Motivation Theories

Explanations > Theories > Motivation Theories

Here are academic theories about motivation.

Acquired Needs Theory: we seek power, achievement or affiliation.

Activation Theory: We have a need for arousal.
Affect Perseverance: Preference persists after disconfirmation.
Attitude-Behavior Consistency: factors that align attitude and behavior.
Attribution Theory: we need to attribute cause, that supports our ego.
Cognitive Dissonance: non-alignment is uncomfortable.
Cognitive Evalution Theory: we select tasks based on how doable they are.
Consistency Theory: we seek the comfort of internal alignment.
Control Theory: we seek to control the world around us.
Disconfirmation bias: Agreeing with what supports beliefs and vice versa.
Drive Theory: We seek to satisfy needs.
Endowed Progress Effect: Progress is motivating.
ERG Theory: We seek to fulfill needs of existence, relatedness and growth.
Escape Theory: We seek to escape uncomfortable realities.
Expectancy Theory: We are motivated by desirable things we expect we can achieve.
Extrinsic Motivation: external: tangible rewards.
Goal-Setting Theory: different types of goals motivate us differently.
Intrinsic Motivation: internal: value-based rewards.
Investment Model: our commitment depends on what we have invested.
Opponent-Process Theory: opposite emotions interact.
Placebo Effect: We believe and respond to fakes.
Positive Psychology: What makes us happy.
Reactance Theory: discomfort when freedom is threatened.
Self-Determination Theory: External and internal motivation.
Self-Discrepancy Theory: we need beliefs to be consistent.
Side Bet Theory: aligned side-bets increase commitment to a main bet.
The Transtheoretical Model of Change: Stages in changing oneself.

Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological and

behavioral changes. Emotion involves feeling, thinking, activation of the nervous
system, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as facial
expressions.
Different theories exist regarding how and why people experience emotion.
These include evolutionary theories, the James-Lange theory, the CannonBard theory, Schacter and Singers two-factor theory, and cognitive
appraisal.
Evolutionary Theories
More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions
evolved because they had adaptive value. For example, fear evolved because it
helped people to act in ways that enhanced their chances of survival. Darwin
believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate (hard-wired). He pointed
out that facial expressions allow people to quickly judge someones hostility or
friendliness and to communicate intentions to others.
Recent evolutionary theories of emotion also consider emotions to be innate
responses to stimuli. Evolutionary theorists tend to downplay the influence of
thought and learning on emotion, although they acknowledge that both can have
an effect. Evolutionary theorists believe that all human cultures share several
primary emotions, including happiness, contempt, surprise, disgust, anger, fear,
and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result from blends and
different intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more
intense form of the primary emotion of fear.

The James-Lange Theory

In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl
Lange, independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs
about emotion. This idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange theory,
is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies
physiological responses to external events. According to this theory, people dont
cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and,
likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different
physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion.
The Cannon-Bard Theory
The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing
three main arguments against it:
1.

People can experience physiological arousal without experiencing

emotion, such as when they have been running. (The racing heart in this case is
not an indication of fear.)

2.

Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of

emotion, which occur very rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley
alone, a sudden sound usually provokes an immediate experience of fear, while
the physical symptoms of fear generally follow that feeling.

3.

People can experience very different emotions even when they have the
same pattern of physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing
heart and rapid breathing both when he is angry and when he is afraid.
Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended
by another physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard
theory states that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that
physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The brain gets a

message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the
autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal.
Schachter and Singers Two-Factor Theory
In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different
theory to explain emotion. They said that peoples experience of emotion
depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of
that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look
for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an
emotion depends on what they find in their environment.
Example: If a person finds herself near an angry mob of people when she is
physiologically aroused, she might label that arousal anger. On the other hand,
if she experiences the same pattern of physiological arousal at a music concert,
she might label the arousal excitement.
Schachter and Singer agree with the James-Lange theory that people infer
emotions when they experience physiological arousal. But they also agree with
the Cannon-Bard theory that the same pattern of physiological arousal can give
rise to different emotions.
Cognitive Appraisal
The psychologist Richard Lazaruss research has shown that peoples
experience of emotion depends on the way they appraise or evaluate the events
around them.
Example: If Tracy is driving on a winding road by the edge of a high cliff, she
may be concerned about the danger of the road. Her passenger, on the other
hand, thinks about the beauty of the view. Tracy will probably feel frightened,
while her passenger may feel exhilarated.

Cognitive Psychology
ByKendraCherryReviewedbyaboardcertifiedphysician.
UpdatedAugust18,2016

Haveyoueverwonderedwhyyouremembercertaindetailswithouteventrying,yetother
importantinformationslipsyourmindsoquickly?Thisisjustoneexampleofthetypeof
questionsthatsomeoneworkinginthefieldofcognitivepsychologymighttrytoanswer.

What Is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitivepsychologyinvolvesthestudyofinternalmentalprocessesallofthethingsthatgo
oninsideyourbrain,includingperception,thinking,memory,attention,language,
problemsolving,andlearning.
Whileitisarelativelyyoungbranchofpsychology,ithasquicklygrowntobecomeoneofthe
mostpopularsubfields.
Therearenumerouspracticalapplicationsforthiscognitiveresearch,suchasprovidinghelp
copingwithmemorydisorders,increasingdecisionmakingaccuracy,findingwaystohelp
peoplerecoverfrombraininjury,treatinglearningdisorders,andstructuringeducational
curriculatoenhancelearning.

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Learningmoreabouthowpeoplethinkandprocessinformationnotonlyhelpsresearchersgaina
deeperunderstandingofhowthehumanbrainworks,butitallowspsychologiststodevelopnew
waysofhelpingpeopledealwithpsychologicaldifficulties.Forexample,byrecognizing
thatattentionisbothaselectiveandlimitedresource,psychologistsareablecomeupwith
solutionsthatmakeiteasierforpeoplewithattentionaldifficultiestoimprovetheirfocusand
concentration.
Findingsfromcognitivepsychologyhavealsoimprovedourunderstandingofhowpeopleform,
store,andrecallmemories.
Byknowingmoreabouthowtheseprocesseswork,psychologistscandevelopnewwaysof
helpingpeopleimprovetheirmemoriesandcombatpotentialmemoryproblems.Forexample,
psychologistshavefoundthatwhileyourshorttermmemoryisquiteshortandlimited(lasting
just20to30secondsandcapableofholdingbetweenfiveandnineitems),rehearsalstrategies
canimprovethechancesthatinformationwillbetransferredtolongtermmemory,whichis
muchmorestableanddurable.

When You Might Need to See a Cognitive Psychologist

Whilemanycognitivepsychologistsspecializeinresearchandareemployedbyuniversitiesor
governmentagencies,otherstakeaclinicalfocusandworkdirectlywithindividualswhoare
experiencingchallengesrelatedtodifferentmentalprocesses.Theymayworkinhospitals,
mentalhealthclinics,orprivatepractices.
Psychologistswhoworkinthisareaoftenfocusonaparticularareaofinterestsuchasmemory,
whileothersmightinsteadchoosetoworkdirectlyonspecifichealthconcernsrelatedto
cognition,suchasdegenerativebraindisordersorbraininjuries.

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Someofthereasonswhyyoumightconsultwithacognitivepsychologist:

Totreatapsychologicalillnesswithcognitivetherapymethods

Toexploretreatmentoptionsforbraintrauma

Ifyouareexperiencingperceptualorsensoryissues

Aspartoftherapyforaspeechorlanguagedisorder

IfyouareexperiencingAlzheimer'sdisease,dementia,ormemoryloss

Toexploredifferentinterventionsforlearningdisabilities

Theworkofcognitivepsychologistsisessentialforhelpingpeoplewhohaveexperiencedissues
withmentalprocesses.Whilewetendtotakeabilitiessuchasattentionandproblemsolvingfor
granted,perhapsbecausetheyaresowovenintothefabricofoureverydayexistence,cognitive
disruptionscancreatehavocinmultipleareasofanindividual'slife.Attentionproblemscan
makeitdifficulttofocusatworkoratschool.Evenrelativelyminormemoryproblemscanmake
itastruggletohandlethedemandsofeverydaylife.

Consider,forexample,hownegativethinkingcaninterferewithyourhealthandhappiness.
Weallexperiencethesenegativethoughtsfromtimetotime,butsomepeoplemayfind
themselvesoverwhelmedwithpessimisticthinkingpatternsthatmakeitdifficulttofunctionin
dailylife.Theseruminationscanleadtoincreasedstresslevels,pessimism,andselfsabotaging,
andcanevencontributetofeelingsoflearnedhelplessness.
Withthehelpofcognitivepsychologists,peopleareoftenabletofindwaystocopeandeven
overcomesuchdifficulties.Therapytreatmentsrootedincognitiveresearchfocusonhelping
peoplechangethesenegativethinkingpatternsandreplacesuchthoughtswithmorepositiveand
realisticones.

Cognitive Psychology and Mental Health

Inadditiontoaddingtoourunderstandingofhowthehumanmindworks,thefieldofcognitive
psychologyhasalsohadanimpactonapproachestomentalhealth.Beforethe1970s,many
mentalhealthapproacheswerefocusedmoreonpsychoanalytic,behavioral,
andhumanisticapproaches.Thesocalled"cognitiverevolution"thattookplaceduringthis
periodputagreateremphasisonunderstandingthewaypeopleprocessinformationandhow
thinkingpatternsmightcontributetopsychologicaldistress.

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Thankstoresearchinthisareabycognitivepsychologists,newapproachestotreatmentwere
developedtohelptreatdepression,anxiety,phobias,andotherpsychologicaldisorders.
Cognitivebehaviortherapyandrationalemotivebehaviortherapyaretwomethodsinwhich
clientsandtherapistsfocusontheunderlyingcognitionsthatcontributetopsychologicaldistress.
Usingthesemethods,therapistscanhelpclientsidentifyirrationalbeliefsandothercognitive
distortionsthatareinconflictwithrealityandthenaidtheminreplacingsuchthoughtswith
morerealistic,healthybeliefs.
Ifyouareexperiencingsymptomsofapsychologicaldisorderthatwouldbenefitfromtheuseof
cognitiveapproaches,youmightseeapsychologistwhohasspecifictraininginthesecognitive
treatmentmethods.Theseprofessionalsfrequentlygobytitlesotherthancognitivepsychologist
suchaspsychiatrist,clinicalpsychologist,orcounselingpsychologist,butmanyofthestrategies
theyutilizearerootedinthecognitivetradition.Ifyou'reunsureofapractitioner'sdisciplineor
approach,justaskhimorher.

If You Have Been Recently Diagnosed With a Cognitive Issue

Beingdiagnosedwithabrainorcognitivehealthproblemcanbefrighteningandsometimes
confusing,butitisimportanttorememberthatyouarenotalone.Byworkingwithyourdoctor,
youcancomeupwithaneffectivetreatmentplantohelpaddressbrainhealthandcognitive
problems.Yourtreatmentmayinvolveconsultingwithacognitivepsychologistwhohasa
backgroundinthespecificareaofconcernthatyouarefacing,oryoumaybereferredtoanother
mentalhealthprofessionalthathastrainingandexperiencewithyourparticularillness.
Youmayfindithelpfultolearnasmuchasyoucanaboutyourinitialdiagnosisandtoconsider
puttingtogetheralistofquestionsyouhavebeforeyournextvisitwithyourphysician,cognitive
psychologist,ormentalhealthprofessional.Thiscanhelpyoufeelbetterpreparedandreadyto
tacklethenextstepsinyourtreatment.

A Word From Verywell

Asyoucansee,thefieldofcognitivepsychologyisbothbroadanddiverse,yetittouchesonso
manyaspectsofdailylife.Researchoncognitivepsychologymayattimesseemacademicand
farremovedfromtheproblemsyoufaceineverydaylife,yetthefindingsfromsuchscientific
investigationsplayaroleinhowprofessionalsapproachthetreatmentofmentalillness,
traumaticbraininjury,anddegenerativebraindiseases.Thankstotheworkofcognitive
psychologists,wecanbetterpinpointwaystomeasurehumanintellectualabilities,developnew
strategiestocombatmemoryproblems,anddecodetheworkingsofthehumanbrainallof
whichultimatelyhasapowerfulimpactonhowwetreatcognitivedisorders.
Thefieldofcognitivepsychologyisarapidlygrowingareathatcontinuestoaddtoour
understandingofthemanyinfluencesthatmentalprocesseshaveonourhealthanddailylives.
Fromunderstandinghowcognitiveprocesseschangeoverthecourseofchilddevelopmentto
lookingathowthebraintransformssensoryinputsintoperceptions,cognitivepsychologyhas
helpedusgainadeeperandricherunderstandingofthemanymentaleventsthatcontributeto
ourdailyexistenceandoverallwellbeing.

Personality Psychology
ByKendraCherryReviewedbyaboardcertifiedphysician.
UpdatedAugust29,2016

Whatexactlyispersonality?Howdoesunderstandingyourownpersonalityhelpyougain
greaterinsightintoyouremotionalwellbeing?Personalityissomethingthatpeopleoften
describe,yetmanydonotfullyunderstandexactlywhatthescientificstudyofpersonalityisall
about.Itisyouruniquepersonalitythatmakesyouwhoyouareandinfluenceseverythingfrom
yourrelationshipstothewayyoulive.
Personalitypsychologyisoneofthelargestandmostpopularbranchesofpsychology.
Psychologistsstrivetounderstandhowpersonalitydevelopsaswellashowitinfluencestheway
wethinkandbehave.Thisareaofpsychologyseekstounderstandpersonalityandhowitvaries
amongindividualsaswellashowpeoplearesimilarintermsofpersonality.Psychologistsalso
assess,diagnose,andtreatpersonalitydisordersthatcaninterferewithanindividual'sdaytoday
life.

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What Is Personality?
Whatisitthatmakesyouwhoyouare?Certainly,manyfactorscontributetothepersonyouare
today,includingyourgenetics,yourupbringing,andyourlifeexperiences.
Manywouldarguethatwhattrulymakesyouuniqueisthecharacteristicpatternsofthoughts,
feelings,andbehaviorsthatmakeupyourpersonality.
Whilethereisnosingleagreedupondefinitionofpersonality,itisoftenthoughtofassomething
thatarisesfromwithintheindividualandremainsfairlyconsistentthroughoutlife.It
encompassesallofthethoughts,behaviorpatterns,andsocialattitudesthatimpacthowweview
ourselvesandwhatwebelieveaboutothersandtheworldaroundus.
Understandingpersonalityallowspsychologiststopredicthowpeoplewillrespondtocertain
situationsandthesortsofthingstheypreferandvalue.
Inordertounderstandhowresearchersstudypersonalitypsychology,itisimportanttostartby
learningmoreaboutsomeofthemostinfluentialpersonalitytheories.

How Do Psychologists Think About Personality?

Anumberofdifferenttheorieshaveemergedtoexplainvariousaspectsofpersonality.Some
theoriesfocusonexplaininghowpersonalitydevelops,whileothersareconcernedwith
individualdifferencesinpersonality.

Personality Is Often Described In Terms of Traits

Thetraittheoriesofpersonalityarecenteredontheideathatpersonalityismadeupofanumber
ofdifferentbroadtraitsordispositions.Varioustheorieshavebeenproposedovertheyearsto
attempttoidentifyexactlywhichattributesserveaskeycomponentsinpersonalityandto
determinethetotalnumberofpersonalitytraits.
PsychologistGordonAllportwasoneofthefirsttodescribepersonalityintermsofindividual
traits.

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Inhisdispositionalperspective,hesuggestedthattherearedifferentkindsoftraits.Common
traitsarethosethataresharedbymanypeoplewithinaparticularculture.Centraltraitsarethose
thatmakeupanindividual'spersonality.Cardinaltraitsarethosethataresodominantthata
personbecomesprimarilyknownforthosecharacteristics.MotherTeresa,forexample,wasso
wellknownforhercharitableworkthathernamebecamealmostsynonymoustoservicetothose
inneed.
WhileAllporthadsuggestedthattherewereasmanyas4,000individualtraits,thepsychologist
RaymondCattellproposedthattherewere16.Healsobelievedthatthesetraitsexistona
continuumandthatallpeoplepossesseachtraitinvaryingdegrees.Later,psychologistHans
Eysencknarrowedthislistoftraitsevenfurtherandsuggestedthattherewerejustthree:
extroversion,neuroticism,andpsychoticism.
The"BigFive"theoryisperhapsthemostpopularandwidelyacceptedtraittheoryof
personalitytoday.
Thistheoryproposesthatpersonalityismadeupoffivebroadpersonalitydimensions:
extroversion,agreeableness,conscientiousness,neuroticism,andopenness.Eachtraitexistsasa
broadcontinuum,andeachindividual'spersonalityliessomewhereonthatspectrumforeach
trait.Forexample,youmightbehighinextroversion,conscientiousness,andagreeableness
whilebeingsomewhereinthemiddleofthecontinuumforthetraitsofopennessand
neuroticism.

Some Theories Look at How Personality Develops and Changes

Through Life
Freud'stheoryofpsychosexualdevelopmentisoneofthebestknownpersonalitytheories,but
alsooneofthemostcontroversial.AccordingtoFreud,childrenprogressthroughaseriesof
stagesofpersonalitydevelopment.Ateachstage,libidinalenergy,ortheforcethatdrivesall
humanbehaviors,becomesfocusedonspecificerogenouszones.Successfulcompletionofeach
stageresultsinmovingontothenextphaseofdevelopment,butfailureatanyparticularstage
canleadtofixationsthatcanimpactadultpersonality.

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AnotherpsychologistnamedErikEriksondescribedaseriesofeightpsychosocial

stagesthat
peoplegothroughduringlife.Eachstageplaysasignificantroleinthedevelopmentof
personalityandpsychologicalskills.Duringeachstage,theindividualfacesadevelopmental
crisisthatservesasaturningpointindevelopment.
Eriksonwasmoreinterestedinhowsocialinteractionsinfluencedthedevelopmentofpersonality
andwasprimarilyconcernedwiththedevelopmentofwhathecalledegoidentity.Successfully
completingthestagesleadstothedevelopmentofahealthypersonality.WhileFreud'stheory
suggestedthatpersonalityisprimarilyformedandsetinstoneataveryearlyage,Erikson
believedthatpersonalitycontinuestodevelopandgrowthroughoutlife.

How Is Personality Tested?

Inordertostudyandmeasurepersonality,psychologistshavedevelopedanumberofdifferent
personalitytests,assessments,andinventories.Manyofthesetestsarewidelyusedinavariety

ofsettings.Forexample,thefamousMyersBriggsTypeIndicatororMBTIisfrequentlyusedas
apreemploymentscreeningassessment.
Otherassessmentsmaybeusedtohelppeoplelearnmoreaboutdifferentaspectsoftheir
personalitiesorasscreeningandevaluationtoolswhendiagnosingdifferenttypesofpersonality
disorders.
Thechancesarethatyouhaveencounteredawidevarietyofpersonalitytestsindifferentforms
online.Manyofthesetestspurporttorevealthe"realyou,"whileothersareclearlyjustfor
entertainment.Forexample,youmightcomeacrossonlinequizzesthatidentifywhetheryou
haveanextrovertedorintrovertedpersonality.Gainingabetterunderstandingsuchthingsabout
yourselfcansometimeshelpyoubecomemoreawareofwhyyouworksowellwithothersor
whyyousometimesfeellikeyoujustneedalittlealonetime.
Thekeyistorememberthatanyassessmentthatyoutakeonlineshouldprobablybetakenwitha
grainofsalt.Theseinformaltoolscanbefunandcanevensometimesofferinsightintoyour
preferencesandcharacteristics,butonlypersonalitytestsadministeredbytrainedandqualified
professionalsshouldbeusedforanysortofformalassessmentordiagnosis.

If You Have Been Diagnosed With a Personality Disorder

Personalitypsychologistsnotonlystudyhowpersonalitydevelops,buttheyarealsointerestedin
variousproblemsthatmayarise.Anumberofdifferentpersonalitydisordershave
beenidentifiedthatcanhaveaseriousimpactonanindividual'slifeandfunctioning.
TheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthreportsthatapproximately9.1percentoftheadultU.S.
populationexperiencessymptomsofatleastonepersonalitydisordereachyear.So,whatexactly
isapersonalitydisorder?Thesedisordersarecharacterizedaschronicandpervasivemental
disordersthatimpactthoughts,behaviors,andinterpersonalfunctioning.TheDSM5currently
lists10differentpersonalitydisorders.Theseincludeantisocialpersonalitydisorder,borderline
personalitydisorder,narcissisticpersonalitydisorder,andobsessivecompulsivepersonality
disorder.
Beingdiagnosedwithapersonalitydisordercanoftenbequitedistressing,butitisimportantto
rememberthathelpisavailable.Byworkingwithmentalhealthprofessionals,youcanfindways
ofrecognizingthedifficultiesthatthesedisorderscancauseinyourlifeandexplorenewcoping
strategies.

ItisOKtofeelfrightenedandconcernedaboutwhatthefuturemayhold,buttheimportantthing
torememberisthatyoudonothavetofaceitalone.Therearepeoplewhoaretrained,skilled,
andreadytohelpyoutakethenextstepsinyourtreatment.Dependingonyourspecific
diagnosis,yourdoctormayrecommendsomeformofpsychotherapy,skillstraining,medication,
oracombinationofallthree.Thekeyistoworkcloselywithyourhealthcareteamtodevelopa
treatmentplanthatfocusesonyourneedsandgoals.

A Word From Verywell

Personalityisabroadsubjectthattouchesonnearlyeveryaspectofwhatmakespeoplewhothey
are.Therearemanydifferentwaystothinkaboutpersonality,suchasfocusingonindividual
traitsorlookingatthedifferentdevelopmentalstagesthattakeplaceaspersonalityemergesand
sometimeschangesovertime.
Psychologistsarenotjustinterestedinunderstandingnormalhumanpersonality,butin
recognizingpotentialpersonalitydisturbancesthatmightleadtodistressordifficultywith
school,work,relationships,andotherkeylifeareas.Bybeingabletoidentifysuchproblems,
psychologistsarebetterabletohelppeopledevelopskillstobettercopeandmanagethe
symptomsofpersonalitydisorders.
Industrialorganizationalpsychologyisthebranchofpsychologythatappliespsychological
theoriesandprinciplestoorganizations.OftenreferredtoasIOpsychology,thisfieldfocuseson
increasingworkplaceproductivityandrelatedissuessuchasthephysicalandmentalwellbeingof
employees.Industrialorganizationalpsychologistsperformawidevarietyoftasks,including
studyingworkerattitudesandbehavior,evaluatingcompanies,andconductingleadershiptraining.
Theoverallgoalofthisfieldistostudyandunderstandhumanbehaviorintheworkplace.

The Two Sides of I-O Psychology

Youcanthinkofindustrialorganizationalpsychologyashavingtwomajorsides.First,theiristhe
industrialside,whichinvolveslookingathowtobestmatchindividualstospecificjobroles.This
segmentofIOpsychologyisalsosometimesreferredtoaspersonnelpsychology.
Peoplewhoworkinthisareamightassessemployeecharacteristicsandthenmatchtheseindividuals
tojobsinwhichtheyarelikelytoperformwell.OtherfunctionsthatfallontheindustrialsideofIO
psychologyincludetrainingemployees,developingjobperformancestandards,andmeasuringjob
performance.

Theorganizationalsideofpsychologyismorefocusedonunderstandinghoworganizationsaffect
individualbehavior.Organizationalstructures,socialnorms,managementstyles,androle
expectationsareallfactorsthatcaninfluencehowpeoplebehaviorwithinanorganization.
Byunderstandingsuchfactors,IOpsychologistshopetoimproveindividualperformanceandhealth
whileatthesametimebenefitingtheorganizationasawhole.

How is Industrial Organizational Psychology Different?

Whileindustrialorganizationalpsychologyisanappliedfield,basictheoreticalresearchisalso
essential.
Withrootsinexperimentalpsychology,IOpsychologyhasanumberofdifferentsubareassuchas
humancomputerinteraction,personnelpsychology,andhumanfactors.

Six Key Areas of I-O Psychology

AccordingtoMuchinsky(2000),mostindustrialorganizationalpsychologistsworkinoneofsix
majorsubjectareas:

Traininganddevelopment:Professionalinthisareaoftendeterminewhattypeofskillsare
necessarytoperformspecificjobsaswellasdevelopandevaluateemployeetraining
programs.
EmployeeSelection:Thisareainvolvesdevelopingemployeeselectionassessments,suchas
screeningteststodetermineifjobapplicantsarequalifiedforaparticularposition.

Ergonomics:Thefieldofergonomicsinvolvesdesigningproceduresandequipment
designedtomaximizeperformanceandminimizeinjury.

PerformanceManagement:IOpsychologistswhoworkinthisareadevelopassessments
andtechniquestodetermineifemployeesaredoingtheirjobswell.

WorkLife:Thisareafocusesonimprovingemployeesatisfactionandmaximizingthe
productivityoftheworkforce.IOpsychologistsinthisareamightworktofindwaystomake
jobsmorerewardingordesignprogramsthatimprovethequalityoflifeintheworkplace.

OrganizationalDevelopment:IOpsychologistswhoworkinthisareahelpimprove
organizations,oftenthroughincreasingprofits,redesigningproducts,andimprovingthe
organizationalstructure.

Who Should Study Industrial Organizational Psychology?

Studentswhoareinterestedinapplyingpsychologicalprinciplestorealworldsettingshould
considerindustrialorganizationalpsychology.Ifyouhaveastronginterestinpsychologyaswellas

relatedsubjectssuchasproductdesign,computers,statisticsandengineering,thismaybetheideal
fieldforyou.

Major Topics in Industrial Organizational Psychology

Productdesign
Employeetesting

Leadership

Workplacediversity

Workplaceperformance

Employeemotivation

Important People in the History of Industrial Organizational Psychology

HugoMnsterberg
FrederickW.Taylor

RobertYerkes

JamesMcKeenCattell

EltonMayo

KurtLewin

An Overview of Social Psychology

ByKendraCherryReviewedbyaboardcertifiedphysician.
UpdatedSeptember29,2016

Whatisitthatshapesourattitudes?Whyaresomepeoplesuchgreatleaders?Howdoes
prejudicedevelop,andhowcanweovercomeit?Thesearejustafewofthebigquestionsof
interestinthefieldofsocialpsychology.Socialpsychologiststackleissuesthatcanhavea
significantimpactonindividualhealthandwellbeing,fromunderstandingwhybullying
behaviorandaggressiontakeplacetoanalyzingwhypeoplesometimesfailtohelpindividualsin
need.

What Is Social Psychology?

AccordingtopsychologistGordonAllport,socialpsychologyisadisciplinethatusesscientific
methods"tounderstandandexplainhowthethoughts,feelings,andbehaviorofindividualsare
influencedbytheactual,imagined,orimpliedpresenceofotherhumanbeings."Essentially,
socialpsychologyisallaboutunderstandinghoweachperson'sindividualbehaviorisinfluenced
bythesocialenvironmentinwhichthatbehaviortakesplace.

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Youprobablyalreadyrealizethatotherpeoplecanhaveadramaticinfluenceonthewayyouact
andthechoicesyoumake.Considerhowyoumightbehaveinasituationifyouwereallalone
versusiftherewereotherpeopleintheroom.Thedecisionsyoumakeandthebehaviorsyou
exhibitmightdependonnotonlyhowmanypeoplearepresentbutexactlywhoyouarearound.
Forexample,youarelikelytobehavemuchdifferentlywhenyouarearoundagroupofclose
friendsthanyouwouldaroundagroupofcolleaguesorsupervisorsfromwork.
Socialpsychologylooksatawiderangeofsocialtopics,including:

Groupbehavior

Socialperception

Leadership

Nonverbalbehavior

Conformity

Aggression

Prejudice

Itisimportanttonotethatsocialpsychologyisnotjustaboutlookingatsocialinfluences.Social
perceptionandsocialinteractionarealsovitaltounderstandingsocialbehavior.Thewaythat
weseeotherpeople(andthewaywethinktheyseeus)canplayapowerfulroleinawidevariety
ofactionsanddecisions.Justthinkforamomentabouthowyousometimesactdifferentlyina
publicsettingthanyoumightifyouwereathomebyyourself.Athomeyoumightbeloudand
rambunctious,whileinpublicyoumightbemuchmoresubduedandreserved.
Whyisthis?Becausethepeoplearoundusshapeourthoughts,feelings,moods,attitudes,and
perceptions.Thepresenceofotherpeoplecanmakeadifferenceinthechoiceswemakeandthe
actionswetake.

Whilesocialpsychologytendstobeanacademicfield,theresearchthatsocialpsychologists
performcananddoeshaveapowerfulinfluenceonourunderstandingofvariousaspectsof
mentalhealthandwellbeing.

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Forexample,researchonconformityhascontributedtoourunderstandingofwhyteenagers
sometimesgotosuchgreatlengthstofitinwiththeirsocialgroupsometimestothedetriment
oftheirownhealthandwellness.Asaresult,psychologistsareabletodeveloppublichealth
programsandtreatmentapproachesaimedathelpingteenagersresistpotentiallyharmful
behaviorssuchassmoking,drinking,andsubstanceuse.

How Did People Become Interested in Social Psychology?

WhilePlatoreferredtotheideaofthe"crowdmind,"andconceptssuchassocialloafingand
socialfacilitationwereintroducedinthelate1800s,itwasn'tuntilafterWorldWarIIthat
researchonsocialpsychologybeganinearnest.

ThehorrorsoftheHolocaustledresearcherstostudytheeffectsofsocialinfluence,conformity,
andobedience.Whatcouldexplainwhysomanypeopleparticipatedinsuchterribleandevil
actions,socialpsychologistswondered?Werepeopleonlyfollowingordersandbowingtosocial
pressure,orweretheresomeotherforcesatworkthatledpeopletoengageinsuchdevastating
actions?
Byinvestigatingthesequestions,socialpsychologistswereabletogainagreaterunderstanding
ofthepowerofsocietalforcessuchasauthority,compliance,andobedience.
SocialpsychologistStanleyMilgram,forexample,wasabletodemonstratejusthowfarpeople
arewillingtogotoobeyauthorityfigures.Inaseriesofnowinfamousexperiments,Milgram
andhiscolleaguesorderedstudyparticipantstodeliverwhattheybelievedwasapotentially
dangerousshocktoanotherperson.Inreality,theshockswerenotrealandtheotherindividual
wasonlypretendingtobehurtbytheelectricalpulsesbutawhopping65percentofthosewho
tookpartinthestudydeliveredthemaximumlevelofshocksimplybecauseanauthorityfigure
toldthemtodoso.
Socialpsychologyhascontinuedtogrowthroughoutthetwentiethcentury,inspiringresearch
thathascontributedtoourunderstandingofsocialexperienceandbehavior.Oursocialworld
makesupsuchatremendouspartofourlives,soitisnowonderthatthistopicissofascinating
tomany.

LIST

8 Interesting Social Psychology Experiments

ARTICLE

The Mere Exposure Effect: Why We Tend to Like Things That Are Familiar

How Is Social Psychology Different From Other Disciplines?

Itisimportanttodifferentiatesocialpsychologyfromafewsimilarandrelatedsubjects.Social
psychologyisoftenconfusedwithfolkwisdom,personalitypsychology,andsociology.What
makessocialpsychologydifferent?Unlikefolkwisdom,whichreliesonanecdotalobservations
andsubjectiveinterpretation,socialpsychologyemploysscientificmethodsandtheempirical
studyofsocialphenomena.Researchersdonotjustmakeguessesorassumptionsabouthow
peoplebehave;theydeviseandcarryoutexperimentsthathelppointoutrelationshipsbetween
differentvariables.
Whilepersonalitypsychologyfocusesonindividualtraits,characteristics,andthoughts,social
psychologyisfocusedonsituations.Socialpsychologistsareinterestedintheimpactthatthe
socialenvironmentandgroupinteractionshaveonattitudesandbehaviors.
Finally,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweensocialpsychologyandsociology.Whilethereare
manysimilaritiesbetweenthetwo,sociologytendstolookatsocialbehaviorandinfluencesata
verybroadbasedlevel.Sociologistsareinterestedintheinstitutionsandculturesthatinfluence
howpeoplebehave.Psychologistsinsteadfocusonsituationalvariablesthataffectsocial
behavior.Whilepsychologyandsociologybothstudysimilartopics,theyarelookingatthese
questionsfromdifferentperspectives.

A Word From Verywell

Whatmakessocialpsychologysuchanimportanttopic?Aquickglimpseatthedailynews
showsjusthowprofoundlysocialproblemscanimpactpeople'slives.Bybetterunderstanding
theseissues,psychologistscanlookforwaystoprevent,identify,andremedysuchproblems.
Socialpsychologistsfocusonsocietalconcernsthathaveapowerfulinfluenceonindividual
wellbeingaswellasthehealthofsocietyasawhole,includingproblemssuchassubstanceuse,
crime,prejudice,domesticabuse,publichealth,bullying,andaggression.
Socialpsychologiststypicallydonotworkdirectlyinthefieldofmentalhealth,buttheresultsof
theirresearchdohaveasignificantinfluenceonhowpsychologistsandmentalhealth
professionalstreatbehaviorsthatareinfluencedbysocialfactors.Publichealthprograms,for

example,oftenrelyonpersuasiontechniquesidentifiedbysocialpsychologiststoencourage
peopletoengageinhealthybehaviorswhileavoidingpotentiallydangerousones

What is Psychosocial Development?

SowhatexactlydidErikson'stheoryofpsychosocialdevelopmententail?
MuchlikeSigmundFreud,Eriksonbelievedthatpersonalitydevelopsinaseriesofstages.Unlike
Freud'stheoryofpsychosexualstages,Erikson'stheorydescribestheimpactofsocialexperience
acrossthewholelifespan.Eriksonwasinterestedinhowsocialinteractionandrelationshipsplayeda
roleinthedevelopmentandgrowthofhumanbeings.
OneofthemainelementsofErikson'spsychosocialstagetheoryisthedevelopmentofegoidentity.
Egoidentityistheconscioussenseofselfthatwedevelopthroughsocialinteraction.Accordingto
Erikson,ouregoidentityisconstantlychangingduetonewexperiencesandinformationweacquire
inourdailyinteractionswithothers.Aswefaceeachnewstageofdevelopment,wefaceanew
challengethatcanhelpfurtherdeveloporhinderthedevelopmentofidentity.
Whenpsychologiststalkaboutidentity,theyarereferringtoallofthebeliefs,ideals,andvaluesthat
helpshapeandguideaperson'sbehavior.
Formingtheidentityissomethingthatbeginsinchildhoodandbecomesparticularlyimportant
duringadolescence,butEriksonbelievedthatitisaprocessthatcontinuesthroughoutlife.Our
personalidentitygiveseachofusanintegratedandcohesivesenseofselfthatenduresandcontinues
togrowasweage.
Oursenseofpersonalidentityisshapedbyourexperiencesandinteractionswithothers,anditisthis
identitythathelpsguideouractions,beliefs,andbehaviorsandwegrowanddevelopthroughoutlife.
Inadditiontoegoidentity,Eriksonalsobelievedthatasenseofcompetencemotivatesbehaviorsand
actions.EachstageinErikson'stheoryisconcernedwithbecomingcompetentinanareaoflife.If
thestageishandledwell,thepersonwillfeelasenseofmastery,whichissometimesreferredto
asegostrengthoregoquality.Ifthestageismanagedpoorly,thepersonwillemergewithasense
ofinadequacy.
Ineachstage,Eriksonbelievedpeopleexperienceaconflictthatservesasaturningpointin
development.InErikson'sview,theseconflictsarecenteredoneitherdevelopingapsychological
qualityorfailingtodevelopthatquality.Duringthesetimes,thepotentialforpersonalgrowthis
high,butsoisthepotentialforfailure.
Ifpeoplesuccessfullydealwiththeconflict,theyemergefromthestagewithpsychologicalstrengths
thatwillservethemwellfortherestoftheirlife.
Iftheyfailtodealeffectivelywiththeseconflict,theymaynotdeveloptheessentialskillsneededfor
astrongsenseofidentityandself.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

ThefirststageofErikson'stheoryofpsychosocialdevelopmentoccursbetweenbirthandone
yearofageandisthemostfundamentalstageinlife.

Becauseaninfantisutterlydependent,developingtrustisbasedonthedependabilityand
qualityofthechild'scaregivers.Atthispointindevelopment,thechildisutterlydependent
uponadultcaregiversforeverythingthattheyneedtosurviveincludingfood,love,warmth,
safety,andnurturing.Everything.Ifacaregiverfailstoprovideadequatecareandlove,the
childwillcometofeelthatheorshecannottrustordependupontheadultsinhisorherlife.
Ifachildsuccessfullydevelopstrust,heorshewillfeelsafeandsecureintheworld.
Caregiverswhoareinconsistent,emotionallyunavailable,orrejectingcontributetofeelings
ofmistrustinthechildrentheycarefor.Failuretodeveloptrustwillresultinfearandabelief
thattheworldisinconsistentandunpredictable.
Ofcourse,nochildisgoingtodevelopasenseof100percenttrustor100percentdoubt.
Eriksonbelievedthatsuccessfuldevelopmentwasallaboutstrikingabalancebetweenthe
twoopposingsides.Whenthishappens,childrenacquirehope,whichEriksondescribedas
anopennesstoexperiencetemperedbysomewarinessthatdangermaybepresent.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

ThesecondstageofErikson'stheoryofpsychosocialdevelopmenttakesplaceduringearly
childhoodandisfocusedonchildrendevelopingagreatersenseofpersonalcontrol.

Atthispointindevelopment,childrenarejuststartingtogainalittleindependence.Theyare
startingtoperformbasicactionsontheirownandmakingsimpledecisionsaboutwhatthey
prefer.Byallowingkidstomakechoicesandgaincontrol,parentsandcaregiverscanhelp
childrendevelopasenseofautonomy.
LikeFreud,Eriksonbelievedthattoilettrainingwasavitalpartofthisprocess.However,
Erikson'sreasoningwasquitedifferentthanthatofFreud's.Eriksonbelievedthatlearningto
controlone'sbodilyfunctionsleadstoafeelingofcontrolandasenseofindependence.

Otherimportanteventsincludegainingmorecontroloverfoodchoices,toypreferences,and
clothingselection.

Childrenwhosuccessfullycompletethisstagefeelsecureandconfident,whilethosewhodo
notareleftwithasenseofinadequacyandselfdoubt.

Eriksonbelievedthatachievingabalancebetweenautonomyandshameanddoubtwould
leadtowill,whichisthebeliefthatchildrencanactwithintention,withinreasonandlimits.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

Thethirdstageofpsychosocialdevelopmenttakesplaceduringthepreschoolyears.

Atthispointinpsychosocialdevelopment,childrenbegintoasserttheirpowerandcontrol
overtheworldthroughdirectingplayandothersocialinteractions.
Childrenwhoaresuccessfulatthisstagefeelcapableandabletoleadothers.Thosewhofail
toacquiretheseskillsareleftwithasenseofguilt,selfdoubt,andlackofinitiative.
Whenanidealbalanceofindividualinitiativeandawillingnesstoworkwithothersis
achieved,theegoqualityknownaspurposeemerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

Thefourthpsychosocialstagetakesplaceduringtheearlyschoolyearsfromapproximately
age5to11.

Throughsocialinteractions,childrenbegintodevelopasenseofprideintheir
accomplishmentsandabilities.
Childrenwhoareencouragedandcommendedbyparentsandteachersdevelopafeelingof
competenceandbeliefintheirskills.Thosewhoreceivelittleornoencouragementfrom
parents,teachers,orpeerswilldoubttheirabilitiestobesuccessful.
Successfullyfindingabalanceatthisstageofpsychosocialdevelopmentleadstothestrength
knownascompetenceorabeliefourownabilitiestohandlethetaskssetbeforeus.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

Thefifthpsychosocialstagetakesplaceduringthesometimesturbulentteenageyears.This
stageplaysanessentialroleindevelopingasenseofpersonalidentitywhichwillcontinueto
influencebehavioranddevelopmentfortherestofaperson'slife.

Duringadolescence,childrenexploretheirindependenceanddevelopasenseofself.
Thosewhoreceiveproperencouragementandreinforcementthroughpersonalexploration
willemergefromthisstagewithastrongsenseofselfandafeelingofindependenceand
control.Thosewhoremainunsureoftheirbeliefsanddesireswillfeelinsecureandconfused
aboutthemselvesandthefuture.

Completingthisstagesuccessfullyleadstofidelity,whichEriksondescribedasanabilityto
livebysociety'sstandardsandexpectations.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

Thisstagecoverstheperiodofearlyadulthoodwhenpeopleareexploringpersonal
relationships.

Eriksonbelieveditwasvitalthatpeopledevelopclose,committedrelationshipswithother
people.Thosewhoaresuccessfulatthisstepwillformrelationshipsthatareenduringand
secure.
Rememberthateachstepbuildsonskillslearnedinprevioussteps.Eriksonbelievedthata
strongsenseofpersonalidentitywasimportantfordevelopingintimaterelationships.Studies
havedemonstratedthatthosewithapoorsenseofselfdotendtohavelesscommitted
relationshipsandaremorelikelytosufferemotionalisolation,loneliness,anddepression.
Successfulresolutionofthisstageresultsinthevirtueknownaslove.Itismarkedbythe
abilitytoformlasting,meaningfulrelationshipswithotherpeople.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

Duringadulthood,wecontinuetobuildourlives,focusingonourcareerandfamily.

Thosewhoaresuccessfulduringthisphasewillfeelthattheyarecontributingtotheworldby
beingactiveintheirhomeandcommunity.Thosewhofailtoattainthisskillwillfeel
unproductiveanduninvolvedintheworld.
Careisthevirtueachievedwhenthisstageishandledsuccessfully.Beingproudofyour
accomplishments,watchingyourchildrengrowintoadults,anddevelopingasenseofunity
withyourlifepartnerareimportantaccomplishmentsofthisstage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

Thefinalpsychosocialstageoccursduringoldageandisfocusedonreflectingbackonlife.

Atthispointindevelopment,peoplelookbackontheeventsoftheirlivesanddetermineif
theyarehappywiththelifethattheylivedoriftheyregretthethingstheydidordidn'tdo.
Thosewhoareunsuccessfulduringthisstagewillfeelthattheirlifehasbeenwastedandwill
experiencemanyregrets.Theindividualwillbeleftwithfeelingsofbitternessanddespair.
Thosewhofeelproudoftheiraccomplishmentswillfeelasenseofintegrity.Successfully
completingthisphasemeanslookingbackwithfewregretsandageneralfeelingof
satisfaction.Theseindividualswillattainwisdom,evenwhenconfrontingdeath.

More About Erikson and Psychosocial Stages

ErikEriksonBiography
PsychosocialStagesSummaryChart

ACloserLookatthePsychosocialStages

The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

Oneofthestrengthsofpsychosocialtheoryisthatitprovidesabroadframeworkfromwhichtoview
developmentthroughouttheentirelifespan.Italsoallowsustoemphasizethesocialnatureofhuman
beingsandtheimportantinfluencethatsocialrelationshipshaveondevelopment.
ResearchershavefoundevidencesupportingErikson'sideasaboutidentityandhavefurther
identifieddifferentsubstagesofidentityformation.Someresearchalsosuggeststhatpeoplewho
formstrongpersonalidentitiesduringadolescencearebettercapableofformingintimate
relationshipsduringearlyadulthood.

Limitations of Psychosocial Theory

Whatkindsofexperiencesarenecessarytosuccessfullycompleteeachstage?Howdoesaperson
movefromonestagetothenext?Onemajorweaknessofpsychosocialtheoryisthattheexact
mechanismsforresolvingconflictsandmovingfromonestagetothenextarenotwelldescribedor
developed.Thetheoryfailstodetailexactlywhattypeofexperiencesarenecessaryateachstagein
ordertosuccessfullyresolvetheconflictsandmovetothenextstage.

An Overview of Behavioral Psychology

ByKendraCherryReviewedbyaboardcertifiedphysician.
UpdatedAugust16,2016

Behaviorism,alsoknownasbehavioralpsychology,isatheoryoflearningbasedontheideathat
allbehaviorsareacquiredthroughconditioning.Conditioningoccursthroughinteractionwiththe
environment.Behavioristsbelievethatourresponsestoenvironmentalstimulishapeouractions.
Accordingtothisschoolofthought,behaviorcanbestudiedinasystematicandobservable
mannerregardlessofinternalmentalstates.
Basically,onlyobservablebehaviorshouldbeconsideredcognitions,emotions,andmoodsare
fartoosubjective.
Strictbehavioristsbelievedthatanypersoncanpotentiallybetrainedtoperformanytask,
regardlessofgeneticbackground,personalitytraits,andinternalthoughts(withinthelimitsof
theirphysicalcapabilities).Itonlyrequirestherightconditioning.

A Brief History
Behaviorismwasformallyestablishedwiththe1913publicationofJohnB.

ARTICLE

Can't Stand Eating Certain Foods? You Might Have a Taste Aversion

ARTICLE

How Classical Conditioning Works: An Overview With Examples

Watson'sclassicpaper,"PsychologyastheBehavioristViewsIt."Itisbestsummedupbythe
followingquotefromWatson,whoisoftenconsideredthe"father"ofbehaviorism:
"Givemeadozenhealthyinfants,wellformed,andmyownspecifiedworldtobringthemupin
andI'llguaranteetotakeanyoneatrandomandtrainhimtobecomeanytypeofspecialistI
mightselectdoctor,lawyer,artist,merchantchiefand,yes,evenbeggarmanandthief,
regardlessofhistalents,penchants,tendencies,abilities,vocations,andraceofhisancestors."
Simplyput,strictbehavioristsbelievethatallbehaviorsaretheresultofexperience.
Anyperson,regardlessofhisorherbackground,canbetrainedtoactinaparticularmanner
giventherightconditioning.

Fromabout1920throughthemid1950s,behaviorismgrewtobecomethedominantschoolof
thoughtinpsychology.Somesuggestthatthepopularityofbehavioralpsychologygrewoutof
thedesiretoestablishpsychologyasanobjectiveandmeasurablescience.Researcherswere
interestedincreatingtheoriesthatcouldbeclearlydescribedandempiricallymeasured,butalso
usedtomakecontributionsthatmighthaveaninfluenceonthefabricofeverydayhumanlives.
Therearetwomajortypesofconditioning:
1. Classicalconditioningisatechniquefrequentlyusedinbehavioraltraininginwhichaneutral
stimulusispairedwithanaturallyoccurringstimulus.Eventually,theneutralstimuluscomesto
evokethesameresponseasthenaturallyoccurringstimulus,evenwithoutthenaturallyoccurring
stimuluspresentingitself.Theassociatedstimulusisnowknownastheconditionedstimulusand
thelearnedbehaviorisknownastheconditionedresponse.

LIST

4 Sneaky Mental Biases That Can Affect Your Health Choices

ARTICLE

Operant Conditioning: What You Need to Know

1. Operantconditioning(sometimesreferredtoasinstrumentalconditioning)isamethodof
learningthatoccursthroughreinforcementsandpunishments.Throughoperantconditioning,an
associationismadebetweenabehaviorandaconsequenceforthatbehavior.Whenadesirable
resultfollowsanaction,thebehaviorbecomesmorelikelytooccuragaininthefuture.Responses

followedbyadverseoutcomes,ontheotherhand,becomelesslikelytohappenagaininthe
future.

Top Things to Know

Learningcanoccurthroughassociations.Theclassicalconditioningprocessworksby
developinganassociationbetweenanenvironmentalstimulusandanaturallyoccurring
stimulus.InphysiologistIvanPavlov'sclassicexperiments,dogsassociatedthe
presentationoffood(somethingthatnaturallyandautomaticallytriggersasalivation
response)withthesoundofabell,atfirst,andthenthesightofalabassistant'swhite
coat.Eventually,thelabcoataloneelicitedasalivationresponsefromthedogs.

Differentfactorscaninfluencetheclassicalconditioningprocess.Duringthefirstpart
oftheclassicalconditioningprocess,knownasacquisition,aresponseisestablishedand
strengthened.Factorssuchastheprominenceofthestimuliandthetimingofpresentation
canplayanimportantroleinhowquicklyanassociationisformed.
Whenanassociationdisappears,thisisknownasextinction,causingthebehaviorto
weakengraduallyorvanish.Factorssuchasthestrengthoftheoriginalresponsecanplay
aroleinhowquicklyextinctionoccurs.Thelongeraresponsehasbeenconditioned,for
example,thelongeritmaytakeforittobecomeextinct.

Learningcanalsooccurthroughrewardsandpunishments.BehavioristB.F.Skinner
describedoperantconditioningastheprocessinwhichlearningcanoccurthrough
reinforcementandpunishment.Morespecifically,byforminganassociationbetweena
certainbehaviorandtheconsequencesofthatbehavior,youlearn.Forexample,ifa
parentrewardstheirchildwithpraiseeverytimetheypickuptheirtoys,thedesired
behaviorisconsistenlyreinforced.Asaresult,thechildwillbecomemorelikelytoclean
upmesses.

ARTICLE

Ace the Exam With This Classical and Operant Conditioning Study Guide

ARTICLE

Reinforcement Schedules and How They Work

Reinforcementschedulesareimportantinoperantconditioning.Thisprocessseems
fairlystraightforwardsimplyobserveabehaviorandthenofferarewardor
punishment.However,Skinnerdiscoveredthatthetimingoftheserewardsand
punishmentshasanimportantinfluenceonhowquicklyanewbehaviorisacquiredand
thestrengthofthecorrespondingresponse.

Continuousreinforcementinvolvesrewardingeverysingleinstanceofabehavior.Itis
oftenutilizedatthebeginningoftheoperantconditioningprocess.Butasthebehavioris
learned,theschedulemightswitchtooneofapartialreinforcement.Thisinvolves
offeringarewardafteranumberofresponsesorafteraperiodoftimehaselapsed.
Sometimes,partialreinforcementoccursonaconsistentorfixedschedule.Inother
instances,avariableandunpredictablenumberofresponsesortimemustoccurbefore
thereinforcementisdelivered.
Severalthinkersinfluencedbehavioralpsychology.Inadditiontothosealready
mentioned,thereareanumberofprominenttheoristsandpsychologistswholeftan
indeliblemarkonbehavioralpsychology.AmongtheseareEdwardThorndike,a
pioneeringpsychologistwhodescribedthelawofeffect,andClarkHull,whoproposed
thedrivetheoryoflearning.

Thereareanumberoftherapeutictechniquesrootedinbehavioralpsychology.Though
behavioralpsychologyassumedmoreofabackgroundpositionafter1950,itsprinciplesstill
remainimportant.Eventoday,behavioranalysisisoftenusedasatherapeutictechniquetohelp
childrenwithautismanddevelopmentaldelaysacquirenewskills.Itfrequentlyinvolves

processessuchasshaping(rewardingcloserapproximationstothedesiredbehavior)andchaining
(breakingataskdownintosmallerpartsandthenteachingandchainingthesubsequentsteps
together).Otherbehavioraltherapytechniquesincludeaversiontherapy,systematic
desensitization,tokeneconomies,modeling,andcontingencymanagement.

Behavioralpsychologyhassomestrengths.Behaviorismisbasedonobservablebehaviors,soit
issometimeseasiertoquantifyandcollectdatawhenconductingresearch.Effectivetherapeutic
techniquessuchasintensivebehavioralintervention,behavioranalysis,tokeneconomies,and
discretetrialtrainingareallrootedinbehaviorism.Theseapproachesareoftenveryusefulin
changingmaladaptiveorharmfulbehaviorsinbothchildrenandadults.

Italsohassomeweaknesses.Manycriticsarguethatbehaviorismisaonedimensionalapproach
tounderstandinghumanbehavior.Theysuggestthatbehavioraltheoriesdonotaccountforfree
willandinternalinfluencessuchasmoods,thoughts,andfeelings.Also,itdoesnotaccountfor
othertypesoflearningthatoccurswithouttheuseofreinforcementandpunishment.Moreover,
peopleandanimalscanadapttheirbehaviorwhennewinformationisintroducedevenifthat
behaviorwasestablishedthroughreinforcement.

Behavioralpsychologydiffersfromotherperspectives.Oneofthemajorbenefitsof
behaviorismisthatitallowedresearcherstoinvestigateobservablebehaviorinascientificand
systematicmanner.However,manythinkersbelieveditfellshortbyneglectingsomeimportant
influencesonbehavior.Freud,forexample,feltthatbehaviorismfailedbynotaccountingfor
theunconsciousmind'sthoughts,feelings,anddesiresthatinfluencepeople'sactions.Other
thinkers,suchasCarlRogersandtheotherhumanisticpsychologists,believedthatbehaviorism
wastoorigidandlimited,failingtotakeintoconsiderationpersonalagency.
Morerecently,biologicalpsychologyhasemphasizedthepowerthebrainandgeneticsplayin
determiningandinfluencinghumanactions.Thecognitiveapproachto

psychologyfocuseson
mentalprocessessuchasthinking,decisionmaking,language,andproblemsolving.Inboth
cases,behaviorismneglectstheseprocessesandinfluencesinfavorofstudyingjustobservable
behaviors.

A Word From Verywell

Oneofthegreateststrengthsofbehavioralpsychologyistheabilitytoclearlyobserveand
measurebehaviors.Weaknessesofthisapproachincludefailingtoaddresscognitiveand
biologicalprocessesthatinfluencehumanactions.Whilethebehavioralapproachmightnotbe

thedominantforcethatitoncewas,ithasstillhadamajorimpactonourunderstandingof
humanpsychology.Theconditioningprocessalonehasbeenusedtounderstandmanydifferent
typesofbehaviors,rangingfromhowpeoplelearntohowlanguagedevelops.
Butperhapsthegreatestcontributionsofbehavioralpsychologylieinitspracticalapplications.
Itstechniquescanplayapowerfulroleinmodifyingproblematicbehaviorandencouragingmore
positive,helpfulresponses.Outsideofpsychology,parents,teachers,animaltrainers,andmany
othersmakeuseofbasicbehavioralprinciplestohelpteachnewbehaviorsanddiscourage
unwantedones.
Sources:
Skinner,B.F.AboutBehaviorism.Toronto:AlfredA.Knopf,Inc;1974.
Mills,J.A.Control:AHistoryofBehavioralPsychology.NewYork:NYUPress;2000.
Watson,J.B.Behaviorism.NewBrunswick,NewJersey:TransactionPublishers;1930.