Introduction to DFMA

Objectives of this course

1. To introduce the concept and application for design for manufacturing and assembly to
practicing designers and manufacturing engineers as well as design students
2. To discuss various fundamentals of assembly and design recommendations for product
development

What is DFMA?
The concept of DFM (Design for Manufacture) is not new, it dates back as early as 1788 when
LeBlanc, a Frenchman, devised the concept of inter-changeable parts in the manufacture of
muskets which previously were individually handmade. DFM is the practice of designing
products keeping manufacturing in mind. Design for manufacture means the design for ease
of manufacture for the collection of parts that will form the product after assembly. Similarly
DFA is called Design for Assembly. DFA is the practice of designing product with assembly in
mind. Design for assembly means the design of the product for ease of assembly. So design
for Manufacture and assembly is the combination of DFM and DFA as shown in Figure M1.1.1

Design for Manufacture

(DFM)

Design for
Assembly (DFA)

Design for Manufacture & Assembly

(DFMA)

Figure M1.1.1: Definition of Design for Manufacture & Assembly (DFMA)

History of DFMA
1. Eli Whitney is an inventor from America used some DFM techniques in earlier times
before the term DFM came in to existence. Whitney incorporated the concept of
interchangeable parts for manufacturing musket for U.S. government. Prior to this
innovation, each craftsman was responsible to manufacture the complete product by
using saw and files to shape each part and fit them together.
2. Henry Ford an American industrialist was renowned for his advanced and extensive use
of assembly lines. The manual assembly operation was broken down into small chunks of
repetitive work that could be carried out at high efficiency. Ford in his book My Life
and Work described about the successful model T car that includes simplicity in
operation, absolute reliability and high quality in materials that used in that model. The
concept used at that time by Ford is now referred as DFM.
3. General Electric used value analysis techniques in the late 1940s. With the help of value
analysis techniques, it is possible to find the cost of a product and obtaining the design
alternatives for the product at the lowest cost. The philosophical approach of value
analysis is through questioning and comparing the value and cost of each features and
each element of a product design.
4. The book Metal Engineering Processes edited by Roger W. Boltz is one of the books
from a series of handbook published by ASME in 1941. This book provides a series of
guidelines to designer in enhancing the manufacturability of metal components made
with a number of manufacturing processes such as casting, forging, extrusion, machining,
joining, finishing etc. Though Boltz used the word DFM, he is the first person arrange
and plan DFM methodology.
5. In the year 1960, people started to use the terms producibility and manufacturability and
about 1985, design for manufacturability and its short form DFM were widely used.
6. Geoffrey Boothroyd and A.H. Redford studied automatic assembly and provided various
design guidelines to make the assembly process easier.
7. In the recent years various trade association and vendors of parts are issuing booklets to
the product designers providing a series of guidelines and tolerance and materials

recommendations for parts. These kinds of publications have provided valuable and
authorative assistance to product designers.

Steps for applying DFMA during product design

The following steps are followed when DFMA used in the design process.
DFA analysis lading to simplification of the product structure
Early cost estimation of parts for both original design and modified design
Selecting best material and process to be used
After final selection of material and process carry out a thorough analysis of DFM
Figure M1.1.2 depicts the flow diagram of various steps undertaken in a DFMA study using
DFMA software.
Design Concept

Design for Assembly (DFA)

Selection of materials and processes

and early DFM cost estimates

Suggestions for
simplification of product
structure
Suggestions for more economic
materials and processes

Best design concept

Design for Manufacture (DFM)

Detail design for minimum

manufacturing costs

Prototype

Production

Figure M1.1.2: Common steps taken in a DFMA study (Source: G. Boothroyd, P. Dewhurst and
W. Knight Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly, 2nd edition)

Advantages of applying DFMA during product Design

Today products are
Tending to becoming more complex
Made/required in increasingly large number
Intended to satisfy a wide variation in user population
Required to compete aggressively with similar products
Required to consistently high quality
Through DFMA it is possible to produce competitively priced, high performance product at a
minimal cost. The advantages of applying DFMA during product design are as follows:

DFMA not only reduces the manufacturing cost of the product but it helps to reduce the
time to market and quality of the product.

DFMA provides a systematic procedure for analyzing a proposed design from the point
of view of assembly and manufacture.

Any reduction in the number of parts reduces the cost as well as the inventory.

DFMA tools encouraged the dialogue between the designer and manufacturing engineer
during the early stages of design.

Reasons for not implementing DFMA

1. No time: Designers are constrained to minimize their design to manufacture time for a
new product.
2. Not invented here: Very often designers provide enough resistance to adopt new
techniques.
3. The ugly baby syndrome: Designer ego crashes if there is some suggestion for design
change.
4. Low assembly cost: Since assembly cost of a particular product is less as compared to the
total material and manufacturing cost, DFA analysis is not required.
5. Low volume: Often it is expressed that DFMA is applicable for large quantity production.
6. Database doesn't apply to our product: Since DFMA is applied at the early stages of
design before the detail design has taken place; there is a need for a generalized database.

7. We have been doing it for years: Sometimes industry uses the design for producibility
concept to fine-tune the design. There is a misconception that they are doing the similar
practice of DFMA.
8. It is only value analysis: The objective of DFMA and value analysis are same, however
DFMA is used at the early stages of design and can be used in every stages of design.
9. DFMA is only one among many techniques.
10. DFMA leads to products that are more difficult to service.
11. Prefer design rules: Sometimes design rules guide the designer in the wrong direction.
12. Refuse to use DFMA: Individual doesn't have the incentive to adopt the new technology
and use the tools available.

Course Overview
In this course, the following topics shall be covered through different modules.
Various types of materials, its classification, suitable materials for product design and
various methods of material selection, various mechanical properties of material (Module
I).
Various casting design, machining design, designing of formed components (Module II,
Module III, and Module IV).
Various design recommendations for cleaning, design for polishing, plating and coating,
and Heat treatment and various design recommendations (Module V).
Various design recommendation for permanent joining such as welding, soldering and
brazing (Module VI).
Various design recommendation for riveting, screw fastening etc. (Module VII).
Lastly, the course is completed with an introduction to CAD, various types of geometric
model, different types of features, procedure for feature extraction from part and
assembly model (Module VIII).

Introduction to Manufacturing Process

What is Manufacturing?
The English word manufacture is several centuries old. The term manufacture comes from two
Latin words, manus (hand) and factus (make). As per oxford English dictionary manufacture refers
to make or produce goods in large quantities, using machinery.

Working definition of manufacturing

There are two types of working definitions available for manufacturing: as a technical process and
as an economic process.
Technologically: Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties and or appearance of a given starting material to make parts or product as
shown in Figure M1.2.1.
Economically: Manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater value by means
of one or more process and or assembly operation as shown in Figure M1.2.2.

Classification of manufacturing processes

Manufacturing processes can be classified as (Refer Figure M1.2.3) processing operation and
assembly operation.
In processing operation the work material is transformed from one state to other advanced state.
Through this operation value is added to the work material by changing the geometry; shape
properties, appearance etc. of the starting work material. Usually processing operations are
performed on individual component. But in some cases like aerospace industry, the processing
operations are performed on assembled items also.

In assembly operation two or more components are joined to create a new entity. The new entity
is called assembly, subassembly based on its state in the product. If the entity is an intermediate
state of the product, it is called subassembly. Some other terms are also referred based on the
joining process. The assembly created by welding operation is called weld met.

Figure M1.2.1: Definition of manufacturing in terms of technology.

.
Figure M1.2.2: Definition of manufacturing in terms of economic value

Figure M1.2.3: Classification of manufacturing process

Job and Station

In classical manufacturing, a job is defined as the total work or duties a worker performs. A station
is a location or area where a production worker performs tasks and jobs. A job at an assembly
station may consist of the following tasks:
1) Attach carburetor
2) Connect gas line
3) Connect vacuum line
4) Connect accelerator rod.
Jobs and stations are now applied to unmanned machines also. A simple machine may have only
station. A complex machine may have multiple stations.

Operation
An operation is a distinct action performed to produce a desired result. Operations can be
1) Materials handling and transporting
2) Processing
3) Packaging
4) Inspecting and testing
5) Storing

Treatments
Treatments operate continually on the work piece. These modify the product in process without
tool contact. Some examples include heat treating, curing, galvanizing, plating, finishing,
(chemical) cleaning and painting. These are often done in large tanks or furnaces or rooms, away
from workers as they can be harmful.

Basic Manufacturing Processes

It is described as the manufacturing processes which create or add value to a product. The
manufacturing processes can be classified as:

Casting, foundry, or moulding processes

Forming or metalworking processes

Machining (material removal) processes

Joining and assembly

Surface treatments (finishing)

Rapid prototyping

Heat treating

Other

Other manufacturing operations include inspection, testing, transportation, automated material

handling and even packaging. In casting, the metal is heated sufficiently to make it into liquid and
then poured into moulds of desired shapes. Various machining operations are turning, drilling and
milling. Joining processes include welding, soldering, brazing and adhesive bonding. The process
of heat treating is carried out to enhance various properties and include annealing and strengthening
processes for metals and glasses. Surface processing includes cleaning, coating and thin film
deposition, electroplating, anodising etc.

Product Life cycle and life cycle cost

Manufacturing systems are dynamic and liable to change over time. Thus there is a traditional
relation between a product's life cycle and the kind of manufacturing system used to make it. The
life cycle consists of the following steps:
1) Start-up: new product or new company, low volumes
2) Rapid growth: product becomes standardized in the market, higher volumes
3) Maturation: designs become standard, process development becomes important
4) Commodity: long life, standard of the industry type of product
5) Decline: product replaced by improved products.

Manufacturing System Design

A manufacturing system must consider two customers namely, the external that buys that the
product and the internal that makes the product. The external customer may be global in scope, but
the internal customer is critical in determining the design and manufacturing stages.

The complexity of the manufacturing system design where choices of system design trade off with
parts variety.

Summary
Manufacturing becomes successful by understanding how the system works, how goods are
controlled, the decision making at the correct level. Engineers must possess a broad fundamental
knowledge of design, metallurgy, processing, economics, accounting and human relations.

Introduction to materials and material selection

Objective

Designers need to study the nature of materials

Property classification of materials that determines their applicability

Relation between design, production and utilization of materials

Classifying materials
In manufacturing of a product, a raw material is converted into a finished product. There are various
types of classifications available in the literature. Materials come under three basic categories:
metals, ceramics and polymers. A mixture of these fundamental types forms a composite.
Two classification schemes are shown below:

Type 1 classification
Engineering materials can be classified into six broad families as shown in Figure M1.3.1.
Metals
Polymers
Elastomers
Ceramics
Glasses
Hybrid composite materials

Figure M1.3.1: Classification of engineering materials in to six broad families.

Type 2 classification
In this type of classification, engineering material can be classified into two categories: Metals and
non-metals as shown in Figure M1.3.2. Again non-metals are classified into organic & inorganic
as shown in Figure M1.3.3 & Figure M1.3.4 respectively. Metals can be classified into two
categories: ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals contain iron in it. Pure iron has limited
use but when alloyed with carbon it has a great commercial value. Some of the common alloys of
iron are steel and cast iron which contain different percentages of carbon in it. Steel contains 0.02%
to 2.11% of carbon and rest iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum in it. Cast iron
contains 2% to 4% of carbon in it and the rest are iron & silicon.
Non-Ferrous metals contain other metallic elements other than iron in it. They include metals
aluminum, copper, gold etc.

Figure M1.3.2: Classification of engineering materials in two groups

Ceramics are compounds. These compounds contain a metallic and a non-metallic part. The
non-metals can be oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. Examples of ceramics include carbides, clay, silica,
alumina etc.
Polymers are compounds which consist of repeating units in them called as mers. Mers
share electrons to form very large molecules - usually of carbon and some other elements like
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine etc. Polymers are further classified into thermosetting,
thermoplastics and elastomers. Some of the common polymers are polythene, PVC, etc.
Composites consist of two or more phases of materials. The phases are processed separately
and then bonded together to achieve properties superior to the constituents. Some of the materials
used in the phases are wood or fiber etc. which are a homogenous mass bonded together with epoxy.
Some of the common applications of composites are aircraft, tennis rackets, car bodies, etc.

Figure M1.3.3: Classification of organic materials

Figure M1.3.4: Classification of inorganic materials

Material selection for product design

Material selection seeks to improve the following five basic elements:
the life cycle performance of a material in an application
the design and manufacturing of a component taking advantage of a material's characteristics
the properties of a material
the structure of a material
synthesis and processing of the material
In material selection, a set of design requirements is converted into a list of viable materials and
processes as shown in Figure M1.3.5. There are several methods for material selection:

Selection by analysis

Selection by synthesis

Selection by similarity

Selection by inspiration

Figure M1.3.5: Graphical representation of the connection among the elements for material
selection.

1. Selection by analysis
The inputs to this method are the technical requirements. The analysis proceeds in four steps:
Translation of requirements: It is often expressed initially in non-technical terms into statement
of objectives and constraints the design must meet.
Analysis of the component for which a material is sought, identifying performance matrices and
expressing these as equations that measure performance.
Identification from these equations of the material properties that determine performance.

Figure M1.3.6: Selection by analysis requires the selection of materials from a database
of materials. (Source: Materials and Design by Mike Ashby and Kara Johnson, 2nd Ed)

 Screening of a database of materials and their properties, eliminating those that fail to meet
the constraints, and ranking those that remain by their ability to maximize the performance
matrices.
The solution is shown by the white circle that satisfies all the constraints as shown in Figure
M1.3.6.

Figure M1.3.7: Selection by synthesis. (Source: Materials and Design by Mike Ashby and Kara
Johnson, 2nd Ed)

2. Selection by synthesis
This process is experimental and depends on experience of the designer. The inputs here can include
the design requirements expressed as features showing intentions, aesthetics and perceptions.

Basically the solution will depend on previously solved problems that have some features common
with the problem at hand. While this may be seen as a drawback since the method uses past
experience, it encourages a kind of cross pollination where developments in one field can be
adapted for use in another. This methodology is called technology coupling.

Circle colored

in orange represents a synthesis of solution from the three colored circles as shown in Figure
M1.3.7.

3. Selection by similarity
A substitute material may be sought when the existing material is no longer available or fails to
meet a design requirement. In such cases an established material can be used instead of the existing
one, simply because it may have the right mix of attributes and may be meeting the design
requirements.
A common approach is "capture-edit-search" wherein we first capture the attribute profile of the
incumbent, then editing or relaxing the design constraints on non-critical attributes to include a
wide range of materials and finally searching for the substitutes that meet the constraints.
Find substitutes by matching attributes profiles. Colored circles have attributes that match as nearly as
possible attributes of the white circle (the incumbent material) as shown in Figure M1.3.8.

Figure M1.3.8: Selection by similarity. (Source: Materials and Design by Mike Ashby and
Kara Johnson, 2nd Ed)

Figure M1.3.9: Selection by inspiration (Source: Materials and Design by Mike Ashby and
Kara Johnson, 2nd Ed)

4. Selection by inspiration
Designers usually get their ideas from other designers, colleagues and from their environments.
And many ideas are triggered by accident, perhaps by some chance encounter with someone or
some situation. The encounter thus becomes inspiring and provokes creative thinking. Such
encounters can include interaction with materials, with products or by browsing books. Circles
represent solutions inspired by a random walk through a collection or catalog of materials and
products as shown in Figure M1.3.9.

Mechanical properties of materials

The behavior of material is mainly determined by various mechanical properties of the material
when subjected to different loading conditions. Such properties mainly include Youngs
modulus, various types of strength of the material, hardness, ductility etc. and are found to be
very important both for design & manufacturing viewpoint. The design engineer should also
consider the manufacturing constraints during the design of a part.
Three basic types of stresses which are produced when a material is subjected to various loading
conditions are
a) Tensile Stress
b) Compressive Stress
c) Shear stress

Tensile properties
Tensile strength is defined as the ability of a material to support axial load without rupture and is
determined through the tensile test. When equal and opposite forces are applied simultaneously
at both the ends that pulls the material, it tries to elongate it and the diameter reduces. The test
specimen and general setup has been shown in the Figure M1.4.1.

(a)

(b)
Figure M1.4.1: (a) Test specimen (b) Setup for the test
Due to the stretching of the specimen in tensile test, the initial test specimen length L0 is
increased to L and area A0 is reduced to A. The tensile testis carried out at a constant cross head
speed and extensometers of required gauge length are used to capture the elongation depending
on the requirement. In this process the material first elongates, then necking occurs & the
fracture is produced. The necking phenomenon is observed mostly in tensile test and it also
mainly depends upon the material that isused for test. If the material is brittle there is no chance
of necking. From the measured data from the tensile test, the stress- strain curve is plotted.
Mainly there are two type of stress-strain curves which are described below:
1) Engineering stress-strain
2) True stress strain

Generally in design application the engineering stress-strain curve is used as there is no

expectation of change in shape due to strain. The true stress strain curve is important in
manufacturing.

Engineering stress-strain
Engineering stress-strain is mainly illustrated by taking original cross section and original length.
The stress-strain diagram for a metal is shown in Figure M1.4.2.

Figure M1.4.2: Engineering stress-strain diagram of an metal

The engineering stress at any point on the curve is the force divided by the original area
s=

F
A

Where e= Engineering stress (MPa)

F= applied force in the test, (N)
Ao= Original area of the test specimen (mm2)
Engineering strain at any point is the ratio between change in length to the original gage length.

e=

LL
L

Where e= engineering strain, mm/mm,

L= length at any point during elongation, mm
Lo= Original gage length, mm
Further, in the stress-strain curve, two distinct regions namely elastic region and plastic region
represent different material behavior of the material. In the elastic region, the relation between
stress and strain is linear. The relationship between stress and strain in the elastic region is
defined by Hookes law:
s = Ee
Where E= Youngs modulus, MPa
The value of E varies form one material to other which mainly indicates the stiffness of the
material. In further addition of stress, the material begins to yield which is the end point of the
elastic region (shown in the Figure M1.4.2).
At this point there is change in slope of the curve occurs. This point is called as yield point which
could be measured by drawing a straight-line parallel to the slope of the load-extension curve of
the metals like titanium, steel, low carbon steel, and molybdenum at 0.2% offset. At this yield
point there is slight extension of the specimen occurs without increase in stress level. The
strength of the material at this point is called as yield strength.
Beyond yield point, as the load increases, elongation of the specimen proceeds at a faster rate
than before. This part of stress strain curve is called hardening region.When the load reaches a
maximum value, the engineering stress at this point is called the tensile strength or ultimate
tensile strength of the material.
In the stress- strain diagram, beyond the tensile strength, the load carrying capacity reduces and
the test specimen goes through a localized elongation called necking.There will not be constant
strain in this region and the elongation occurs in one small segment of the specimen. The stress
measured just before failure is known as the fracture stress.

The amount of strain that the material sustain before failure is an important property in
mechanical engineering, which is used specially in manufacturing. This property is called
ductility and is measured in terms of elongation or area reduction.
EL =

L L
L

AR =

A A
A

Where EL= elongation, in %

Lf= Specimen length in mm
Lo= Original specimen, mm
AR= Area reduction, in %
Ao= Original area, mm2
Af=Area of cross-section at the point of facture, in mm2

True Stress-strain
In the computation of engineering stress, the original cross sectional area has been used.
However, during the process of loading the area reduces. In the computation of true stress the
actual or instantaneous area is used. As the length increases, the cross sectional area decreases.
Hence the calculated stress value will be higher. The instantaneous load divided by instantaneous
cross-sectional area is called true stress.
=

F
A

Where = true stress, MPa

F= force, N
A=Actual area resisting the load, mm2
True Stress & strain is related to engineering stress & strain in the following way.
Keeping the volume of material constant.

A L =AL
=

F
F A
L
LL +L
=

=s =s
= s (1 + e)
A A
A
L
L

Similarly true strain offers a more accurate calculation of the instantaneous elongation per unit
length of the material.The true stress is generally increased rapidly than engineering stress once
the strain increases and the accordingly, the cross sectional of the specimen decreases.

dL
L
LL +L
= ln
= ln
= ln(1 + e)
L
L
L

Where L= instantaneous length at any moment during elongation

= true strain
The true stress-strain relationship in plastic region can be represented by the following flow
curve:
= K
Here the constant K=strength coefficient
n= Strain hardening exponent
The value of K & n varies form one metal to other & mainly depends upon metals tendency to
work harden.

The behavior of nearly all type of solid material are described by three types of stress-strain
relationship diagram as shown in Figure M1.4.3.
A) Perfectly elastic
The behavior of the material is absolutely defined by its stiffness. Such material directly
fractures without yielding when it reaches ultimate strength material. These materials are called

brittle materials. Examples of brittle material are ceramics, cast iron, etc. These materials are not
suitable for forming operation, where permanent plastic deformation is required to get the final
product.
B) Elastic and perfectly plastic
For this type of material, when the stress level reaches the yield point plastic deformation begins
at the same stress level. Metals behave in this mode, when they are heated to high temperatures.
This type of behavior occurs mainly at higher temperature doesnt strain harden rather it
recrystallize during deformation.
C) Elastic and strain hardening
This kind of material obeys Hookes law in the elastic region and begins to flow at its yield
point. During cold working, most of the ductile material behave in this manner.

Figure M1.4.3: The stress-strain relationship diagram for a) perfectly elastic b) elastic &
perfectly plastic c) elastic & strain hardening.

Compression Properties
Compressive test is performed to determine the compressive strength of the material. The
material is applied equal and opposite compressive load. Engineering stress is defined as
s=

F
A

Where Ao= Original area of cross section, mm2

Engineering strain is defined as

Where h= height of the specimen at a particular moment into the test, mm

h0= starting height, mm
The strain will be negative. Usually the negative sign of the strain are ignored. The stress strain
diagram is shown in the Figure M1.4.4.
The stress strain curve shown in Figure M1.4.4 for compression test is different in the plastic
region of stress strain curve for tensile test for same material. The reason of this variation is
compression helps in increase in the cross section. The load rises more quickly than the tensile
test.
In compression operation, due to friction between the surfaces there is an increase in area of the
middle of the specimen than at the ends. This effect is called barreling effect in a compression
test.

Figure M1.4.4: Stress-strain diagram for compression test

Compression operations are used mostly in metal forming than stretching operations. Generally
forging, rolling etc. are the compression operation used in industry.

Shear properties
Shear stress involves application of load parallel to the surface of material in opposite direction
as shown in Figure M1.4.5.
The shear stress is defined as
=

F
A

(a)

(b)

Figure M1.4.5: Shear (a) stress (b) strain

Where = shear stress, MPa

F= applied force, N
A= area over which the force is applied, mm2
Shear strain can be defined as
=

Where =shear strain, mm/mm

= the deflection of the element, mm
b= the orthogonal distance over which deflection occurs, mm
In case of shear stressstrain curve, the relationship for elastic region is defined by

Where G=the shear modulus, MPa

For plastic region the relationship between the shear stressstrain is similar to flow curve. Due to
strain hardening the applied load increases until the fracture occurs. The relationship between
shear strength (S) & Tensile strength (TS) can represented by data approximation as below:
S = 0.7 (TS)
Different cutting operations like blanking, punching etc. used in industry are included in shearing
operation. Due to mechanism of shear deformation the material is removed in the machining
process.

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape
change when a force is applied.
Vickers hardness test: It is easier to use in comparison to other hardness tests since the required
calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all
materials irrespective of hardness. The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers
Pyramid Number (HV).
In Vickers hardness test the surface is subjected to a standard pressure for a standard length of
time by means of a pyramid-shaped diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is
measured under a microscope and the Vickers Hardness value is read from a conversion table.
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated as:
HV = 1.854(F/D2)
Where F=the applied load,kgf
D= the area of the indentation, mm2

Brinell hardness test:It is widely used for testing metals and non-metals of low to medium
hardness. A ball shaped indenter made of cemented carbide is used for harder material in this
test.
Knoop Hardness Test: It is used for generally small & thin specimen. A pyramid-shaped
diamond indenter is used whose length-to-width ratio of about 7:1.
Rockwell Hardness Test: It is used for variety of material like carbide, ceramic, tool steel etc.
where a cone-shaped indenter, with diameter 3.2 mm is forced into the specimen using a minor
load of 10 kg & then a major load of 150 kg is applied, helping the indenter to penetrate into the
specimen a certain distance beyond its initial position. This extra penetration distanced is
converted into a Rockwell hardness.
There is a good correlation between hardness & strength for most metals as hardness is usually
based on resistance to indentation, which is a form of compression.
Brinell hardness (HB) shows a close correlation with the ultimate tensile strength (TS) for steel
is given below:
TS = 3.45 (HB)

Introduction to manufacturing process

Questions. More than one choice may be applicable:
1. What happens in the Decline phase of the product life cycle?
a) There is no such phase in the product life cycle.
b) The product is sold in niche markets
c) The price of the product is decreased
d) The product is replaced by new and improved products
2. Which of the following is not a joining process?
a) Welding
b) Knurling
c) Brazing
d) Soldering
3. Joining is a/an
a) Processing operation
b) Assembly operation
c) can be a or b
d) Neither a nor b
4. In sheet metal forming
a) The billet is passed through rolls
b) The billet is heated to high temperatures
c) The billet is hammered to decrease thickness
d) None of the above
5. Annual sales volume of a product increases during which phase of the product life cycle?
a) Maturity
b) Startup
c) Commodity
d) Rapid growth

6) Anodizing is a kind of
a) Surface treatment operation
b) Machining operation
c) Heat treatment operation
d) None of the above

Introduction to materials and material selection

More than one choice may be applicable:
1. If an existing material is no longer feasible, designers
a) Look for substitutes
b) Follow "capture-edit-search" methods
c) Browse product magazines
d) Discard the design and the product

2. What are mers?

a) Constituents of ceramics.
b) A phase of iron
c) Repeating units of polymers
d) A kind of epoxy

3. What percentage of carbon is present in steels?

a) 1.26% to 3%
b) 2% to 2.08%
c) .65% to 1.56%
d) 0.02% to 2.11%

4) Selection of materials by synthesis depends on

a) using existing databases
b) brainstorming with colleagues
c) experiments

d) experience of the designer

5) Selection of materials by analysis requires

a) using databases
b) trying creative ideas
c) experiments
d) group discussions with designers

6) A ceramic is a
a) mixture
b) admixture
c) compound
d) colloidal solution
7) Polypropylene is a
a) Thermoplastic polymer
b) Elastomer
c) Thermoset polymer
d) Both a and c

Mechanical properties of materials

Answer the following questions:
1) The deformation per unit length is called
a) Tensile stress b) shear stress
c) Strain

d) compressive stress

3) If stress values were measured during a tensile test, which of the following would have the
higher value: a) engineering stress or (b) true stress?

2) The plastic region of the stressstrain curve for a metal is characterized by a proportional
relationship between stress and strain: (a) true or (b) false?
4) The stress at which the extension of the material takes place more quickly as compared to
the increase in load, is called
a) Ultimate point b) yield point
c) Elastic limit

d) breaking point

5) The hardness is the property of a material due to which it

a) Can be drawn into wires b) breaks with little permanent distortion
c) Can cut another metal d) can be rolled or hammered into thin sheets

Answers:
Introduction to manufacturing process
(1). d
(2). b
(3). b
(4). a
(5). d
(6). A

Introduction to materials and material selection

(1). a, b
(2). c
(3). d
(4). c, d
(5). a
(6). c
(7). a

Mechanical properties of materials

(1). c

(2). b
(3). b
(4). b
(5). c