PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014

1.0 Statistics Mode

Mean Place data in ascending order.

xi xi Mode = most frequently occurring value
μ=
(1.4)
(1.1a) x= (1.1b)
N n
If two values occur with maximum frequency the data
µ = population mean set is bimodal.
x = sample mean If three or more values occur with maximum
Σxi = sum of all data values (x1, x2, x3, …) frequency the data set is multi-modal.
N = size of population
n = size of sample
Standard Deviation
2
Median xi - μ
σ= (Population) (1.5a)
N
Place data in ascending order.
If N is odd, median = central value (1.2) 2
xi - x
If N is even, median = mean of two central values s= (Sample) (1.5b)
n ‒1
N = size of population σ = population standard deviation
s = sample standard deviation
Range (1.5) xi = individual data value ( x1, x2, x3, …)
𝜇 = population mean
Range = xmax - xmin (1.3)
x = sample mean
xmax = maximum data value N = size of population
xmin = minimum data value n = size of sample

2.0 Probability
Independent Events
P (A and B and C) = PAPBPC (2.3)
Frequency
P (A and B and C) = probability of independent
nx events A and B and C occurring in sequence
fx = (2.1)
n PA = probability of event A

fx = relative frequency of outcome x

nx = number of events with outcome x Mutually Exclusive Events
n = total number of events
P (A or B) = PA + PB (2.4)

P (A or B) = probability of either mutually exclusive

event A or B occurring in a trial
Binomial Probability
PA = probability of event A
(order doesn’t matter)

n!(pk )(qn-k )
Pk = (2.2) Conditional Probability
k!(n-k)!
𝑃 𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴
Pk = binomial probability of k successes in n trials 𝑃 𝐴𝐷 =𝑃 (2.5)
𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 𝐴 +𝑃 ~𝐴 ∙𝑃 𝐷 ~𝐴
p = probability of a success
q = 1 – p = probability of failure
P (A|D) = probability of event A given event D
k = number of successes P(A) = probability of event A occurring
n = number of trials P(~A) = probability of event A not occurring
P(D|~A) = probability of event D given event A did not occur

IED POE DE CEA AE BE CIM EDD 1

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 3.0 Plane Geometry Ellipse Rectangle
2b
Circle Perimeter = 2a + 2b (3.9)
Area = π a b (3.8) 2a Area = ab (3.10)
Circumference =2 π r (3.1)
Area = π r2 (3.2)
Triangle (3.6) B
Parallelogram c
Area = ½ bh (3.11) a h
h a = b + c – 2bc·cos∠A
2 2 2
(3.12)
Area = bh (3.3) A
b = a + c – 2ac·cos∠B
2 2 2
(3.13) C b
c = a + b – 2ab·cos∠C
2 2 2
b (3.14)

Right Triangle Regular Polygons

s(12 f) ns2
2
c =a +b
2 2
(3.4) Area = n = 1 (3.15)
2 tan( )
n
a c
sin θ = (3.5) a
c n = number of sides
b θ
cos θ = (3.6)
c
a
b Trapezoid a
tan θ = b
(3.7) h
Area = ½(a + b)h (3.16) h
h
b
4.0 Solid Geometry h

Cube
Sphere
3
Volume = s (4.1) s
3
Volume = π r (4.8)
2
Surface Area = 6s (4.2) s s 2
Surface Area = 4 π r (4.9)

Rectangular Prism
Cylinder
Volume = wdh (4.3) h r
Volume = π r h
2
(4.10) h
Surface Area = 2(wd + wh + dh) (4.4) w d
2
Surface Area = 2 π r h+2 π r (4.11)

Right Circular Cone

h
πr2 h Irregular Prism
Volume = (4.5)
3

Surface Area = π r r2 +h2 (4.6) r h

Volume = Ah (4.12)

A = area of base
Pyramid

Ah h
Volume =
3
(4.7) 5.0 Constants
A = area of base 2
g = 9.8 m/s = 32.27 ft/s
2

-11 3 2
G = 6.67 x 10 m /kg·s
π = 3.14159

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE BE CIM EDD 2
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 6.0 Conversions

Mass/Weight (6.1) Area (6.4) Force (6.7) Energy (6.10)

2
1 kg = 2.205 lbm 1 acre = 4047 m 1N = 0.225 lb 1J = 0.239 cal
2
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 43,560 ft 1 kip = 1,000 lb -4
= 9.48 x 10 Btu
2
1 ton = 2000 lb = 0.00156 mi = 0.7376 ft·lbf
1 lb = 16 oz Pressure (6.8) 1kW h = 3,600,000 J
Volume (6.5) 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
Length (6.2) = 33.9 ft H2O
1L = 0.264 gal
1m = 3.28 ft
= 0.0353 ft
3 = 29.92 in. Hg 7.0 Defined Units
1 km = 0.621 mi = 760 mm Hg
= 33.8 fl oz
1 in. = 2.54 cm 3 = 101,325 Pa
1mL = 1 cm = 1 cc
= 14.7 psi
1J = 1 N·m
1 mi = 5280 ft
1psi = 2.31 ft of H2O 1N = 1 kg·m / s2
1 yd = 3 ft
1 Pa = 1 N / m2
Temperature Unit
Equivalents (6.6) 1V =1W/A
Power (6.9)
Time (6.3) 1W =1J/s
1K = 1 ºC 1W = 3.412 Btu/h 1W =1V/A
1d = 24 h = 1.8 ºF = 0.00134 hp
= 1.8 ºR 1 Hz = 1 s-1
1h = 60 min = 14.34 cal/min
See below for 1F = 1 A·s / V
1 min = 60 s = 0.7376 ft·lbf/s
temperature calculation 1H = 1 V·s / V
1 yr = 365 d 1 hp = 55 ft∙lb/sec

8.0 SI Prefixes
Numbers Less Than One Numbers Greater Than One
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
10-1 deci- d 101 deca- da
10-2 centi- c 102 hecto- h
10-3 milli- m 103 kilo- k
10-6 micro- µ 106 Mega- M
10-9 nano- n 109 Giga- G
10-12 pico- p 1012 Tera- T
10-15 femto- f 1015 Peta- P
10-18 atto- a 1018 Exa- E
10-21 zepto- z 1021 Zetta- Z
10-24 yocto- y 1024 Yotta- Y

9.0 Equations Temperature Force and Moment

F = ma (9.7a) M = Fd (9.7b)
Mass and Weight TK = TC + 273 (9.4) F = force
m = mass
m = VDm (9.1) TR = TF + 460 (9.5) a = acceleration
W = mg (9.2) M = moment
TF = Tc + 32 (9.6)
d= perpendicular distance
W = VDw (9.3)

V = volume TK = temperature in Kelvin Equations of Static Equilibrium

Dm = mass density TC = temperature in Celsius
m = mass ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMP = 0 (9.8)
TR = temperature in Rankin
Dw = weight density TF = temperature in Fahrenheit Fx = force in the x-direction
W = weight Fy = force in the y-direction
g = acceleration due to gravity MP = moment about point P

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. IED POE DE CEA AE BE CIM EDD 3
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 9.0 Equations (Continued) Electricity
Ohm’s Law
Energy: Work Fluid Mechanics V = IR (9.32)
= F∥ ∙ d (9.9)
p=
F
(9.16)
A P = IV (9.33)
W = work V1 V
F∥ = force parallel to direction of = T2 (Charles’ Law) (9.17) RT (series) = R1 + R2+ ··· + Rn (9.34)
T1 2
displacement p1 p 1
d = displacement = T2 (Gay-Lussanc’s Law) (9.18) RT (parallel) = 1 1 1 (9.35)
+ + ∙∙∙ +
T1 2 R1 R2 Rn

p1V1 = p2V2 (Boyle’s Law) (9.19) Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Power IT = I1 + I2 + ··· + In
Q = Av (9.20) n
P=
E
= (9.10) or IT = k=1 Ik (9.36)
t t (9.21)
A1v1 = A2v2
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
P=τω (9.11)
P = Qp (9.22) VT = V1 + V2 + ··· + Vn
n
P = power absolute pressure = gauge pressure or VT = k=1 Vk (9.37)
E = energy + atmospheric pressure (9.23)
W = work p = absolute pressure V = voltage
t = time F = force VT = total voltage
τ = torque A = area I = current
ω = angular velocity V = volume IT = total current
T = absolute temperature R = resistance
Q = flow rate RT = total resistance
Efficiency v = flow velocity P = power
Pout
P = power
Efficiency (%) = ∙1 % (9.12)
Pin
Mechanics Thermodynamics
Pout = useful power output d
Pin = total power input s= (9.24) P = Q′ = AU∆T (9.38)
t
∆Q
∆d P=Q = (9.39)
v= (9.25) ∆t
Energy: Potential ∆t 1 k
vf − vi U= =L (9.40)
U = mgh (9.13) a= (9.26) R
t
kA∆T
U = potential energy vi 2 sin(2θ) P= (9.41)
L
m =mass X= (9.27)
-g A1v1 = A2v2 (9.42)
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = vi + at (9.28)
h = height Pnet = Ae(T2 -T1 ) (9.43)
2
d = di + vit + ½at (9.29) PL
k= (9.44)
Energy: Kinetic 2 2
v = vi + 2a(d – di) (9.30) A∆T

K = 12 mv2 (9.14) τ = dFsinθ (9.31)

P = rate of heat transfer
Q = thermal energy
K = kinetic energy s = average speed A = area of thermal conductivity
m = mass v = average velocity U = coefficient of heat conductivity
v = velocity (U-factor)
v = velocity
vi = initial velocity (t =0) ∆T = change in temperature
a = acceleration ∆t = change in time
Energy: Thermal X = range R = resistance to heat flow ( R-value)
t = time k = thermal conductivity
∆Q = mc∆T (9.15) ∆d = change in displacement v = velocity
d = distance Pnet = net power radiated
∆Q = change in thermal energy di = initial distance (t=0) = 5.6696 x 10
-8
m2 ∙K
m = mass g = acceleration due to gravity
c = specific heat θ = angle e = emissivity constant
∆T = change in temperature τ = torque L = thickness
F = force T1, T2 = temperature at time 1, time 2

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 4 DE 4 AE 4 CIM 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 10.0 Section Properties
y y
Moment of Inertia Rectangle Centroid

h x b h
bh3
x= and y = (10.3)
x
2 2
Ixx = (10.1)
12
b Right Triangle Centroid y

b h
x= and y = (10.4)
Ixx = moment of inertia of a rectangular section 3 3
x
about x axis
y
Semi-circle Centroid
Complex Shapes Centroid
r
xi Ai yi Ai x=r d y= (10.5)
x= and y = (10.2) 3 x
Ai Ai

x = x-distance to the centroid x = x-distance to the centroid

y = y-distance to the centroid y = y-distance to the centroid
xi = x distance to centroid of shape i
yi = y distance to centroid of shape i
Ai = Area of shape i
12.0 Structural Analysis
11.0 Material Beam Formulas
Properties P
Reaction RA = RB = (12.1)
Stress (axial) 2
PL
Moment max = (at point of load) (12.2)
F
σ= (11.1)
Deflection = PL3
A max EI
(at point of load) (12.3)

= stress ωL
Reaction RA = RB = (12.4)
F = axial force 2
2
A = cross-sectional area ωL
Moment max = (at center) (12.5)

Deflection max = 35ωLEI (at center) (12.6)

Strain (axial)
δ
Reaction RA = RB = P (12.7)
ε= (11.2)
L Moment =P (12.8)
max

ε = strain Deflection = 2PEI(3L2 - 2) (12.9)

max
L0 = original length (at center)
δ = change in length
Pb P
Reaction RA = and RB = (12.10)
L L
P b
Moment max = (at Point of Load) (12.11)
Modulus of Elasticity L
2 2
σ Deflection = 2
(12.12)
E= (11.3) a a+
ε (at = when a b )

(F2 -F1 )L
E= (11.4)
𝛿2 −𝛿1 )A Deformation: Axial Truss Analysis
FL 2J = M + R (12.14)
δ=
E = modulus of elasticity (12.13)
AE
= stress J = number of joints
ε = strain δ = deformation M =number of members
A = cross-sectional area F = axial force R = number of reaction forces
F = axial force L0 = original length
δ = deformation A = cross-sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 5 AE 5 CEA 4

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 13.0 Simple Machines
Inclined Plane

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

L
I A=
DE
A A=
FR I A= (13.6)
(13.1) (13.2) H
DR FE

A A
% Efficiency= ( )1 (13.3)
I A
Wedge
IMA = ideal mechanical advantage
AMA = actual mechanical advantage
DE = effort distance DR = resistance distance L
I A= (13.7)
FE = effort force FR = resistance force H

Lever
Screw
1st
C
Class IMA = (13.8)
Pitch

1
Pitch = (13.9)
TPI
2nd C = circumference
Class r = radius
Pitch = distance between
threads
TPI = threads per inch
3rd
Class Compound Machines

MATOTAL = (MA1) (MA2) (MA3) . . . (13.10)

Wheel and Axle Gears; Sprockets with Chains; and Pulleys

with Belts Ratios
Nout dout ωin τout
GR = = = = (13.11)
Nin din ωout τin
Effort at Axle dout ωin τout
= = (pulleys) (13.12)
din ωout τin

Compound Gears

B D
GRTOTAL = ( ) (C) (13.13)
Effort at Wheel A

Pulley Systems
IMA = total number of strands of a single string
supporting the resistance
DE (string pulled)
IMA =
DR (resistance lifted)
GR = gear ratio
ωin = angular velocity - driver
ωout = angular velocity - driven
Nin = number of teeth - driver
Nout = number of teeth - driven
(13.4)
din = diameter - driver
dout = diameter - driven
(13.5) 𝜏in = torque - driver
𝜏out = torque - driven

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. POE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 14.0 Structural Design

Steel Beam Design: Shear Steel Beam Design: Moment Spread Footing Design
Vn n qnet = qallowable - pfooting (14.5)
Va ≤ (14.1) a (14.3)
Ωv b lb
pfooting = tfooting ∙15 (14.6)
ft
Vn = 0.6FyAw (14.2) Mn = FyZx (14.4)
P
q= (14.7)
A
Va = internal shear force Ma = internal bending moment
Vn = nominal shear strength Mn = nominal moment strength
qnet = net allowable soil bearing
Ωv = 1.5 = factor of safety for shear Ωb = 1.67 = factor of safety for
pressure
Fy = yield stress bending moment
qallowable = total allowable soil
Aw = area of web Fy = yield stress
bearing pressure
𝑉𝑛
= allowable shear strength Zx = plastic section modulus about pfooting = soil bearing pressure
𝛺𝑣 neutral axis due to footing weight
= allowable bending strength tfooting = thickness of footing
15.0 Storm Water Runoff q = soil bearing pressure
P = column load applied
Rational Method Runoff Coefficients A = area of footing
Storm Water Drainage
Categorized by Surface
Q = CfCiA (15.1) Forested 0.059—0.2
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ∙∙∙ Asphalt 0.7—0.95
16.0 Water Supply
Cc = (15.2)
A1 + A2 + ∙∙∙ Brick 0.7—0.85
3 Concrete 0.8—0.95 Hazen-Williams Formula
Q = peak storm water runoff rate (ft /s)
Shingle roof 0.75—0.95 1 . LQ
1. 5
Cf = runoff coefficient adjustment
factor Lawns, well drained (sandy soil) hf = 1. 5 . 655 (16.1)
C d
C = runoff coefficient Up to 2% slope 0.05—0.1
i = rainfall intensity (in./h) 2% to 7% slope 0.10—0.15 hf = head loss due to friction
A = drainage area (acres) Over 7% slope 0.15—0.2 (ft of H2O)
Lawns, poor drainage (clay soil) L = length of pipe (ft)
Up to 2% slope 0.13—0.17 Q = water flow rate (gpm)
Runoff Coefficient
2% to 7% slope 0.18—0.22 C = Hazen-Williams constant
Adjustment Factor
Over 7% slope 0.25—0.35 d = diameter of pipe (in.)
Return
Period Cf Driveways, 0.75—0.85 Dynamic Head
1, 2, 5, 10 1.0 walkways Categorized by Use dynamic head = static head
25 1.1 Farmland 0.05—0.3 – head loss (16.2)
50 1.2 Pasture 0.05—0.3 static head = change in elevation
100 1.25 between source and
Unimproved 0.1—0.3
discharge (16.3)
Parks 0.1—0.25
Cemeteries 0.1—0.25
Railroad yard 0.2—0.40 17.0 Heat Loss/Gain
Playgrounds 0.2—0.35
(except asphalt or
Business Districts Heat Loss/Gain
concrete)
Neighborhood 0.5—0.7
Q′ = AU∆T (17.1)
City (downtown) 0.7—0.95
Residential 1
U= (17.2)
Single-family 0.3—0.5 R
Multi-plexes, 0.4—0.6 Q = thermal energy
detached
Multi-plexes, 0.6—0.75 A = area of thermal conductivity
attached
Suburban 0.25—0.4 U = coefficient of heat
Apartments, 0.5—0.7 conductivity (U-factor)
condominiumsIndustrial ∆T = change in temperature
R = resistance to heat flow (R-
Light 0.5—0.8
value)
Heavy 0.6—0.9

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. CEA 5

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
18.0 Hazen-Williams Constants

19.0 Equivalent Length of (Generic) Fittings

Pipe Size
Screwed Fittings 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
Regular 90 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Regular 45 degree 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Line Flow 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12.0 17.0
Tees Branch Flow 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
Return Bends Regular 180 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Globe 21.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 29.0 37.0 42.0 54.0 62.0 79.0 110.0
Gate 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Valves Angle 12.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
Swing Check 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 38.0
Strainer 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18.0 20.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 42.0

Pipe Size
Flanged Fittings 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Regular 90 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Regular 45 degree 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 16.0
Line Flow 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6
Tees
Branch Flow 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12.0 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 43.0 47.0
Return Regular 180 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Bends Long radius 180 degree 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Globe 38.0 40.0 45.0 54.0 59.0 70.0 77.0 94.0 120.0 150.0 190.0. 260.0 310.0 390.0
Gate 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Valves Angle 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 21.0 22.0 285.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 190.0 210.0
Swing Check 3.8 5.3 7.2 10.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 27.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 20.0 555 Timer Design
quaons
T = 0.693 (RA + 2RB)C (20.1)
1
f = (20.2)
T
(RA+ RB)
duty-cycle =
(RA+2RB)
∙1 % (20.3)

T = period
f = frequency
RA = resistance A
RB = resistance B
C = capacitance

21.0 Boolean Algebra

Boolean Theorems Commutative Law Consensus Theorems

X• 0 = 0 (21.1) X•Y = Y•X (21.10) X + XY = X + Y (21.16)

X•1 = X (21.2) X+Y = Y+X (21.11) X + XY = X + Y (21.17)

X• X =X (21.3) X + XY = X + Y (21.18)
Associative Law
X • X= (21.4) X + XY = X + Y (21.19)
X(YZ) = (XY)Z (21.12)
X+0=X (21.5)
X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (21.13)
X+1=1 (21.6) DeMorgan’s Theorems
X+X=X (21.7) Distributive Law XY = X + Y (21.20)

X+X=1 (21.8) X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ (21.14) X+Y = X • Y (21.21)

X=X (21.9) (X+Y)(W+Z) = XW+XZ+YW+YZ (21.15)

22.0 Speeds and Feeds

CS(12in.
ft
)
N= (22.1)
πd

fm = ft·nt·N (22.2)

Plunge Rate = ½·fm

N = spindle speed (rpm)
CS = cutting speed (in./min)
d = diameter (in.)
fm = feed rate (in./min)
ft = feed (in./tooth/rev)
nt = number of teeth

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. DE 5 CIM 5

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014
 23.0 Aerospace Propulsion Orbital Mechanics
Equations
F N= vj - vo (23.5)
Forces of Flight b2
I = Fave ∆t (23.6) 𝑒= 1- (23.13)
2D a2
CD = (23.1)
Aρv2 Fnet = Favg - Fg (23.7)
a2 a2
ρvl 𝑣𝑓 T = 2π = 2π (23.14)
R e= (23.2) a=
∆t
(23.8) μ G
μ
G m
2L FN = net thrust F= (23.15)
CL = (23.3) r2
Aρv2 W = air mass flow
vo = flight velocity
= Fd (23.4) 𝑒 = eccentricity
vj = jet velocity
I = total impulse b = semi-minor axis
CL = coefficient of lift Fave = average thrust force a =semi-major axis
CD = coefficient of drag t = change in time (thrust T = orbital period
L = lift duration) a = semi-major axis
D = drag Fnet = net force μ = gravitational parameter
A = wing area Favg = average force F = force of gravity between two
ρ = density Fg = force of gravity bodies
Re = Reynolds number G = universal gravitation constant
vf = final velocity
v = velocity M =mass of central body
a = acceleration
l = length of fluid travel m = mass of orbiting object
t = change in time (thrust
μ = fluid viscosity r = distance between center of two
duration)
F = force objects
m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity NOTE: Fave and Favg are
M = moment easily confused. Ber oulli’s L w
d = moment arm (distance from
ρv2 ρv2
datum perpendicular to F) (Ps + 2 1
) = (Ps + 2 2
) (23.16)
Energy

K = 12 mv2 (23.9)
PS = static pressure
v = velocity
−G m ρ = density
U= (23.10)
R
G m
E=U+K=− (23.11) Atmosphere Parameters
2R
T = 15. - . 6 h (23.17)
m
G = 6.67 × 10−11 kg × 𝑠2 (23.12)
T + 273.1 5.256
p = 1 1.2 (23.18)
2 .
K = kinetic energy p
m =mass ρ= (23.19)
.2 6 T + 273.1
v = velocity
U = gravitational potential energy
G = universal gravitation constant T = temperature
M =mass of central body h = height
m = mass of orbiting object p = pressure
R = Distance center main body to ρ = density
center of orbiting object
E = Total Energy of an orbit

© 2014 Project Lead The Way, Inc. AE 6

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet 2014