contrasts.
phenomena
the
(p.
68
related.
and psychological
as physiological
of after-images,
Psychological contrasts
sq.).
They
are
when
the brightness
intense.
medium
more
by two important
stages,
but when
greatest,
most sen-
is
Secondly, they
of
laid
by a
close
aU
is
contrasts to
Thus, for
comparisons.
is
nearly white,
black.
Now
after-images
and
is
small,
If,
that
so
is
nearly
weak when
it
may be
a psychological
which
is
also
same grey
exactly the
way
that
removed
it
as the
two squares,
held in such a
is
much
color.
But
diminished.
If in this
plementary
is
can be made to
I?
n.
Apperceptive Combmations.
259
12.
They
favorable.
and may
feelings
of
spacial
relatively
are
also
and temporal
most
free,
especially
for
in the case of
Sensations
ideas.
pitch
of
are
contrast.
marked
arise
In the case of
the effect
feelings
overcome
this tends to
of contrast
is
as,
after expectation.
The
for
a feeling of fulfilment
example,
is
is
interval.
it
appears
figures in such a
way
that
it is
that expected,
as
to lift
it
proves to be lighter, or
are
made
from a
260
The
is
The varying
contrast.
The famihar
to be the lightest.
association that
is
the
sation.
B.
(Synthesis
14.
When
are repeated
and combined
As
several times,
and analysis
Analysis.)
Synthesis
arise.
of
comparing
of
It differs
associations.
apper-
activity.
from the
is
based
latter in
As a
sense-perceptions
and
associations, but in
all
The
ideational elements
of
a compound
thus resulting
elements
is
peculiar,
that
and
markedly
different
from the
and each
components
and
of imagination.
may
vary more
less,
rise to
elements
261
it,
association,
it
is
essential
mark
a voluntary synthesis than in the negative fact that the combination does not correspond in character to any particular
sense-perception.
most
and those
sational
more
and
of
memory.
elements
of
like those of
distinctness,
This
is
easily
an immediate sense-perception
and generally
explained
in completeness
in clearness
and
intensity.
of fixed
is
is
possible only
is,
when
duced by the
fications in
will.
them or a mixing
All our memories are therefore made up of "fancy and truth" i).
influence
of our
1)
feelings
262
From
15.
The one
is
known
in
The two
are
by no means
different, as
Their
of all
and condition
all their
motive
is
the
This
ly
is
from
the earlier form of apperceptive analysis and rises directassociations. It begins with a
aggregate idea
made up
of a variety of ideational
and thus
to
is
rise
a new syn-
partially modified or
idea.
It may, however, in
a representation
successions
in thought
of external
stage of development
is
of imaginary
phenomena.
The
situations
second,
or
of
or active,
17. Apperceptive
of some end,
Combmations.
263
partly
inhibitory,
to
once formed,
is
more
is
are
the
Even
the
synthesis of
first
An aggregate idea,
systematic.
when
with
selective,
partly
of volun-
and a strong
its parts.
Yery often
process of analysis
is
again applied.
In
to which
this
the
way the
same
principle
Still,
The pro-
there are, in
between
directed
16.
by
which
arises
which
imagination,
or
that
fixed ends.
In contrast with
or of such as
the
passive
may
this
be thought of as
content of the
real,
apperceptive functions
which constitutes
we include
that
^understanding'"
differences
and
is
the perception
of agreements
and
and combined
to
a unitary whole.
is
The
analysis
turned by
its
that takes
fundamental
in a
components stand
to each other
through comparison.
As
made
264
III.
As
a result of
its
and comparing
relating
when
more
it
strict application of
even in
its
external form,
The
highly developed.
is
the elementary
especially
holds in
principle that
ing
this principle
relation to a succeed-
activity of understanding,
is
expressed
according
subject
this
way
These secondary
noun and
two
attributive, verb
the process of
and
object, verb
and adverb.
In
in a
judgment.
it
are divided
judgment
it
is
of
Ideas that
of
by judgment
The
into
original aggregate
their
reciprocally
The
is
ideas which
same whole,
in
some one
of those relations
that
If
we
call the
is
Concepts found in
a division of
is
is
These
and
attributes,
way
this
are
classes
of the analyses
Judgment, as a
states.
thought into
this
265
division
its
of the ag-
attributes or states,
Since a single
but
is
itself,
and variableness
tially
by
increased
exist in
This indefiniteness
of the former.
that
fact
the
a single
is
essen-
concept
may
components
characters.
of
many
ideas
that
in
differ
constitute,
may form
concrete
their
on account of
concepts;
of all
and they
It
to choose a single
At
is
merely a representative.
may be
tations
of
the
make them
concept,
we have
which have
it
memory images. As
is
evidence
very intense so
266
-H?.
when a
chosen as
particular individual
differs entirely in
portance
and that
condition
this
aids
universal
as
is
thought.
to
content
Wordr-ideas
its
it
so
is
their im-
These
aids
are
we must
leave to
social
From
all
has
that
been said
it
activities of
different,
festations,
and based
at
bottom
What was
true
of the
also
of the concepts
up
phenomena made
Just as
memory
not of a
is
They have a
classification of
ity of various
thus found
tions
may
for iutellectual
in turn contain
for the
we have
activity.
understanding,
Each
class
means
persons
and shades.
in grade,
as ready
the
inductive
first
and
their
combinations,
the second
18. Psychical
267
Sf,ates.
A person's talent
is
resulting
his imagination
and understanding.
The normal
1.
PSYCHICAL STATES.
18.
of
state
consciousness
may
more important
to discuss
them
in detail.
Then,
which
and
diseases,
branches of pathology
upon
it.
less
dependent
to indicate the
is
main
We
may
what has
in
They may
ditions.
consciousness
consist
I)
and
3) in
in consciousness.
the
As
way
in the
way
of
their
such con-
psychical
it
kinds
three
is
may appear
in the
most
this
The
as result from
some disturbance in
For
may be reduced
to
268
an increase or decrease of
tlie
(hyper-
tlie
action
is
case
in this
is
The
the
common com-
In similar fashion,
depression
affective excitabiUty.
as a
These
decrease
or increase
different states
may he
volitional processes
occur.
strated
only
The
3.
or
eral
in the
recognized
defects in ideational
central
anaesthesia
compounds
are
portance.
It
effect
is
arising
generally
on the
of
from periphlimited
im-
on the inter-
essentially different
The
result
may be
a sense-perception.
This
ments
which
united
are
stimulation,
may be
partly from
an hallucination.
is
are
partly
is
objectified as
Or,
when
ele-
essentially modified
is
The expression
illusions is to
and at the
zenith.
18. Psychioal
The two
269
States.
In many
cases, to
fancy,
the
presence
so easy to overlook
it is
In
sensational elements.
pure hallucinations
of
fact, it is
almost
is
some
direct
by no means improbable
These
illusions
assimilations
but
in
assimilations
(p.
228
sq.).
as
fancy are
so
for the
closely related
to
In the case
of
illusions of
complex
affective
(5).
and
volitional pi'ocesses
depression
emotions,
is
from
the
state
of
that of exaltation to
a predominance of exciting,
we
The
normal condition.
observe, in the
in the second
motive.
the hne
In
an exceedingly
more
difficult to
draw
logical cases
exaltation,
an
the
intensified oscillation of
an indifference-condition
In patho-
(pp. 34,
80).
appear merely as
the feelings
States
especially characteristic
of depression
symptoms of general
psychical disturbances; their detailed discussion must therefore be left to psychical pathology.
General psychical
dis-
270
-H?-
by physiological changes.
however,
unknown.
still
The nature
We
and
ideas,
of these changes
is,
that they
are
excitability
illusions,
or that
simultaneous
psychical processes.
employ to express
we may call
So long as
the abnormity
is
emotions,
ideas,
and
volitions,
consciousness
of course
is
components, but we
its
exhibit
not
itself until
These always
also
arise,
to
compounds and
of
com-
make up the
may be
interconnection of consciousness
distinguished in general
of consciousness:
1)
6.
and
3)
2)
changes
there
of abnormities
three kinds
(p. 223),
other.
The
increase
of sensory
18. Psychical
excitability
and
changes
States.
271
this results in
processes of recognition
237):
(p.
is
is
unknown
or
derived from
are
Then, too, the increased sensory excitability tends to accelerate the association,
and
exaltation,
quality
the most
The
that predominate.
the ones
are
that
so
superficial
con-
nections,
and direction
states
of depression
determine
inainly
the
of the association.
affective
or accelerating
Still,
in these cases
or
all
degree,
of
else
determining
marked abnormities
an
their
direction.
in ideational or
last fact
The
combinations.
main favorable
combinations,
influences discussed
and one
of the
of associations.
This
of consciousness
is
many
far
are in
in
so
the
is
is
of a
a great preponderance
cases of insanity.
It
is
then
observed
that
it is
the
^-
272
by
associations,
still
gradually
the associations
further,
and
that remain.
all
confined
certain
to
7.
term the
normal
The
in
life:
ideas of dreams
of fancy,
probably only
hallucinations.
The
illusions
associations
also striking,
is
and goes
and exchanges
modifications
of self-consciousness,
The
the con-
characteristic of
dreams
much in these
The increase of
to be found, not so
negative attributes.
attested
by the
hallucinations,
as in their
which
is
is
functions,
voKtional activity
When
positive,
excitability
the
is
completely inhibited.
fanciful ideas
of
we have
phenomena
of sleep-walking,
forms of hypnosis.
to articulations,
8.
Hypnosis
to sleep
nite
is
the
name
psychical agencies.
a condition halfway
main cause
between
of hypnosis
is
waking
is
here generally in
and
suggestion, that
defi-
is,
sleeping.
The
the communi-
18. Psychical
States.
273
comes in
mand
This generally
tlie
when
may sometimes
be produced by the
The com-
called autosuggestion.
it is
or resolution to sleep,
to
make
certain movements,* to
see objects not present or not to see objects that are present,
etc.,
these
Monotonous
Thep,
too, there is
unknown
still
character, which
is
is
when
increased
the state
is
rise,
of
repeat-
edly produced.
The
first
symptom
plete inhibition
of hypnosis
of volition,
of the attention
command, but
is
The
in this
retains
state
any position
becomes
still
is
If the
In
that
(somnambulism).
when
motor or sen-
The
or even at some later time (terminal suggestions).
phenomena that accompany such "posthypnotic effects" render
it
sistence
of the hypnosis
or
(in
the
It appears
from
these
all
phenomena that
sleep
is
different.
They have
and a
WuSDT, Psychology.
as
common
and
mode
characteristics
disposition
toward aroused
excitability
Jg
in
^-
274
that
about an assimilation of
brings
characteristics
distinguish
The
them are
motor functions,
is
at the
of further
for in
suggestions.
the other
hand
it is
on
and hypnosis
Sleep, dreams,
are,
sational
and
volitional reactions,
and can
therefore,
like all
such dispositions,
These
regions.
directly.
changes
have
investigated
psychological symp-
StiQ,
been
not yet
and
activity in
and
attention,
It
is
then,
strictly
a physiological problem
speaking,
a theory of sleep,
dreams,
That
is
parts,
with
with
an
it.
of
the activity
increase
in
of
the
This interrelation
one
region
activity
may
The
be
first is
is
always
the
others
either
direct,
of
probably due
as the
18. Psychical
result
of inhibition,
is
275
States.
The second
is
due to contraction of
is
in turn attended
Dreams and hypnosis are often made the subjects of mysand fanciful hypotheses, in some cases even by psy-
tical
We
chologists.
of influence
hypnosis.
of
mind on minds
at
distance in dreams
and
In con-
which may be completely explained by the theory of hypnosis and suggestion, and in connection
with "somnambulism", there are a great many cases of selfdeception and intentional humbug.
In reality all that can stand
the light of thorough examination in these phenomena is in general
readily explicable on psychological and physiological grounds;
what is not explicable in this way has always proved on closer
nection with "animal magnetism",
18*
PSYCHICAL DEVELOPMENTS.
ly.
19.
'
1.
be.
exiibits a series of
mental develop-
development of man.
to be in
itself
its
Even the lowest animals (protozoa and coelenterata) manifest vital phenomena that allow us to infer ideational and
volitional processes. They seize their food to all appearances
spontaneously; they
are also to
flee
traces of associations
cesses of sensible
cognition
and recognition
etc.
There
animal Hfe
of
especially pro(p.
237).
They
From
the general
sense of touch,
In contrast whith
and
first
just
as ta the
(p. 39).
this
^
all
19.
277
Passive apperception
ception.
impulsive
the simple
for
is
that are
acts
found everywhere;
different motives
it
is
and
Jjven
associations aroused
first
if
by
at
of imagination
is activities
development.
fact
this
other
the
is
that
when
these
expressive
2.
behind that of
man
of animals
rapidly,
of
is
man.
in general far
their ideas,
through various
superior.
and even
are
still,
in two
ways
and secondly,
certain single
conditions
it is
often
much more
funetiom particularly
speicies
after birth,
clear sense-impressions
To be
sure,
and
to execute purposive
after
movements.
among higher
Just out of
is
blind at
The
others.
278
in
some animals
themselves
with the
is still
certain
in
more
Certain needs,
of
the
motives
and
sense -perceptions
for such acts.
and
either
cif
aUmen-
in the development
associations
Such
connected
reguldrly
acts
iinpulsive
of
satisfaction
striking.
that
form the
specially developed
impulses
only to
entirely
man
characteristic
is
the
special
respect.
many
acts resulting
from connate
characteristics
as those of men.
instincts
It
is
show as few
that animals
may
wild instincts,
especially
had
striking
ones that
form of the
highly developed
at.
is
as of the animals.
namely,
in their
The
relatively
is
In general,
instincts
may be regarded
as impulsive acts
The
instincts
Anmuds.
279
cially in their
protective
character
the
of
Among
as
origin,
their
special
modifications
of
many
and nimierous
insects
(for
found
of animal marriage
chiefly
among
birds
and appearing
Finally, the
of ants,
of termites, belong
under
They
this head.
and
states,
common
protective
Li the case of
all instincts
arise
The
85
sq.).
and
simple
mo-
of these acts
as a result of
stimuli,
set in action
by particular
The
As
we have
degree
In
nest better
of
higher
modifications,
development
through
but even a
individual
bmld
its
new
280
if
Even abnormal
may
habits
may
for example,
from the
the honey
gathering
acquire
first,
may
or the latter
flowers,
of
which
as
all
in,
is
honey-bee.
ition stage
we have
a few hexagonal
constructed of cemented
cells
made
of
and
sticks
leaves.
We
may, accordingly,
developed forms
of
simple impulses
originally
and more
in
the
that
have
course
of
Every
mitted.
is
to
be regarded as a stage in
Its gradual
psychical development.
disposition
single habit is to
this
reflexly
If
we
try
genetic relation of
to
man
to the
simplest
likeness
the
of
it
must be admitted,
of psychical elements
and
of combination,
of their
that
it
is
^^^
possible that
19.
human
28
finds strong'
series of
every
ment.
of psychical development
and that
human individual passes through an analogous developThe doctrine of psychical development thus confirms ia
man and
and
in the intellectual
affective
sulting
are
much broader
great
which undergoes
it
of
stability
little
the psychical
condition
of
too,
animals,
exceedingly improbal)le
that
much beyond
still
between
The attempts
a.
man and
animals from
is
animals.
The other
is
moral
first
One of
feelings,
etc.
With the
man
in
The second
rests
on the
The
festation of intelUgence
that they
,to
logical operations.
But
associative processes
that
is
^-
282
Psychical Developments.
impulsive acts
of
men and
This
chological explanation.
them
as analogous
animals,
is
for
to the simple
especially true
when we
movements
in the
as,
phenomena
follow
to im-
of habit, so easily
It is often
we have assumed,
no certain observations
that,
for example,
there are
the
fact
that
in
As
some
as
whole
families
inherit
we have
peculiar
the Child.
283
we
see
1).,
it in
a large
number
20.
CHILD.
The
1.
fact that
the
much more
child, to
be
to
is
be seen in
The
of sense-stimuli,
taste,
is
man
most
clearly to impressions
of touch
Still,
and
it is
movements
This
is
by cold and
when he
tactual impressions,
child's
and
crying
when
afEected
It
is
prob-
by obscure
movements
able that
all
may be
considered to be,
until the
end of the
284
first
sensations
is
and
feelings
must be
we begin
to observe
It
symptoms of
developed at
when we
fibres
first
arms and
his
reflexes are
not
legs after
completely
many
of the connecting
Thus the
birth.
are
Even the
impressions.
wanting.
From
the
first
each
the
of
eyes
two eyes
by
itself
the
first
movements
of the
irregular,
months
three
of the
and
that
it is
normal
the
coordiuation
Even then
It
is,
number
It
is
we
of color-sensations,
is
very limited.
The
two
years old not infrequently use the wrong names for colors
It
is
much
of the
285
the Child.
expressive
pleasurahle feelings
expectation,
and
We
have
uri-
joy,
shame, envy,
anger,
arise.
Even
etc.
in these
cases
upon
ogous
As
to
of the
we have
the
way
anal-
ocular muscles.
The
Distinct
rule,
become
certain
turning
of the
eye toward
true
of the
Still it is
is
first
a source of light as
to be regarded as reflex.
gradual coordination
of
ocular
until
The
twelfth week.
generally
The same
movements.
so that all
we can observe
is
the
with
its
is
continuous and
is
always interconnected
286
mentioned above,
vision is
much
vision.
The
latter
field for
of ocular
of
field
shows
itself
the
in
of binocular
The beginnings
discrimination
of
of the development of
first
coordination
half of the
and
The
sight.
development
full
later in its
directions in space.
by the sense of
until aided
than
earlier
observable
certainly
year.
first
The perception
of
of distance,
size,
thought
all
the child.
4.
The
ideas.
movements of
and
his limbs
movements.
Some
first
months
Still,
gives very
irregular
first
year and
later,
judgments as to the
The development
of associations
and temporal
ideas.
hand
Symptoms
in
and
of simple apper-
of spacial
of sensible recognition
first
(p.
237)
intervals of time,
at first
Even
in
the Child.
287
The
to concentrate
and
time,
it is
it
upon a
At
is similar.
show
first
possible
a very short
In the
first it is
is
is
itself in
the
way
if
first
From
developed;
fatigues
still,
the attention,
a greater variety
even
in 'later
of objects or a
fully
childhood,
and requires
for
rest.
6.
The development
of sdf-consdousness keeps
pace with
In judging of
any
of self-consciousness
body from
objects of his
about him.
in other respects
the same.
It
is,
to be sure, a
symptom
this
discrimination
288
in speech
may
he.
objects
is
The
re-
is
as
little
as the other.
existence of
some
(p.
the child
is
221), so in the
from the
is
first
Under the
first
of a constant
The
covered,
for example,
as,
and
it
may,
as
is
case,
include
The
and
subjective affective
relations
decisive
by the
especially
to
acts, are
moment
Their greater
influence.
mark
in
But
is
shown
especially those
reaches back.
and the
volitional components,
first
self- consciousness
forfia
of
before this
first clearly
comes in the
fifth
or sixth year.
observation of
the child
certain criteria,
it is
when
is
Still,
not supplied at
first
with any
self-consciousness
begins.
moment
it
first
289
continually
it
The development
7.
of
that of self-consciousness.
the development of
wiU
It
attention
described above,
the rise
is
may be
partly from
just
been mentioned.
is,
new-bom
child,
The
Still,
we observe
in the first
days
of
with appeasing
it.
of
by sen-
attention
pressions of sight
With
acts
his
hears.
Much
later
come
These,
again.
ings
especially
lively
first
movements,
generally
repeated
characteristic
time
the movements
and
differentiated,
WosDT, Psychology.
the
quality of
the
emotions.-
The
19
chief
290
IT^'
difference
Psychical Developmenis.
movements
the
in
consists
movements
violent
when
result
pleasurable.
which must be
occasion offers
soon
as
into
ments.
then,
as a
etc.,
The
emotions.
annoyance,
feels pain,
cedent motive
first
to be
is
Especially at
movements as well
clear
symptoms
first,
We
as the hand.
of sense-perception,
up
of motive, decision,
movements are
imitative
imitations,
first,
and
to
act.
be
later intentional
observed.
Simple mimetic
the beginning
of
Very
made
Somewhat
beating time,
first
gradually,
lips
as
a's
fist,
commence
to
oscillation
an intended act or
be clearly observable at
this period.
Learning
to
walk,
is
of voluntary acts
in the proper
portance
is
last third
Its im-
places furnishes
conflicting motives.
The
learning itself
is
number
of
to be regarded as
the Child.
291
effect
way
in which
it
is
carried
out,
however,
is
which in turn
is
The development
8.
cooperation
on the
This, too,
other.
his wUl.
depends on the
by
central organ
In
entirely
which
feelings
from
The
reflex
to that
it is,
classed.
as
its
appear
phenomena,
and emotions,
especially
accompanying pleasurable
tendency to repetition
etc.).
movements, among
(for
After
differ
from those
of
many
They
by no
Through the in-
means to be classed
as elements of speech.
become
It comes, in the
form
of sound-sensations,
from two
sides.
On
the one hand, the child imitates adults, on the other, adults
imitate the child.
In
fact,
as
rule,
it is
the adults
19*
who
292
for example,
It
"par-pa"
not until
is
later,
for
"ma-ma"
father,
to them, as,
for mother,
etc.
he
fit
and
able to articulate.
is
instinctively
less
case
walk, sleep,
The
frequently,
of
child
such
only in the
as strike,
cut,
etc.,
has
ordinarily
activity
Even the onomatopoetic words of childbow-bow for dog, etc.) never become intelKgible
him
The
until the
child
the adult
is
who
seeks instinctively to
it is
rather
accommodate himself in
child's learning to
speak
whose formation both the child and those about him take
part.
of the
first class.
The
after it has
with his
own
imitative articu-
ceptions
imitating of his
child,
made
first
apper-
others,
the words
by
and
the Child.
293
is
The sounds
are at
first
these sounds
The
9.
final
them
of
the simpler
all
is
of apperception, that
is
and the
activities of
activities,
made up
of these ( 17).
Apperceptive combination in
and
relating
of
concrete
form
its first
is
is
exclusively
sensible
Thus,
ideas.
individual
(p.
266).
On
the basis
of immediate
im-
is
aroused,
combinations voluntarily.
The number
of
memory-elements
and added
to
it,
furnish
As
soon as
this
is
shows
unable to
with an impulsive
itself
resist,
for there
is
not as
yet,
and
inhibiting
ideas
some
may
The
be.
This
earliest
is
what
games
howgives
of
the
294
IT^-
Psychical Developments.
on the contrary,
while,
intellectual games.
lotto, etc.)
Only where
aesthetical
demands exert an
in-
etc.),
it
game
its
development
all
of pure imagination
and that
in
the
first
legs,
to auditory sensations,
or such
and dependent
on inherited
of the
this very
ments.
nervous organs.
movements and
of the feelings
After
this,
during the
first years,
The range
and
is
no longer limited
reproduction of what
is
to
what
is
more
seen,
heard in narratives.
fixed plan.
This
is
and
and through
artificial
At
the same
acts begins
to
child
itself in
the games
This development
of those
is
about the
to
the development
295
is
necessarily conditioned
and apperceptive
associative
the Child.
processes,
since
agrees witb
it
way
in which
the processes
curtailed
employed, renders
so
much
its
in,
as to
an
When
may
itself
due not
is
all
through
From
10.
gradually
are
obstruction of
this
it
imagination
of
of understanding
The
imaginative forms
thought as a starting-
of
way
already described
(p.
264).
of
imagination
are
divided
their
into
conceptual
and
to
The
one another.
functions
of
fioneepts.
On
understanding
of the
derived from
different objects
therefore
by no means proofs
part
is
symptom
the
formation
of
the
decisive
by
of the existence
actor,
for
associations,
such reflection on
as
often obviously
the
are
more
conceptually
analyzed,
is
related,
Still,
and transferred,
even
296
Psyekieal Developments.
IV^.
The development
and that
of
latter
and
entirely concrete
and the
is
10 a.
that
is
made
are not interpreted objectively, but are filled out with subjective
reflections.
in
purely associative,
reality
and the
reflection,
earliest
are
regarded
of
acts
as
logical
as,
for
upon
reactions to feelings,
as
first
by obscure concomitant
feelings,
opment of
volition
because
language,
Closer observation,
about him,
even
these
not be
can
as to the devel-
Generally there
ception.
but
of
is
a tendency to
peculiarities,
its
however,
as a creation of his
shows that
it
is
created
own.
by those
though in doing
stage of consciousness.
the
child
finding
in
modern
literature
reflective
1.
only
as
sources
for
21.
can serve
objective facts.
consciousness
stands
cominuhity in which
Among
continually in
it
relation to
is
the
matured
the mental
is
entirely wanting.
21.
and
297
we have only
and they are
generally
certain
ends.
falsely
limited
the
to
states,
accompKshment
of
single
munities; the
these cases
all
flocks,
it is
In
grown more
and more fixed through transmission, which hold the individThe community, therefore, shows the same
uals together.
is
thus,
mere enlargements
human
ends,
are,
his
first
so
to
vital
unite
the physical needs of Hfe and the pursuit of the most various
As
ends.
The more
ingly variable.
fully
human
society
are exceed-
ties that
The
of the
states,
is
the forma-
community which
conditions of
development
life
is
divided
into
single
up according
to
to
the
special
and
families.
is,
progresses.
298
2.
The problem
of
developments in their
tracing these
concrete forms or even in their general interconnection, belongs to the history of civilization and to general history,
not to psychology.
cesses
is
at its beginning,
of
form for
development
its
common mental
the
all
it
This
as a result of
social
life.
condition -which
community
give
conditions
arising
from individual
The
we must
Still,
In
origin
its
of the individual,
it
but
contents.
community,
may be
volition
in individual experience.
of the
common
ideas,
consists
of
correspond to the
and emotions
3.
We
The second
SPEECH.
the individual
development of
the child, because here the larger part of the process depends
(p.
all,
292
sq.)
Still,
shows that he
21.
language -when
it
is
traits
favorable
communicated.
traits
would, even
to the reception
In
if
299
fact,
it
may he
would form
an incomplete language.
This
supposition
is
justified
In
systematic education.
In such a
case, however,
may
are in
pantomimetic,
finger or
the
(p.
air,
either
by pointing
that
is,
an
by means
at
the
object
of picture
of
up
of
Eeehngs
ideas
with
by
the
the idea in
173).
may be
by means
formed,
of
language can never go any further, however, than the communication of concrete sensible ideas and their interconnection.
Signs for abstract concepts are entirely wanting.
4.
hardly
The
The only
difference
is
rise
that
a third
form of movements to the mimetic and pantomimetic moveThese are the articulatory movements, and since they
are much more easily perceived, and capable of incomparably
ments.
it
must
of necessity
follow that
300
they soon
But
just
as
intelligibility to
movement and
the
suppose
its
hke relation
movement and
its
between
and pantomimetic
the
Then,
meaning.
first
not improbable
As
gestures.
articulatory
original
too, it is
we
and
The development
all probability to
language
articulate
of
in
differentiation,
movements that
expressive
accordingly,
is,
be thought of as a process of
number
of different variable
and have
may be
the
others
fixity.
in the effort
of
more
fixed,
and
consists
idea,
to
communicate
the
in
subsequent
through wider
5.
the individual
The second
From
circles of society.
the
first
into
its
two
com-
classes
The
first
class
cause
in
the
21.
These changes
3OI
to a great extent at
are,
least,
They
come partly from the general changes which the transition
from a savage to a civilized condition produces in the physical organism, partly from the special conditions that result
from increased practice in the execution of articulatory
movements.
Many phenomena
Then,
too, the
of especially
is
great in-
effect
As
modified
by the substitution
of
may be
The change
another
it
The
expresses
different
idea.
in the
meaning
of
words
depends, therefore, on a gradual modification of the associative conditions determining the ideational complication that
heard or spoken.
It may, accordingly,
when a word
be briefly defined
(p.
234).
that a
word
ternal
finally
comes
to
This process
is
so
complete that
retained,
most
ilative
onomatopoetic words,
to
reestablish
the
lost
affinity
302
Psychical Developments.
IV".
this
combined action
to be
many words
that
and means
cepts
and become
the
for
expression
-way
abstract thinking
is
based and
the apperceptive
of
meaning
It
would be im-
of
it is,
In
their products.
developed.
relating
this
is
and
opment
6.
of language results.
wholes,
that
in
is,
No
sentences.
language can be
and words
are,
therefore,
may
more incomplete
its
words.
primitive
as
tence
equally
earlier,
for,
especially in the
There
is
no uni-
The order
is
that logic
of
The
original
combination of words
is
principle
followed
obviously
this,
the
21.
words corresponds
order of the
succession
the
to
speech
of
3(J3
that
of ideas.
represent
the
ideas
which arouse the most intense feehngs and attract the attenare placed
tion,
Following
first.
In
community.
this
principle,
such a regularity
fact,
certain re-
is
to be
observed
Still,
may
is
very
great.
of apperceptive combinations,
functions
of relating
discussion
arise
from
and comparing
tactic
in
spite
of
their
psychological importance,
chology,
positions
and conditions
The development
of language.
language
lost in
human
fied
itself,
of
myths
upon
consciousness;
stiQ,
based,
to
of influences.
various
its
mythological ideas,
designated by the
be
sure,
variety
is
psy-
specific dis-
MYTHS.
Mythological thought
just as
to social
the
7.
much on
left,
the
forms of activity
we have a
all
As
characteristic
name personifying
apperception.
304
The
not
subject
only
sees
own
his
sensations,
and
emotions,
momentary
affective state is in
phenomena
a necessary
and
in
As
existence.
same personal
result
perceived,
own
attri-
The inner
object.
attributes,
emotion,
of feeling,
etc.,
are
art,
an inner
moving
In
all
objects,
may readUy
assimilations which
of fancy
8.
(p.
is
etc.
favored by associative
268).
is
not to
of apperception.
of
apperception
obvious traces of
in
play
(p.
293),
especially fear
is
in general.
it,
partly
and
The
child
shows
continually
fright,
the
easily
fact
In
this
case,
child's
it is different.
There
Development of
21.
Mmtal Communiiies.
305
in the
with language
have,
The
9.
is
civilized conditions.
is,
as above remarked,
the
chief
In order
ception.
which the
the
first
affective
some
gain
to
state
notion
of
way
the
in
of the
we must appeal
ical ideas,
development of mytholog-
pears that in
all cases
It
ap-
is,
all
those ideas
"Fetishism"
is
either weal
a branch
or
woe
animism, in
of
is
in
human
which the
stones,
The phenomena
of
animism
and
fetishism
are not only the earliest, but also the most lasting, productions
of
myth-making apperception.
among
civilized peoples,
ments, charms,
They
of superstitions
etc.
WoNDT, Psychologj.
20
306
10.
to
clouds,
and through
rivers,
human
life
winds,
both through
The
bodies.
and day,
in a thunderstorm,-
of winter
gives
etc.,'
woven
arises,
of
In
this
way
it
further.
becomes
It thus
in
new
of
of
As
accompanied.
the
process
goes
on,
the
myth,
is
always
it
single
poets
and.
In
this
of
the
and
religion,
while,
After this division has taken place, the two departments influence each other mutually in
many important
ways.
and the
Still,
history of
C.
11.
myths
CUSTOMS.
in the
to that of
are related
21.
307
to inner motives.
origin of
we
that
find
monies
of
of the fields,
The custom
to nature-myths.
its
point
to a primitive ancestor-
feasts
witli
particular days,
betrays
peoples
civihzed
Numerous
worship.
certain cult-forms.
of greeting, in
its
back
various forms,
direct derivation
what were at
The predominant
feature of
this
development, however,
when they
is
incidentally
depend more or
In
it
fact,
less
would be hard
on particular mythological
to think of
it
ideas.
as otherwise at a
a myth-making apperception.
12.
With
a result of
this change,
As
In the
first,
its
place.
The
outward manifestations.
formations,
a moral-social
In the second
may
in
class
of
trans-
of
change
308
is
the case,
any particular
serve
social
end
still it
common
may do
some
members
of a
community
and therefore to
their
favorable
is
common mental
development.
13.
spheres,
The
last
laiv,
and
of morality.
The
detailed investigation of
is,
and
We
14.
interconnections
and
but
still
In
we may
this sense
speak
o:f
social
community as a
common
this we
itself.
collective
consciousness,
and
of the
In doing
mean
this
is
union,
however,
Since
and since
it
deter-
period,
it
is
21.
just as
much an
individual consciousness.
give
The
facts
arising
an account
and
309
attributes
will.
of a
more general
upon them
is
to metaphysics.
was dominated, as
were the special sciences, history, jurisprudence, etc., by the
reflective method of popular psychology, which tends to treat all
If psychology did touch
at all,
it
its
in the
munity
is
number
of individuals.
derived from
is
This position
As one
of
its
after-effects
we have even
them simply
as expressions
metaphysical substance.
PSYCHICAL CAUSALITY
AND ITS LAWS.
22.
1.
CONCEPT OF MIND.
and reciprocal
relations
if
of the facts
we
up
it
of
ex-
seeks to
is
found to be
entirely
the grouping
investigate.
necessary,
its
it
itself,
but
its
of causality.
all
place in
It
all
is
the concept
and that we
and consequent,
shall
of
remove,
if
way
by means
of
need be by means
a hypothetical character,
all
contradictions
and
In
this
sense
we may regard
They
by
this principle;
resulting
fictions
311
and
contributing
In
2.
sense the
this
concept matter
a fundamental
is
most general
its
it
to vrhose
In
is
activities
must
vre
The attempt
natural science.
this
This content,
however,
is
given
it
to
the
to
the
The concept
of
and uses
is
of force, which
momentary
is
acceleration.
A physics
of energy
and the
would have
to
is
velocity.
is
we presuppose
cept force,
phenomena
is
the
of
all
natural
of
we
v. Psychical
312
CausalHy and
Laws.
its
another without
oiie
The concept
3.
oi
mind
way
is
a supplementary concept of
too
It
is
indis-
is
in an individual consciousness.
concept, however,
The
is
on
In the
psychical causality.
chology shared at
of
much from
not so
content psy-
definition of this
first
connection of
all things.
sciences have
of
some
that
cepts,
mythological, metaphysical
modem
control.
tary
times,
and
still
This concept
concept that
concept of mind
down
most
to
serves primarily
to
psychical facts and only secondarily to give a causal interpretation of them, but
it
is
employed as a means to
satisfy
system,
in its various
efforts
to
forms
In
its
meet
from
this position,
so far as possible,
all
psychological
still,
313
the
demand
such
efforts
have in
it is
independent of
experience alone,
for
all
foreign
mind-substance.
The
view,
and that these ideas are more or less permanent obwould hardly be comprehensible without such presupThat
positions.
is
this
concept
is
It
is
it
regarded
but
still
reducible in
its
characteristics
to the atom.
5.
Ttvo forms
of
the
may be
psychology
out
pointed
above
2,
p. 6).
The one
is
of
or
brain-elements.
certain
material
The other
is
complexes,
spiritualistic
such
as
therefore
indivisible
spiritual nature.
In
this case
is
the
and
specifically
thought of as made up
different
or the
mind -atom
In both
its
materialistic
is
regarded
as
specifically
and
7).
its
V. Psyehioal Causality
314
when
Laws.
its
tries
it
positive
give
to
bral physiology.
sense,
and
up
Spiritualism
sciences.
experience
to
processes
the
unprejudiced
observation
This appears
obstructed.
is
metaphysical
arbitrary
entirely
through which
first of
hypotheses,
psychical
of
all in
the in-
way
interacting, spheres.
6.
has
It
been shown
p. 3)
( 1,
that
and
experience
the
in psychology
regarded from
perience;
psychology
in
as
are
an
inter-
in consequence of
subject,
as
mediate
ex--
perience.
When
this relation is
mind
chical processes.
perience
that
it
is
is
actuality
of
In
it
this
sense,
an object
the concept of
(loterminants to define
its
315
Still,
since
excludes such
it
first
of
is
these
processes,
at the
same time
ne-
it
that refer to one and the same general experience, with the
difference that in each case this experience is looked at
we
If
we regard
it
from
appears
on the contrary,
if,
itself,
it
In the
of interrelated occurrences.
appears as a manifold
phenomena
case,
first
if
we may
so that
call
In the second
experience
knovring
attitude
this
are
subject,
on the contrary,
regarded
so
as
that
all
belonging
we may
call
the contents
directly
outer
and immediate,
forms of experience.
or
They
with
objective
of
the
to
psychological
the
sense
mediate
case,
identical
and
In
with
subjective
not different
an absolute
is
presented
unity.
of treating experience
employed in psychology,
is easily
its
employed
in
comprehensible in view of
316
V^.
its
Laws.
and
it
we
see
by the
reason
and for
this science
but in
its
method
its
its
sphere,
contents presented
with
originate
mental
sciences.
The view
concept of actuality,
fore
was accepted
it
psychology
this
itself,
was familiar
by
reform did
upon the
in psychology.
This inadmissible
dif-
is
all
its
until
the
is
immediately disposed
and mind.
as
of.
This
is
the question
substances,
this
relation
must
may be
defined.
and
is
in psychology can
connection
is
a continual miracle.
the
phenomena
we
If
we
in psychological experience.
Our
physiological
31
is
nothing
knowing
may
the
of
subject.
without
its
different points
totally
StiU,
In
because
impossible
absolutely
is
fact,
the
of
of
different objects
of
At
an, infinite
is
number
it
must
of objects
we
here belong
.
all
those
phenomena
of psychical processes.
large a
number
immediately,
or
On
there
is
just as
psychological
experience:
objects, that
is,
the character
As a
all
it
must
from
spheres, there
side,
is
corresponding
to
on the psychical
318
side.
V- Psyehical
GausaMy and
psyclm-physical parallelism.
and
significance
is
its
known
Laws.
the
as
prirmpleof
It has an empirico-psychological
is
meaning.
an
entirely
different
based on
all
They
by
all
seek to
different,
of parallelism
is
has
process
or
versa;
psychical
process
and
realization
the
of
This
mental.
vice
is
is
assumption
a
an
is,
to all experience.
The
is
scientific analysis,
is,
in
some
scientific
it
of its
treatment:
and
to an
known
character,
and in
So
far as
This requirement
is
sides,
justified
a relation at every
22.
Concept of Mind.
On
make up
those which go to
characteristic combinations
and compounds. To he
ical
Among
chological experience.
and
the latter
we must reckon
the
must
exist
between the
is
no way be a part
processes.
and succession
in
make up a
process of
But
all
to
form the
specific
nature of spacial and temporal ideas, or of relating and comparing processes, because natural science purposely abstracts
from
cepts
all
that
that
together
is
here concerned.
with
result
their
related
affective
elements,
lie
entirely
applies.
The forms
of
valiie
and
of fusion or in associative
as well
320
y^-
its
Laws.
way
heat, etc., or
analysis, that
is,
analysis that
of natural
science.
10.
it,
the recognition of an
leads necessarily to
is
it,
but
is
from
just as different
is
different
or that of im-
And
due to abstraction.
from the
The laws
to
of psychical phenomena
abstract
is
We may distinguish
of one class
show them-
rise
and
call
They
consist in the
complex
effects
we
call
23.
321
There are
We
Relation.
them
designate
of
2.
may
compound shows
attributes
its
which
elements
after these elements have once been presented, but which are
by no means
to
and
ideational
affective
compound clang
is
more
in
sum
of
single tones.
temporal arrangement
fectly regular
make up
is
way by
means be regarded
conditioned,
to
be sure, in a per-
the arrangement
can by no
itself
elements themselves.
The
assume
this,
and
besides,
extent at least, of
and
functions
new
in the
assumption
attributes.
activities
of the rise,
to
some
of imagination
and under-
Not
a new
but what
state,
idea
significance
itself is
to be
from
their combination,
new
their isolated
the aggregate
made
in them.
poss,i,ble,
sure,
Wdmdt, Psychology.
21
322
T^-
work
for example,
as,
in
The law
3.
ciple
as a
In
to the
results,
its
case
applied
fact,
through
an
it
Laws.
its
A similar confusion
is
is
a contradiction be-
Such a contradiction
is
impossible
and psychology
deal,
sides
do
objective
with
supplementary
( 1, p. 3).
masses,
concepts
measurements have to
Physical
and
forces,
which we
These are
energies.
obhged
are
to
use
in
as
by any
wMch
are
single
from experience,
case
must
of experience.
be
not
contradicted
Psychical measurements,
of psychical
com-
and
ends.
The
subjective value
of a
may
whole
its
increase
purpose
may
movements
of
an external vohtional
act,
The muscular
But
mental
the
present
values
may be
323
very different in
even
cxuantity
re-
the
while
ment
that
The
admit
of
variation
measurement,
with quantities
is,
only
value
in
one
the
in
phenomena measured.
Psychical
last instance
is,
The
effects,
which we designate
as physical energy
is,
from the
produce qualitative
ability to
re-
or the ability to
effects,
On
this basis
accepted
in
we
find
energy as
in
the two
its
The
it
is
The
since the
different conditions,
is
not seen
being as
different
it
under
we have
As
the
fact
which forces
itself
The law of
resultants;
it
psychical relations
supplements
that
of
components of
The law
of resultants thus
content into
its
single
members
is
an act of relating
21*
analysis.
Such a
and then
associations,
Laws.
an
is
ideated at
is
is
form
analytic
processes
The
all others.
what produces
is
latter
upon which
more
especially,
content receives
its
is
it
is
we
is
this
based
law
(p.
6.
(p.
are the
off of this
two partial
second
208,
4).
is
what
The most
and comparing
250 and
260).
In the
significance
When
relative quantitative
(p.
to be
the
clearness,
of these
first
functions
in the
only in a
first
in clearly recognized
ception
its
and
and
V. Psychical Gaitsality
324
comparison such as
it
form of a principle of
is
expressed in Weber's
254).
contrasts
is,
in turn,
supplementary
It is itself
based on the
objective
and
subjective
and com-
and emotions,
These are
all
the
chief
pleasurable,
feelings
affective
exciting
(p. 83).
directions
of
pleasurable
and un-
Laws of
24. Psychological
325
Development.
In
its
con-
its
its
maximum,
development; and
it
it
This fact
is
is
has once
it
loses
connected
and emotions.
its
and
own
is
secondarily applied
accompanied by more or
to their
when
varying,
if,
less
temporal combination.
Thus the
its
principle of intensification
The law
preceding laws.
On
it
two
may be regarded
as
where the
opposites.
On
rela,ted
psychical
range' between
contents
may
same time a
intensify
is
at the
synthesis.
24.
1.
as
we
as
many
may be regarded
326
V'
We
interconnections.
of mental growth,
Laws.
its
and of development
of heterogony of ends,
towards opposites.
2.
groivth
is
law of development.
dition
it is,
It holds
holdSj
the processes
(p.
323).
But
of the continuity
much more
of
of course,
are,
frequent
include a greater
it
Within these
as,
limits,
however, the
when
is
development.
In
fact,
is
it is
based on the
larger interconnections
we may regard
this
of
psychical
law as a principle
compounds.
The
result-
may
Laws of Development.
2d. Psychological
arise
when an
idea of ends
relations.
Here the
another
is
is
is
327
from them.
most striking
relation
the
of
single
factors
aimed
The
interconnection.
product
the
at,
is
These new
The
ical coloring
it its
of
chology
it is
broadest sense
name, however,
it is
to be
its
psychical processes.
all
first ideas,
effects in
of end.
from the
arising
to one
is
of great importance.
The
of development toivards opposites is an application of the law of intensification through contrast, to more
4.
laiv
of developments.
These
first,
in-
feel-
From
tal
growth
and heterogony
of such an oscillation,
so
of
ends operate
in
the
case
328
T'.
antecedent
GorresiDonding
but
direction,
Psychical Causality
still
phases
and
Laws.
its
their
in
general affective
com-
ponents.
The law
way
individual
and partly
in
of Hfe.
Thus, the
light,
life
is
frequent
its
touch of melancholy.
character, generally
and
last of
quiet.
of
all,
antithesis
find
expression
communities,
civilization
ment.
of
and
in
its
in
in the
alternation
the social
the reactions
of
social
and
of
mental
historical life of
these tendencies
and
on
political develop-
principle
of
significance in the
this
life,
its
of historical
chief
life.
GLOSSARY.
Accord
chord,
Affect
emotion,
angeborea
Anschaulich
perceptual
Anschauuug
perception,
connate.
Raum-
space-p.
Zeit-
time-p.
Apperception
(p. 5).
apperception,
-function
apperceptive function,
personifioirende
personifying.
-verbindung
apperceptive combination,
Assimilation
assimilation,
Association
association,
Aehnlichkeits-
BeruhrungsGleichheits-
reihweise
by
by
by
similarity,
contiguity,
identity,
serial.
Auffassung
Aufmerksamkeit
AufrecMsehen
attention,
Bedinguhg
condition.
B egleiters oheinung
concomitant
or
accompanying
phenomenon,
Begriff
(sometimes
concept,
in
looser
sense] deiinition.
Actualitats-
der Seeje
Allgemein-
general
Hulfs-
supplementary
WerthZweck-
c.
of value,
c.
of end.
begrifflich
Beobachtung
Selbst-
c.
conceptual,
observation,
introspection.
c,
330
Beweggrund
Bewegung
Ausdrucksmimische
pantomimische
Bewusstsein
Glossary.
movement,
expressive m.
mimetic m.
pantomimetic m.
consciousness,
Gesammt-
collective
Selbst-
self-c.
c.
Bezieliung
relation.
Complication
Contrast
Farben-
complication,
contrast,
color-c.
Licht-
light-c.
Rand-
marginal
Dauer
Nach-
c.
duration.
persistence,
Deutlichkeit
distinctness,
Doppelbilder
double images,
Druck
pressure,
-punkt
p. -spot.
Eigenschaft
attribute or property.
Ein druck
impression.
Elemente
elements.
Empfindlichkeit
sensitivity.
Empfindung
sensation.
DruckParbenfarblose
s.
of pressure or pressure-s.
color-s.
or
s.
achromatic
s.
of chromatic light.
or
s.
of achromatic
light,
Helligkeits-
s.
of brightness,
Geruchs-
s.
of smell.
s.
of taste,
GeschmacksHauptHaut-
principal
cutaneous
Kalte-
s.
Licht-
light-s. or
Schall-
s.
SchmerzTon-
tonal
Warme-
s.
s.
s.
of cold.
s.
of light.
of sound or sound-s.
pain-s. or
s.
s.
of pain,
or tone-s.
of hot.
Glossary.
Entscheidung
EntscHiessung
Entstehung
Entwickelung
regressive
Erfahrung
331
resolution.
decision
rise.
development.
retrogradation.
experience.
mittelbare
mediate.
unmittelbare
Erinnerungsbild
immediate.
Erinnerungsvorgang
memory-process.
Erkennung
cognition.
Farben
Erg^nzungs-
colors.
memory-image.
complementary
-ton
c.-tone.
GegenGrund-
fundamental
opposite
c.
c.
c.
Fixationslinie
line of fixation.
Pixationspunkt
Gebilde
Gedachtniss
compound.
memory.
Gefallen
agreeable feeling.
Gefiihle
feelings.
allmaUicli ansteigende
gradually arising.
Anfangs-
inceptive
BegrifFs-
conceptual
Bekanntheits-
f.
beruhigende
c[uieting
Contrast-
contrast-f.
f.
f.
of familiarity.
f.
deprimirende
depressing
End-
terminal
Erinnerungs-
f.
of remembering.
Erkennungs-
f.
of cognition.
Erieiden
f.
of passive receptivity.
(G. des)
f.
f.
excitirende
exciting
Form-
f.
-ton
affective tone.
f.
of form.
Gemein-
common
f.
losende
relaxing
f.
Lust-
pleasurable
rhythmische
f.
sinnliche
sense-f.
f.
of rhythm.
332
Gefiihle,
Olossary.
spannende
Qlossary.
Methode
333
334
Sehsoharfe
Olossary.
Glossary.
Vorstellung, G-esichts-
335
INDEX.
page
A.
Abnormities in
apperception
page
271
270
association
psychical elements
Abstract thinking
Accentuation
....
267
302
152
Acquired attributes
282
314
laws of
mediate
257
serial
Adjustment-methods
....
...
92, 158
states, unity of
tone
After-image
168
75, 77
68
Aggregate ideas
260
by
Animal marriage
279
279
states
Animism
305
Aphasia
Apperception
205
206, 209
218
active
in child
...
...
206
centre of
feeling of activity in
passive
217
217
personifying
as volitional process
293
303
.
218
245
....
225
243
225
235
209
Attention
287
210, 211
219
B.
281
......
successive
276
man
225, 245
227
Animals
psychical relation to
....
simultaneous
scope of
voluntary
262
230
by succession
in child
269-
236
268
225, 246
Anaesthesia
Analysis
similarity
264
discursive division of
224
by contiguity
by contrast
Association
Actuality, concept of
Affective processes
of spacial ideas
of visual ideas
Basilar
membrane
40, 101
Beats
tonal
100
100
Beat-tones (Koenig's)
....
Bisonance
Black
Blind-alphabet
Blindness
99
100
54,
59
107
107
Blind-spot
126
Brightness
55, 58
negative
59
positive
58
Apprehension
209
Aristotle
224
Causality (psychical)
Assimilation
228
Chemical sense.
C.
.
...
27, 320
42, 53,
68
Index.
337
page
283
Child
Choice
Chronometrio apparatus
Clang
69
188
color
201
law of psychical
95, 97
single
95
-color
95
208, 324
Clearness
240
Cognition, sensible
47
Cold-spots
Color
-blindness
77
complementary colors
66
69
-contrasts
names of
colors
.67
.... 62
61
-sphere
theories of colors
72
67
-triangle
Combination-tone (Helmholtz's) 98
Comfort
Communities, mental
Comparison
Complications
161
....
251
234
Compounds, psychical
interconnection of
296
...
25,
.
names of
90
25
90
263
Concepts
265
classes of
of end
319
general
265
319
of value
Conceptual knowledge
Cones
Consciousness
collective
grades of
scope of
...
115
203
204, 308
207
211, 214
social
204
threshold of
209
Consonants
PByeliology.
100
69,
...
psychological
258
69, 258
Customs
40
Cochlea
fundamental colors
324
physiological
compound
WuNDT,
Contrasts
D.
Dance
...
306
Index.
338
page
page
Emotions, asthenic
classification of
....
.
171
174
component
.159
158
composite
conceptual
265
178
contrast-
163
178
depressing
181
directions of
depressing
178
exciting
forms of
gradually arising
inceptive feeling in
Feeling,
83
171
disagreeable
82
164
...
171
elementary aesthetic
intensity of
178
exciting
intermittent
181
extensive
164
ideational process in
mode
163
83
of familiarity
237
names of
179
of form
166
pleasurable
178
intensity
78
quality of
179
intensive
164
rapid
174
quality of
relaxing
178
partial
sluggish
174
names
sthenic
173
pleasurable
78
159
81
of
83, 162
straining
178
of receptivity
strong
180
of relaxation
sudden
181
of
171
resultant
178
of
180
simple
terminal feeling in
unpleasurable
weak
Empirism
83
remembering
245
159
rhythm
of strain
114, 140
217
167
29,
End, concept of
319
subduing
Energy
311
total
physical
323
psychical
323
unitary character of
unpleasurable
Exaltation, state of
269
218
Experiment
19
F.
Fechner's law
Peeling
...;...
Fetishism
Field of consciousness
36
of activity
189
agreeable
164
arousing
83
of cognition
241
common
161
83,
36
162
305
.
209
117
of vision
Fixation-point
118
of consciousness
'
256
83
159
....
74
83
inner
209
155
Force
Frontal brain
311
206
Fusion
94
G.
General sense
Genetic theory.
45
.
Index.
339
page
Goethe
Golden section
Grey
82
166
.54
Intensification of emotions
Introspection, pure
177
9
Isochronism
145
J.
H.
Hallucination
268
Hartley
Bering's hypothesis
224
....
of.
Hot-spots
72
326
Judgment
264, 265
K.
Keenness of localization
297
Hume
.224
Hyperaesthesia
Hypnosis
theory of
268
277
274
Ideas
92
117
119
L.
Language
articulate
173
........
gesture-
299
299
Law^
308
Light-contrasts
69
-stimulations
].
vision
47
Humanity, idea of
64,
70
Lines of fixation
135
118
conceptual
264
of depth
135
Line of orientation
of regard
of direction
134
extensive
102
of imagination
261
Local signs
intensive
of
93
movement
Ill,
113
of position
113
spacial.
102
131
105
complex
134
of eye
127
of depth
138
M.
...
Illusions, optical
123
of direction
123
Magnetism, animal
Marching
Marginal contrast
123
Materialism
of fancy
Imagination
268
Matter, concept of
Measurements, physical.
in child
293
temporal
of
142
magnitude
262
images of
Immediate experience
261
.
Impelling force
Impulsive acts
Indifference-zones
86
187
.
34, 78
275
147
69
313
psychical
311
.
322
252, 322
Mechanical processes
....
193
42
senses
Mediate experience
knowledge
memory
243
Inductive thought
266
Instincts
278
Memory
alimentive
278
-ideas
sexual
279
-ideas, character of
239
recognition
247
241
22*
...
246
Index.
340
page
page
Memory
292
Onomatopoetic words.
56
-image
241
Opposite colors
-processes
241
Otoliths
40
326
Overtones
95
sciences
P.
Method
of average error
257
expression-
impression-
Pain
48
86
Parallax, binocular
86
Parallelism, principle of
138
psycho-physical
256
Perceptual knowledge
Personality (psychical)
reckoning-
257
Perspective
257
Pitch
Mind
312
Mind-substance
Mistakes in child-psychology
Morality
Motives
312
185
Plane figures
Play-impulse
Point of orientation
of regard
Posthypnotic effects
MovabUity
Movements
of accommodation
102
Pressure-spots
140
of minimal differences
of right
254
296
308
45
26
140
50
137
293
....
131
....
273
118
47
arrhythmical
145
Problem of psychology
Products, mental
Proportionality, law of
automatic
193
Psychology
....
...
...
...
23
256
224
expressive
172
association-
mimetic
172
descriptive
ocular
120
empirical
173
145
experimental
explanatory
186
faculty-
122
intellectualistic
198
materialistic
303
metaphysical
relation to mental sciences
16
16
relation to philosophy
16
pantomimetic
rhythmical
Moving reason
Muscles of eye
Muscular reaction
...
Myths
N.
Nativism
Natural selection
'.
.
114, 140
282
Nature-myth
306
Noise
99
0.
Objects
a,
4,
....
.23
11
11
....
13
7
Observation
pure
11
10,
9
8
23
19
spiritualistic
22
voluntaristic
14
220, 222
Pulse
73, 87,
176
Index.
341
page
pnge
31
complex
homogeneous.
many-dimensional
.
one-dimensional
two-dimensional
46
....
32
common
32
disparate character of
of hot
32
32
of light
of metallic
32
252
Quantities, psychical
55
of cold
of
46
.
54
53
movement
107
of noise
Reaction-experiments
Reckoning-methods
Recognition
mediate
197, 201
sensible
Reflex processes
49
46
of pain
B.
35
46
68
'persistence of
46
257
of pressure
239
principal color-
239
237
pure
of pure brightness
193
rise of
38
53
61
37, 38
....
55
193
of saline
316
of smell
52
323
of sound
48
251
of sour
53
purposive character of
Relating fuiiction
Relativity,
law of
(v.
Weber's
law].
Reproduction of ideas
Resolution
Resonants
53
of taste
52
225
tone-
50
188
tactual
46
Sense-feelings
of sweet
75
101
Sense-stimuli
100
Sensorial reaction
198
302
38
Respiration
173
Sentences
321
Sine-curve
200
Sleep-walking
Space-threshold of touch
Retrogradation
...
192,
Rods
115
51
Spacial ideas
S.
Saturation
57
of sight
Selective acts
188
of touch
Self-consciousness
221
Specific character
287
Specific energy
in child
Sensations
achromatic light-
28,
.
36
.54
of alkaline
53
of bitter
53
chromatic light-
54
.105
102
285
in child
...
272
115
104
Speech
...
.29
42
298
-centre
205
child-
291
Spiritualism
monadological
313
313
342
Index.
page
Spiritualism, monistic
Squinting
313
120
States, psychical
...
267
Stereoscope
page
Touch
synthetic
108
Transformation of stimuli
41
139
Stimulus
physical
38
physiological
38
...
physiological central
physiological peripheral
38
38
254
-threshold
Subject
4,
220, 222
Suggestion
Synthesis (apperception)
272
3,
260
T.
Talent
267
Temporal ideas
142
U.
Unconscious state
Understanding
203
263
in child
295
T.
Value, concept of
319
123
Vision
angle of
117
direct
118
erect
137
indirect
118
Visual purple
Volition
73
auditory
148
in child
286
internal
191
tactual
144
theories of
194
144
Volitional acts
Temporal modes
signs
156
183
processes
183
stages
144
Voluntary acts
188
Thought
265
Vorstellmig
224
209
Vowels
100
Threshold of consciousness
Tickling
163
Tonal line
51
51
scale
Tones
fundamental
lowest
principal
Torsibility
57
.290
54, 59
57
95
95
in child
collective
Weber's law
Word-ideas
289
308
theories of
194
.
266
102
Touch
analytic
to
Will
96
highest
partial
W.
Walk, learning
White
Y.
108
Young-Helmholtz theory
72