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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
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Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
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of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-214.03
Engineering Encyclopedia
Gas Turbines
Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
GAS TURBINE CYCLES AND THEIR EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE .......................... 5
REGENERATIVE CYCLE ..................................................................................... 13
COMBINED CYCLE.............................................................................................. 16
GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE DETERMINANTS .................................................... 18
POWER ................................................................................................................ 18
THERMAL EFFICIENCY....................................................................................... 20
HEAT RATE .......................................................................................................... 21
FUEL HEATING VALUE ....................................................................................... 22
AMBIENT CONDITIONS....................................................................................... 23
ISO CONDITIONS ................................................................................................ 24
SITE RATING........................................................................................................ 25
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE POWER OUTPUT AUGMENTATION....................... 27
EVAPORATIVE COOLING ................................................................................... 27
INLET COOLING BY REFRIGERATION .............................................................. 29
STEAM INJECTION.............................................................................................. 30
HELPER TURBINE ............................................................................................... 32
METHODS FOR GAS TURBINE EMISSIONS CONTROL ........................................... 33
STEAM OR WATER INJECTION.......................................................................... 34
SPECIALLY DESIGNED COMBUSTION SYSTEMS............................................ 35
SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION................................................................ 36
GAS TURBINE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS........................................................ 37
POWER REQUIREMENTS................................................................................... 37
SITE CONDITIONS............................................................................................... 40
SERVICE CONDITIONS ....................................................................................... 42
ENVIRONMENTAL RESTRICTIONS.................................................................... 44
ISO SELECTION................................................................................................... 44
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................... 46
DETERMINING SITE PERFORMANCE OF A GAS TURBINE ..................................... 47
DETERMINING ISO POWER AND HEAT RATE.................................................. 48
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Gas Turbines
Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Simple Cycle ............................................................................................. 5
Figure 2. Brayton Cycle................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3. Comparison of Real and Ideal Cycle.............................................................. 12
Figure 4. Regenerative Cycle........................................................................................ 13
Figure 5. Combined Cycle............................................................................................. 16
Figure 6. Steam Injected Cycle ..................................................................................... 30
Figure 7. Dry Low NOX Burner ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 8. Torque Characteristics of Single Shaft and Multiple Shaft Gas Turbines....... 39
Figure 9. Inlet Temperature Correction Factor .............................................................. 49
Figure 10. Altitude Correction Factor............................................................................. 51
Figure 11. Output Correction and Altitude vs. Atmospheric Pressure ........................... 52
Figure 12. Humidity Correction Factor........................................................................... 54
Figure 13. Inlet Loss Correction Factor ......................................................................... 56
Figure 14. Exhaust Loss Correction Factor ................................................................... 58
Figure 15. Ambient Temperature .................................................................................. 62
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INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Saudi Aramco uses gas turbines as drivers for electric
generators, compressors, and pumps. In order for the
Mechanical Engineer to properly select and specify gas turbine
drivers and to evaluate their performance, he must be familiar
with the basic gas turbine cycle and variations that might be
encountered, as well as the effects of turbine cycle parameters
on performance. This module will examine the following
information that is pertinent to the determination of gas turbine
performance characteristics:
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Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
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Determining Gas Turbine Performance Characteristics
= hB - hA
wc
hB
hA
Where:
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TB
TA
wc
= cp (TB - TA)
Thus,
= hC - hB = cp (TC - TB)
hC
TC
Where:
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= hD - hC = cp (TD - TC)
wt
hD
TD
Where:
wt - wc = cp (TC - TD - TB + TA)
T TA
w net c p (TC TD TB + TA ) TC TD TB + TA
=
=
= 1 D
q
c p (TC TB )
TC TB
TC TB
k 1
k
TC
TD
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Where:
PB
PA
= 1
P
TD B
PA
D
k 1
k
P
TA B
PA
k 1
k
= 1
1
PB
PA
k 1
k
Thus, for the ideal simple cycle, the efficiency is a function only
of the pressure ratio developed by the gas turbine compressor,
and the performance of the compressor is extremely important
in overall gas turbine performance. In the real simple cycle,
turbine efficiency is also dependent on the turbine inlet
temperature (Point C), and this efficiency increases as turbine
inlet temperature increases for a given pressure ratio.
The gas turbine specific power is a function of both pressure
ratio and turbine inlet temperature. For a given turbine inlet
temperature, the maximum net output is produced at a pressure
ratio so that the compressor discharge temperature and turbine
exhaust temperature are equal. Equal compressor discharge
and turbine exhaust temperature result in an optimum pressure
ratio that increases with an increase in turbine inlet temperature.
Using the formula presented above for the efficiency of an ideal
Brayton cycle, the calculated efficiency of a cycle with a
pressure ratio of 11.5:1 would be as shown in the following
formula:
= 1
1
11.5
1.4 1
1.4
= 0.5 = 50%
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There are also inlet pressure losses due to the ducting and
filters, and these losses are typically about 4 inches WC (1
kPa). Each 4 inch WC (1 kPa) of inlet pressure drop results
in a decrease of about 1.4% in output and .5% in efficiency.
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Figure 3 shows a T-S diagram that compares the ideal and real
simple cycle.
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Regenerative Cycle
As stated previously, for the ideal simple cycle, the optimum
pressure ratio to produce maximum net output is that for which
the compressor discharge and turbine exhaust temperatures are
the same. In the real cycle, the effect of compressor and turbine
inefficiencies and combustion section pressure drops is to lower
the pressure ratio at which maximum net work is produced. As a
result, the turbine exhaust temperature is considerably greater
than the compressor discharge temperature. For example, for
one typical heavy industry, single-shaft model, the design
turbine exhaust temperature is about 1000F (538C), where the
compressor discharge temperature is approximately 650F
(343C).
To increase the efficiency of the simple cycle, a regenerator can
be added to the cycle in order to recover some of the waste
heat in the exhaust gas. As shown in Figure 4, the regenerator
transfers energy from the exhaust to the air that leaves the
compressor. The regenerator is a gas-to-gas heat exchanger
that uses exhaust gas to preheat the compressor discharge air
before the compressor discharge air enters the combustor. The
use of a regenerator can reduce the fuel consumption of a gas
turbine by as much as 25 percent.
EXHAUST
0 PSIG
720F
REGENERATOR
FUEL
0 PSIG
80f
2000F
600f
0.3 PSIG
1000 F
830F
COMBUSTOR
WORK
COMPRESSOR
POWER
TUBINE
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T2 T1
T3 T1
where:
T1
T2
T3
930 F 650 F
= 0.8 = 80%
1000 F 650 F
Although the regenerative cycle exhibits improved efficiency
over the combine cycle, it is not widely used in industrial gas
turbine applications. The main reason for not using the
regenerative cycle is that the large flow of air through the
machine would require a very large and expensive heat
exchanger. The size of the heat exchanger required would
offset one of the main advantages of using a gas turbine, which
is the compact size of the unit for the power produced. Also, a
pressure drop would occur through the heat exchanger, which
reduces the theoretical improvement in efficiency that could be
obtained.
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Combined Cycle
Another method of using the waste heat in the turbine exhaust
is by using a combined cycle. A combined cycle, as shown in
Figure 5, is a thermodynamic system that combines two or more
independent power cycles. Each power cycle uses a different
working fluid. Combination of the independent power cycles
results in higher efficiency than would be achieved by the
independent operation of the individual cycles. To achieve this
higher efficiency, the individual cycles must exchange energy so
that the ratio of the source to sink temperature of the combined
cycle is greater than the ratio of the source to sink temperature
of any of the individual cycles. The gas turbine cycle and the
steam power system cycle, which are shown in Figure 5, are
two independent cycles that can complement each other to form
an efficient combined cycle. The gas turbine cycle has a high
source temperature and exhausts at a temperature that can be
the energy source for the steam cycle.
250F
STEAM
SUPERHEATER
EVAPORATOR
ST
WORK
ECONOMIZER
CW
HRSG
CONDENSER
WATER
900F
PUMP
GT
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Power
Thermal efficiency
Heat rate
Ambient Conditions
ISO conditions
Site Rating
Power
The main measure of gas turbine performance in which the
Mechanical Engineer is interested is the power output of the
machine. If a turbine is selected to run a pump or compressor, it
must deliver enough power so that the pump or compressor can
deliver the required amount of fluid at the required pressure
under all conditions of operation. If the turbine is to drive a
generator, the generator must be able to meet the load demand
of the system.
In customary units of measurement, the power output of the
turbine is measured differently if the turbine is used as a
generator drive or as a mechanical drive for a pump or
compressor. For generator drive applications, the power output
is measured in kilowatts (kW). Because the same manufacturer
is generally responsible for supplying both the gas turbine and
the generator as a set, the power output is specified as the kW
output at the generator terminals for this application; therefore,
the performance measured also includes the efficiency of the
generator. Because large generators are generally very efficient
(~ 98%), the measured performance is still mainly that of the
gas turbine.
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2N
33,000
hp
= shaft power, hp
Where:
In SI units:
kW =
2N
60,000
Where:
kW = shaft power, kW
= measured torque, Nm
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Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine is the ratio of the power
output to the heat input, which is expressed as a percentage.
The power output is determined as discussed above. The fuel
heat input is determined as the product of the fuel flow times the
heating value of the fuel, as shown in the following formulas:
Gas Turbine Heat Input (Btu/hr) = Fuel Flow Rate
(lb/hr) x Fuel Heating Value (Btu/lb)
Gas Turbine Heat Input (kJ/hr) = Fuel Flow Rate (kg/hr)
x Fuel Heating Value (kJ/kg)
Normally, the lower heating value is used, but sometimes the
higher heating value is used. Fuel heating value is discussed
below.
To calculate the efficiency, the output and the input must be
expressed in the same units of measurement, so some
conversion will generally be necessary. The following
conversion factors will be useful:
1 kW = 3412.14 Btu/hr
1 kW = 3600 kJ/hr
1 hp
= 2544.43 Btu/hr
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Heat Rate
Heat rate is a measure of gas turbine performance defined as
the ratio of fuel heat input to power output. Basically, it is the
reciprocal of efficiency, except that the actual units of input and
output measurement are used.
Heat Rate = Btu/kWh (Generator drive, customary
units)
= Btu/hph (Mechanical drive, customary
units)
= kJ/kWh (SI units)
The gas turbine efficiency can be determined from the heat rate
as follows:
ThermalEfficiency =
3412.14
HeatRate,Btu/kWh
=
2544.43
HeatRate,Btu/hph
3600
HeatRate,kJ/kWh
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Where:
H
Ambient Conditions
Ambient conditions are the atmospheric conditions that
surround a gas turbine: the temperature, the barometric
pressure, and the humidity. These conditions can have a
significant effect on the performance of the gas turbine, primarily
due to their effect on the density of the turbine inlet air. The
power produced by the gas turbine is directly related to the
mass flow through the machine. Anything that reduces the
density of the inlet air will reduce the mass flow through the
machine and, as a result, the power output.
Inlet air temperature has the greatest impact on gas turbine
performance. Gas turbine power output will decrease
approximately 0.5 % for each 1F increase in inlet air
temperature (0.9% for each 1C). This decrease occurs because
as the air temperature rises, the density of the air will decrease,
which results in reduced mass flow through the turbine. Also, as
air temperature increases, the pressure ratio developed by the
compressor will decrease. This decrease results in a lower ratio
available across the turbine. The reduced ratio will result in a
reduction in turbine efficiency as well as reduced power output.
Barometric pressure also has an effect on power output of the
turbine. As barometric pressure decreases, the density of the air
decreases, which results in reduced mass flow through the
turbine and the consequent reduction in gas turbine power
output.
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ISO Conditions
Because gas turbine performance is heavily dependent on
ambient conditions and because ambient conditions can vary
widely from site to site and with time of year, gas turbines for
industrial and power generation applications are rated at a
standard set of conditions established by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). This standard set of conditions
makes comparison of gas turbines from competing
manufacturers an easier task. ISO conditions are defined as
follows:
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Each turbine manufacturer will rate the output and the efficiency
or heat rate of its turbine at these conditions and will provide
curves, charts, or other data that can be used to predict the
performance at other ambient conditions. The use of these aids
will be discussed in the final section of this module.
Site Rating
As stated earlier, gas turbine manufacturers rate their machines
at ISO conditions. The Saudi Aramco Engineer, however, is
concerned with how the gas turbine will perform when it is
installed at the Saudi Aramco site. Of course, site conditions will
also vary, so some set of conditions that may exist at the site
must be selected. In order to ensure that adequate power is
available from the turbine under all conditions, Saudi Aramco
uses a conservative approach that uses worst case conditions.
These are specified in SAES-K-502 as follows:
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Steam injection.
Evaporative Cooling
As the temperature of the air increases, its density decreases;
therefore, the mass flow through the compressor and, hence,
through the turbine decreases. Also, as the temperature at the
compressor inlet increases, the pressure ratio developed across
the compressor will decrease, which results in a lower ratio
across the turbine. As a result of the decreased mass flow and
pressure ratio, the power output of the turbine will decrease. As
noted in the previous section, the efficiency of the gas turbine
will also decrease with an increase in ambient temperature.
One way to increase the gas turbine power output and efficiency
is to cool the compressor inlet air. Such cooling increases its
density and increases the pressure ratio developed by the
compressor. A very cost-effective way of cooling the
compressor inlet air, especially in dry climates, is through the
use of evaporative coolers.
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Tdnin Tdbout
100
Tdbin Twb
Where:
Tdbin
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Steam Injection
The power output of the gas turbine can be increased
significantly through the use of steam injection. The basic
steam injected cycle is shown in Figure 6. Superheated steam
for injection is produced in a HRSG that uses the waste heat in
the turbine exhaust gases or from a site boiler source. The
steam is generally injected into the compressor discharge,
enough upstream of the combustion section to ensure proper
mixing with the air stream. In some cases, steam injection for
power augmentation is injected directly into the combustors.
The amount of steam injected for power augmentation ranges
up to about 5 percent of the compressor discharge mass airflow.
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Helper Turbine
As discussed in MEX 214.02, the gas turbine requires a starting
device that can accelerate the turbine to a speed at which the
power output from the turbine is greater than the power required
to drive the gas turbine compressor. One type of driver that can
be used for this application is a steam turbine. If the steam
turbine is designed to remain coupled to the turbine during
operation and provide supplementary power to the gas turbine
train, it is designated a helper turbine. According to SAES-K502, steam turbine starters that can be used as helpers are
rated at approximately 4 percent of the ISO output of the gas
turbine.
If a steam turbine is selected as the gas turbine starting means,
it may be worthwhile to specify it as a helper for the additional
power available. However, the Mechanical Engineer must
recognize that the following several points that may affect this
decision:
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Increase in CO emissions.
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Power requirements
Site conditions
Service conditions
Environmental restrictions
ISO selection
Maintenance considerations
Power Requirements
The primary consideration in the selection of a gas turbine for a
particular application is that it be able to provide sufficient power
under all conditions of operation to support the driven load. The
determination of the size of the gas turbine should be based on
its base load rating. The base load, when corrected for site
conditions and other factors, must be sufficient to supply the
required power of the driven equipment under conditions of
normal deterioration.
Base load is defined by SAES-K-502 as the maximum allowable
output of the equipment (as specified by the vendor) under the
limitations of the following requirements that are specified in API
616 and SAES-K-502:
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Figure 8. Torque Characteristics of Single Shaft and Multiple Shaft Gas Turbines
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Site Conditions
The sites rated temperature will be the maximum inlet air
temperature at which the turbine must be capable of developing
the specified sites rated power. The site conditions that are
used to define the sites rated power are the rated temperature,
the altitude, and the relative humidity of the installation site. To
determine the size of the gas turbine that is required for a
specific site, these site conditions must be determined. A gas
turbine user is mostly interested in the output power that the gas
turbine has the capability to deliver at the following site
conditions, as defined in SAES-K-502:
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PVAP =
HRH
PSAT
100
PVAP
HABS = 0.622
PBAR PVAP
Where:
PVAP
HRH
PSAT
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Service Conditions
In addition to the ambient conditions that exist at a site, the
service conditions that are associated with the gas turbine
installation must be considered in the determination of the size
and the type of gas turbine that is to be used. The locations in
which the gas turbine must operate (e.g., a refinery, a remote
area, or an offshore platform) must be considered in a
determination of the service requirements. When these
determinations are made, the following concerns must be
considered:
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Environmental Restrictions
The determination of the size of the gas turbine must take into
consideration the effect of any extra equipment that must be
installed on the gas turbine to meet applicable environmental
regulations. Two of the environmental restrictions that must be
satisfied are emissions control and noise control. The major
sources of noise for a gas turbine are the inlet, exhaust, cooling
fans, pumps, and ventilation duct fans. Silencers will probably
be required to satisfy the regulatory noise requirements. The
installation of silencers will reduce the thermodynamic efficiency
of the gas turbine by increasing the inlet and outlet pressure
losses of the gas turbine.
Gas turbine selection considerations related to emissions
include both the allowable level and how that level will be
achieved. For example, will an adequate supply of
demineralized water be available for steam or water injection, or
will it be necessary to select a model equipped with dry low NOX
combustors?
ISO Selection
The power and the heat rate of a gas turbine are the major
factors in the determination of the size of the gas turbine.
Because both the power and the heat rate vary with the
environmental conditions, the environmental conditions must be
defined. Each gas turbine manufacturer could rate its respective
gas turbine at a set of conditions that are defined by the
manufacturer. The comparison between different gas turbines
would involve not only the conversion of the turbine's rated
power and the turbines heat rate to the site conditions, but the
comparison also would require the conversion of the individual
manufacturer's ratings to the ISO conditions.
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Maintenance Considerations
The necessary maintenance associated with a gas turbine is
one of the considerations associated with the determination of
the size and type of gas turbine that is to be used at an
installation. Because plant maintenance personnel have
experience in the installation, the removal, and the overhaul of
gas turbines, they should be consulted concerning any
questions associated with maintenance on the type of gas
turbine. The following are some of the site maintenance
considerations that must be addressed:
Are there any critical service spare parts that require a long
lead time for their procurement? Should the critical service
spare parts with a long lead time be purchased and stored?
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1995 ft
120F
72F
93F
3 in. WC
Exhaust Pressure:
6 in. WC
97.5%
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15C (59F)
60 percent
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PATM
14.696
Where
PCFALT = Power correction factor for altitude
PATM
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=
HABS = 0.622HRH
P
P
ATM VAP
0.767
0.622(0.36 )
= 0.013lb water/lbdryair
13.7 0.767
From Figure 12, the power correction factor is 0.9991 and the
heat rate correction factor is 1.0025.
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0.90 for generator drive single shaft and multiple shaft units.
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Because the sites rated power of 12,202 does not exceed the
maximum requirement of 12,500 hp for the compressor, the
turbine is not suitable for the application. Expected operating
costs (fuel costs) for the turbine can be calculated on the basis
of the sites heat rate of 9355 Btu/hph.
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WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1:
Formulas
Sites Rated Heat Rate = ISO Rated Heat x Temperature Correction x Humidity
Correction x Inlet Losses Correction x Exhaust Losses
Correction x Transmission Loss Correction x Deterioration and
Contingency Correction
Deterioration and Contingency Factors:
= 0.90 for generator drive single-shaft and multiple-shaft units.
= 0.90 for mechanical drive multiple-shaft units.
= 0.85 for mechanical drive single-shaft units.
The following ISO correction curves are provided in the following figures:
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GLOSSARY
Brayton cycle
Combined cycle
Evaporative cooling
Heat rate
helper turbine
Humidity ratio
Isentropic process
ISO conditions
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Temperature:
Atmospheric Pressure:
Relative Humidity:
Inlet and Exhaust Losses:
59F (15C)
14.696 psia (101.325 kPa)
60%
None
NOX
regenerative cycle
simple cycle
thermal efficiency
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