IS FO

SU CU
E
FE SED
AT
UR
E

EYEWIRE

Ramachandra Achar

he increasing global trend for faster computing and communication products is warranting designs with higher operating frequencies and sharper excitations. Consequently,
high-frequency effects associated with the interconnects such as crosstalk, attenuation,
and delay are becoming the major factors limiting the performance of high-speed designs. In addition, the factors such as growing demand for smaller devices, low power
consumption, and increased integration of mixed-domain blocks [such as analog, digital, electromagnetic (EM), optical, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)] have further complicated the
modeling, analysis, and optimization of high-speed designs [1][50]. This review article discusses
the issues, basic concepts, and modeling strategies for high-speed interconnects with emphasis on
signal integrity analysis in digital designs.
High-speed interconnects practically exist at all levels of system hierarchy, with varied levels of
impact on signal integrity. The hierarchical integration levels could be on-chip, multichip modules,
packaging, printed circuit boards (PCBs), backplanes, and cables, etc., as shown in Figure 1 [2]. Each
level of hierarchy offers its own challenges for signal integrity. For example, the issues with on-chip
interconnects could be different from that of the PCBs. The on-chip interconnects may offer excessive
resistance due to the increased scaling, leading to higher ohmic losses and consequently degradation
Ramachandra Achar (achar@doe.carleton.ca) is with the Department of Electronics,
Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S5B6 Canada.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MMM.2011.941414
Date of publication: 7 July 2011

August 2011

1527-3342/11/$26.002011 IEEE

61

High-speed interconnects are

increasingly becoming the major
bottlenecks in the design and
validation of high-performance
electronic products.

Backplanes, Cables

Package
Pack

PCB
Die
ie

PCB Traces

jitter due to unmatched differential lines

EM radiation from the interconnects, which tend
to act like good transmitters at higher frequencies
susceptibility to external incident fields or nearby
radiation due to the tendency of interconnects to
act like efficient antennas at higher frequencies,
etc.
These effects can be detrimental to the functional
performance of the system as well as lead to permanent hardware failures. Consequently, high-speed
interconnects are increasingly becoming the major
bottlenecks in the design and validation of highspeed electronic products. Hence, it is important to
predict the high-frequency effects by accurately modeling and efficiently simulating the interconnects at
various stages of the design cycle. This would significantly reduce the design cycle iterations and any
required post-production corrections, resulting in
shorter time-to-market, reduced cost, and a more reliable product.

Signal Characteristics and the

Frequency Spectrum

in the signal levels. On the other hand, the PCB interconnects may offer longer delays in the signal path due
to the associated larger inductance and capacitances.
The high-speed effects associated with the interconnects that affect the signal integrity can be manyfold (Figure 2) [2]:
crosstalk between the adjacent lines
delay due to the nonzero transit time on interconnects
signal attenuation
reflections in the waveforms due to the discontinuity in the interconnects or due to the improper
terminations
ringing in the waveform leading to unstable logic
levels

Often, a high-speed interconnect is referred to as the

one in which the time taken by the propagating signal to travel between its end points cant be neglected.
Alternatively, the term high-speed can be defined in
terms of the frequency content of the signal or the electrical length of the interconnect [2]. In modern digital designs, signals tend to operate at high frequencies
while having sharper excitations. The maximum frequency content of a signal influences the minimum
wavelength (lmin) of interest, lmin 5 v/fmax, where v
represents the velocity of the signal while propagating
through the interconnect. Generally, an interconnect
is considered to be electrically short if, at the highest operating frequency of interest, the interconnect
length (d) is physically shorter than approximately onetenth of the minimum wave-length of interest (i.e., for

I Su
EM

EM

Rad
iatio
n

sce
p

tibil

ity

Figure 1. Interconnect hierarchy in high-speed very-largescale integration (VLSI) systems.

Reflection

Attenuation

Cro

ss T
alk

Ground Noise

Interconnect Delay

Figure 2. Illustration of high-speed interconnect effects [2].

62

August 2011

0.35
fmax <
.
tr

Magnitude

109
tr = 1 ns

2
1
0

High-Speed Interconnect Models

In modern digital designs, modeling strategies for
high-speed interconnects vary based on the frequency range of interest, desired level of accuracy,
design hierarchy, and nature of the interconnect
structure. Some sample interconnect structures present in integrated circuits, packaging, and PCBs are
shown in Figure 4. Depending on the geometry of the
structure and the operating frequency, interconnects
can be modeled as lumped, distributed transmission
lines based on quasi-transverse EM (TEM) approximation [18], or full-wave models [31][33]. Figure 5
shows the preferred choice of interconnect models
with increasing frequency and the associated computational complexity.

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

109

Frequency (Hz)
109

tr = 0.1 ns

(1)

For example, for a signal with tr 5 0.1 ns, the maximum frequency of interest is approximately 3.5 GHz.
For cases requiring higher accuracy, the limit can be
set more conservatively as fmax < 1 / tr . Figure 3 numerically illustrates the frequency spectrum of a trapezoidal pulse of unity amplitude, width of 2 ns, for two
different cases of rise/fall times: 1 ns and 0.1 ns.

Microstrip

Usually, lumped interconnect circuits

extracted from layouts contain a
large number of nodes and make the
simulation highly CPU intensive.

Magnitude

d/lmin , 0.1). Otherwise, the interconnect is referred to

as electrically long [1], [2], [18]. Signal propagation
in electrically long interconnects suffers from various distortions due to transmission line effects, such
as reflections, overshoot, undershoot, crosstalk, etc.
Modeling of these high-frequency effects needs the
blending of EM and circuit theory.
Typical signals in digital designs include step,
ramp, and trapezoidal waveforms. In most digital
applications, the rise/fall time (tr) of the propagating signal influences the maximum frequency ( fmax)
of interest. For example, in the case of a trapezoidal
pulse, although its energy spectrum spans an infinite
frequency range, most of the signal energy is concentrated near the low-frequency region. Hence, ignoring the high-frequency components of the spectrum
above fmax will not seriously alter the overall signal
characteristics. Consequently, for practical purposes,
the bandwidth of the spectrum can be assumed to be
finite, and the relationship between the desired fmax
and tr can be expressed using a general rule-of-thumb
[10], [11], [25]

Frequency (Hz)

8
109

Figure 3. Illustration of the frequency spectrum of a

trapezoidal pulse with different rise times.

Lumped Models
At lower frequencies, the interconnect circuits can
be modeled using lumped resistance-capacitance
(RC) or resistance-inductance-conductance-capacitance (RLGC) type circuit models. RC circuit step
responses are monotonic in nature. However, in
order to account for ringing in signal waveforms,
RLGC type circuit models (such as the one shown in
Figure 6 [2]) are required. Usually, lumped interconnect circuits extracted from layouts contain a large
number of nodes and make the simulation highly
CPU intensive.

Distributed Transmission Line Models

At higher operating frequencies, signal wavelengths
become shorter and, consequently, interconnect length
becomes a significant fraction of the wavelength of
interest. In such cases, lumped interconnect models
become inadequate, and distributed transmission line
type models become necessary [2]. The distributed

Embedded Microstrip

Stripline

Figure 4. Typical interconnect configurations in integrated circuits, packages, and printed circuit boards.

August 2011

63

High

iin(t )

iout(t )

vin(t )

vout(t )

EM/
Full-Wave
Models

Distributed
Models

FEM, FDTD,
Spectral-Domain,
PEEC, rPEEC
Based Models

High

Transmission Line
Models with Frequency
Dependent RLGC
Parameters
Transmission Line
Models with Frequency
Independent RLGC
Parameters

(a)
Lumped
Models

RLGC
RLC
RC
Short
Low

Low

(Complexity, CPU Cost)

(Frequency)
(b)

Figure 5. Interconnect modeling hierarchy and complexity with increasing frequency. (a) Physical structure. (b) Electrical
models of the interconnect.

L
C/2

G/2

R
C/2

G/2

Figure 6. Lumped p interconnect model.

models based on TEM mode approximation represent
the ideal case, where both electric and magnetic fields
are perpendicular to the direction of propagation and
it can be considered as a reasonable approximation
under the condition that the interconnect cross-section
is significantly smaller than the wavelength. However,
the inhomogeneities in practical interconnects give
rise to electric or magnetic fields in the direction of
propagation. If these resulting field components (in
the direction of propagation) are relatively small, the
solution to the corresponding Maxwells equations can
be obtained in terms of so-called quasi-TEM modes.
The quasi-TEM models provide a much easier and
computationally fast approach for characterizing the
signal propagation in terms of circuit voltages and
currents rather than field quantities. The quasi-TEM
behavior of interconnects can be described by telegraphers equations (which are in the form of partial differential equations) [18], wherein the interconnects are
characterized by per-unit-length (p.u.l.) resistance (R),

64

inductance (L), capacitance (C), and conductance (G)

parameters.
Depending on the nature of the interconnect structure, frequency of operation, and desired accuracy,
interconnects are modeled as uniform or nonuniform
coupled transmission lines. In the case of uniformcoupled lines, the p.u.l. parameters are considered as
constant with the changing distance. In the case of
nonuniform coupled lines, the p.u.l. parameters are
treated as functions of distance [18], which makes
their modeling a challenging task.
Also, depending on the desired accuracy and nature
of the interconnect, the interconnects can be modeled
as lossless or lossy lines [18]. The losses (resistive as
well as conductive) can be frequency-independent
and/or frequency-dependent [2], [8], [15].

Distributed Models with

Frequency-Dependent Parameters
At higher operating frequencies, issues related to nonuniform current distribution pose further challenges.
The current in a conductor at low frequencies is distributed uniformly throughout its cross section. However, as the operating frequency increases, the current
distribution gets uneven and it starts getting concentrated more near the surface of the conductor; a phenomenon known as the skin effect. The skin effect
results in the reduction of the effective cross-sectional

August 2011

Full-Wave Models

180 m

25 m

50 m
m

25 m

1.6 mm
250

Resistance ()

200

150

100

50

0
104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

1011

109

1010

1011

Frequency (Hz)
2.7

107

2.6
2.5
Inductance (H)

area available for current

flow. The current distribution in this case is limited only to a small depth,
known as the skin depth
[23], from the surface of
the conductor. As a consequence of the reduction
in the cross-sectional area
for current conduction, the
resistance to signal propagation increases.
Other frequency-dependent current-distributionrelated effects include edge
and proximity effects [2],
[4]. The edge effect causes
the current to concentrate
near the sharp edges of the
conductor. The proximity
effect causes the current to
concentrate in the sections
of ground plane that are
close to the signal conductor.
Frequency-dependent
current-distribution-related
behavior of interconnects
is generally handled by
modeling them in terms of
frequency-dependent p.u.l.
parameters. An illustration of frequency-dependent variations of R and L
parameters for a microstrip
are given in Figure 7 [2].

2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
104

105

106

107

108

Frequency (Hz)

At subnanosecond rise
times, the length and cross Figure 7. Illustrative example of a frequency-dependent variation of per-unit length
section of an interconnect resistance and inductance [2].
can become a significant
fraction of the operating wavelength, and field comthe transmission line system shown in Figure 8(a)
ponents in the direction of propagation can no longer
[2]. Telegraphers equations for such a structure can
be neglected. Consequently, lumped circuit or distribbe derived by discretizing the line into infinitesiuted models based on the quasi-TEM approximation
mal sections of length Dx and assuming uniform
become inaccurate in describing the interconnect perp.u.l. parameters of R, L, G, and C. Each section then
formance. In such situations, a full-wave analysis [31]
includes a resistance RDx, inductance LDx, conduc[33] is required, as it takes into account all possible field
tance GDx, and capacitance CDx [Figure 8(b)]. Here
components and boundary conditions. Simulation of
v 1 x, t 2 and i 1 x, t 2 represent the voltage and current
these models is generally CPU intensive as they require
at any point (x) along the line at time (t).
an analysis of large resulting networks [2].
Using the circuit in Figure 8(b) and Kirchoffs current as well as voltage laws, one can write the Telegraphers equations [18] in the Laplace-domain (assuming
Modeling of Distributed Interconnects
zero initial conditions) as
Based on Telegraphers Equations
Signal propagation on distributed transmission
'
lines can be described in terms of telegraphers
V 1 x, s 2 5 2 1 R 1 sL 2 I 1 x, s 2 5 2ZI 1 x, s 2 ,
(2)
equations (partial differential equations). Consider
'x

August 2011

65

i(0,t )

i(x,t )

i (d,t )

v(0,t )

v (x,t )

v (d,t )

i (x + x, t )

i(x,t )
Lx

Rx

v (x,t )
Cx

x x + x

x=0

v (x + x, t )

Gx

x=d

x + x

x
(a)

(b)

Figure 8. Lumped discretization in a transmission line system [2].

'
I 1 x, s 2 5 2 1 G 1 sC 2 I 1 x, s 2 5 2YV 1 x, s 2 ,
'x

(3)

where Z and Y represent the p.u.l. impedance and

admittances of the transmission line, given by
Z 5 R 1 sL; Y 5 G 1 sC.

(4)

The set of equations represented by (2) and (3) can

be solved if they can be written in terms of one of the
unknowns [either v 1 x, t 2 or i 1 x, t 2 ] as follows:
'2
V 1 x, s 2 5 ZYV 1 x, s 2 5 g2V 1 x, s 2 ,
'x2
'2
I 1 x, s 2 5 YZI 1 x, s 2 5 g2I 1 x, s 2 ,
'x2

'
'
v 1 x, t 2 5 2 Ri 1 x, t 2 2 L i 1 x, t 2 ,
'x
't

(10)

(6)

'
'
i 1 x, t 2 5 2 Gv 1 x, t 2 2 C v 1 x, t 2 .
'x
't

(11)

(7)

After some manipulations, the solution of (5) and

(6) can be obtained as a combination of forward and
reflected waves travelling on the line as
V 1 x, s 2 5 V 1 0, s 2 e 6g1s2x
I 1 x, s 2 5 I 1 0, s 2 e

(9)

iin3(t )
iin2(t )
iin1(t )

vinN (t )

voutN (t )

vin3(t )

vout3(t )

vin2(t )

vout2(t )

vin1(t )

vout1(t )

x=0

ioutN (t )
iout3(t )
iout2(t )
iout1(t )

' V 1 x, s 2
V 1 x, s 2
d 5 1 D 1 sE 2 c
d;
c
'x I 1 x, s 2
I 1 x, s 2
D5 c

0
2G

2R
0
d; E 5 c
0
2C

2L
d.
0

(12)

Matrix Exponential Stamp

To interface the transmission line models with circuit
simulators, it is necessary to develop their stamps (representing terminal relations) that are suitable for adoption in circuit simulators. This can be accomplished by
obtaining the solution of (12) and subsequently relating the solution values at x 5 d and x 5 0 as:
c

V 1 0, s 2
V 1 d, s 2
d.
d 5 e1D1sE2d c
I 1 0, s 2
I 1 d, s 2

(13)

We can also express the above relationship (13)

(hybrid parameters) in terms of admittance parameters. This can be achieved by defining a matrix T 1 s 2 as

x=d

Figure 9. Multiconductor transmission line system.

66

Correspondingly (2)-(4) can be adopted to yield the

matrix form:

(8)

6g 1s2x

If the lines are lossless, the propagation constant is

given by, g 1 s 2 5 s"LC.

iinN (t )

Consider the multiconductor transmission line (MTL)

system shown in Figure 9, with N coupled conductors
and frequency independent p.u.l. parameters. Using
the steps similar to the case of a single transmission
line, we can derive the MTL equations. In this case,
p.u.l. parameters (R, L, G, and C) become matrices and
voltage/current variables become vectors represented
by v and i, respectively. Noting these changes, Telegraphers equations can be written in the form of 2N
coupled equations as [18]

(5)

where g 1 s 2 is the complex propagation constant, given

by
g 1 s 2 5 "ZY 5 " 1 R 1 sL 2 1 G 1 sC 2 .

Multiconductor Transmission Line System

T1s2 5 c

T11
T21

T12
d 5 e1D1sE2d,
T22

(14)

August 2011

and, after some algebraic manipulations, the admittance parameters can be obtained as
c

I102
2T1221 T11
d5c
I1d2
T212T22T21
12 T11
1 c

I102
Y11
d5c
I1d2
Y21

21
T12
V102
d;
21 d c
T22T12 V 1 d 2

Y12 V 1 0 2
dc
d.
Y22 V 1 d 2

(15)

As can be seen, the stamps expressed by (13) and

(15) are suitable for adoption during a frequencydomain analysis. However, transient simulation of
distributed interconnects suffers from several issues,
which are described below.

Time-Domain Simulation Issues with

Distributed Interconnects
Transient simulation of distributed interconnects is a
challenging task, as it faces several major hurdles, such
as the mixed frequency/time problem, the loss of certain properties of the macromodel, and the excessive
CPU cost. These issues are discussed in further detail,
below.

Mixed Frequency/Time Problem

The major difficulty in simulating circuits with distributed transmission line models is due to the fact
that, while MTL models are best represented in the
frequency-domain (13), the rest of the circuit elements such as drivers and receivers are mostly represented in the time domain. These simultaneous
formulations are difficult to handle by a traditional
ordinary differential equation solver such as Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis
(SPICE) [51], [52].

CPU Expense
For time-domain simulations, integration techniques
such as the trapezoidal rule are used to convert a set
of time-domain nonlinear differential equations into
a set of nonlinear difference equations at each time
point. Newton iterations are used to solve the resulting nonlinear algebraic equations, which may need
several lower-upper (LU) decompositions [2], [51],
[52]. Since the circuit matrices resulting from inter-

Distributed Interconnects

connect networks are typically very large, the corresponding LU decomposition can be computationally
expensive, resulting in a high CPU cost.

Macromodel Properties:
Stability and Passivity
For transient simulation purposes, transmission line
networks described by telegraphers equations are
translated into a set of ordinary differential equations,
through some kind of discretization (so that they can
be adopted in SPICE-like simulators). The resulting
approximation represents a macromodel of the given
interconnect network. This process is illustrated in
Figure 10.
However, since the macromodel represents an
approximation, it may not preserve all the properties
of the original system, such as stability and passivity.
Preserving stability of the macromodel requires that
all the poles of the macromodel to be in the left-half of
the complex plane [2]. Most existing macromodeling
algorithms can easily ensure this condition.
However, loss of passivity during the approximation process can be a serious problem because
transient simulations of a stable but nonpassive macromodel may encounter artificial oscillations. Passivity implies that a network cannot generate more
energy than it absorbs, and no passive termination of
the network will make the system unstable [7], [35].
Passivity is an important property, because stable but
not passive macromodels can lead to unstable systems when connected to other passive systems. On
the other hand, a passive macromodel, when terminated with any arbitrary passive load, always guarantees the stability of the overall resulting network.
To illustrate this point, consider a simple, single-port
second-order macromodel shown in Figure 11(a)
[45]. The macromodel is stable but not passive. When

Macromodel

Partial Differential Equations

Ordinary Differential
Equations

v (x, t ) = R i (x, t ) L
i (x, t )
x
t
i (x, t ) = G i (x, t ) C
v (x, t )
x
t

Signal propagation on distributed

transmission lines can be described
in terms of telegraphers equations
(partial differential equations).

Approximation
Process
(Macromodeling)

d q (t ) = Aq (t ) + Bu (t )
dt

Circuit
Simulation

y (t ) = Cq (t ) + Du (t )

Figure 10. Illustration of the macromodeling process for circuit simulation.

August 2011

67

Unstable (Nonpassive Macromodel + Passive Load)

Stable

L=1

C = 1/4

Nonpassive

Nonpassive

Ytotal(s)

Y(s )
Macromodel

Macromodel

Y(s ) =
=

1
Ytotal(s ) =

s +s+1
2

s
(s + 2.31) (s 0.157 + j 1.3 ) (s 0.157 j 1.3)

1
(s + 0.5 + j 0.866 ) (s + 0.5 j 0.866)
Unstable
Poles
Stable Poles
(a)

(b)

Figure 11. Illustration of the significance of passivity [45].

this macromodel is terminated with the passive load

[Figure 11(b)], the overall network ends up having
unstable poles.
The loss of passivity can be a serious problem
because transient simulations of nonpassive networks
may encounter artificial oscillations.
Therefore, the challenge here is to ensure the passivity of the multiport macromodel. The conditions
for a network with admittance matrix to be passive
are [2], [7]:
1) Y 1 s* 2 5 Y * 1 s 2 , where * is the complex conjugate
operator
2) Y 1 s 2 is a positive real (PR) matrix, i.e., the product
z*t 3 Y t 1 s* 2 1 Y 1 s 24 z $ 0 for all complex values of s
with Re 1 s 2 . 0 and any arbitrary vector z.
Condition 1) is automatically satisfied since the complex poles/residues of the transfer function are always
considered along with their conjugates, leading to only
real coefficients in rational functions of Y 1 s 2 . However,
ensuring condition 2) is not easy and has been the focus
of intense research during the last couple of years.
There are several algorithms available in the literature
for transient analysis of high-speed interconnects via
macromodeling. Two main categories among them are
1) approaches based on macromodeling each individual transmission line set that are characterized by RLGC parameters. Techniques such as
traditional lumped segmentation, method of
characteristics (MOC), and recent techniques
such as matrix-rational approximation (MRA)
[36], [37], delay extraction-based passive and
compact macromodel (DEPACT) [38], [39], and
waveform-relaxation(WR)-based methods [40]
[42] are considered here.

68

2) approaches based on macromodeling each

interconnect subnetworks that are characterized
by terminal multiport scattering parameters
(which are obtained via EM simulations or measurements).

Transient Simulation of
RLGC-based Distributed
Interconnects via Macromodeling
In this approach, transmission-line networks described
by telegraphers equations are translated into a set of
ordinary differential equations, through some kind of
discretization, as discussed below.

Lumped Segmentation
The conventional approach [18], [25] for discrete modeling of distributed interconnects is to divide the
line into segments of length Dx, chosen to be a small
fraction of the wavelength. If each of these segments
(assume that the line of length d is discretized into M
segments) are electrically small at the frequencies of
interest (i.e. Dx 5 d/M V l), then each segment can be
replaced by an appropriate lumped model.

Number of Lumped Segments

Designers are usually interested in knowing how
many lumped segments are needed for a reasonable
approximation of a distributed model. For example, if
LC segments are considered, for a reasonable approximation, the corresponding circuit (low-pass type) must
pass at least some multiples of the highest frequency
fmax of the propagating signal (say ten times, f0 $ fmax 2
[2], which can be related to the 3-dB passband of an LC
filter as [10], [11]

August 2011

f0 5

1
p"LdCd

1 ,
ptd

(16)

vout(t )
V

where t is the delay per unit length of the line and

d is the length of the line. Noting that the maximum
frequency of interest in digital circuits is related to the
rise time tr of the signal, which is generally given by the
rule-of-thumb (1), fmax 5 0.35 / tr. Hence, using (16), we
can express the relation f0 $ 10fmax in terms of the delay
of the line and the rise time as 1 / ptd $ 10 3 0.35/tr, or
tr $ 3.5 1 ptd 2 < 10 td. In other words, delay allowed
per segment is 0.1 tr. Therefore, the number of segments 1 N 2 is given by [2]

50

pw = 2 ns
t

vin(t )

50

Figure 12. Transmission line circuit.

0.7
0.6

(17)

For example, consider the circuit in Figure 12 containing a lossless interconnect of length 6 cm with p.u.l.
parameters of L 5 4 nH/cm and C 5 2.5 pF/cm, carrying a digital signal with a rise time of 0.1 ns. For this
line, the per-unit delay can be obtained as:

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

Lumped (N = 5)
Lumped (N = 50)
Ideal (Lossless TL)

0.1
0

t 5 "L 3 C

5 "4 3 10 29 3 2.5 3 10 212 5 100 212 5 100 ps.

4
5 6 7
Frequency (Hz)

9 10
109

Figure 13. Comparison of transfer-function responses at

node vout.

109

Vout (s)

If this interconnect were to be represented by

lumped segments, one would need approximately
N 5 1 10 3 1 100 3 10 212 2 3 6 2 / 1 0.1 3 10 29 2 5 60 sections.
The implications of selecting an appropriate number of lumped segments is further illustrated numerically in Figures 1315, which compare the responses
at node vout of the circuit in Figure 12 for three different types of interconnect models: 1) ideal (lossless)
transmission line model, 2) five lumped LC segments
model and, 3) 50 lumped segments model. Figure 13
compares the transfer-function response of the circuit
at node vout. As shown, the response with five lumped
segments deviates pretty quickly from the ideal
response. Figure 14 compares the frequency response
at node vout in the presence of a trapezoidal pulse
input (which represents the product of the transferfunction response and the frequency spectrum of the
trapezoidal pulse). Figure 15 compares the transient
responses at node vout for all three cases. The response
with five lumped segments model deviates significantly from the ideal response.
As is evident, one of the major drawbacks of the
above conventional discretization is that it requires
a large number of sections, especially for circuits
with high clock frequencies and sharper rise times.
This leads to large circuit sizes and, consequently,
the simulation becomes CPU inefficient. In order
to overcome these difficulties, several techniques
for efficient discretization are proposed in the literature. These methods can be broadly classified
based on how they preserve passivity, either by
some type of post processing (such as the MOC

August 2011

Length = 6 cm
L = 4 nH/cm
C = 2.5 pF/cm

tr /tf = 0.1 ns

H(s)

N 5 1 10td 2 / tr.

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Lumped (N = 5)
Lumped (N = 50)
Ideal (Lossless TL)

4
5 6 7
Frequency (Hz)

9 10
109

Figure 14. Comparison of frequency responses in the

presence of trapezoidal pulse input.
approach [27]) or by construction (such as MRA
[36], and DEPACT [38]).

Method of Characteristics
The MOC [27][29] transforms partial differential
equations of a transmission line into ordinary differential equations containing time-delayed controlled
sources.
Consider the case of two-conductor transmission
lines, as shown in Figure 16(a). Using (8), after some
algebraic manipulations, the y-parameters of a single
transmission line can be derived [2], [18] as

69

I 5 YV,

V 1 2 Z0 I1 5 W 1 ,

1 1 e 22gd
I1
1
c
c d5
22gd
I2
2 2 2e 2gd
Z0 1 1 2 e

2 2e 2gd V1
d c d , (18)
1 1 e 22gd V2

V 2 2 Z0 I2 5 W 2 ,
where
W1 5 e 2gd 3 2V2 2 e 2gd 1 Z0I1 1 V1 2 4 ,

where g is the propagation constant and Z0 is the characteristic impedance. V1 and I1 are the terminal voltage
and current at the near end of the line, respectively andV2
and I2 are the terminal voltage and current at the far end
of the line, respectively. The y-parameters of the transmission line (18), are complex functions of s and, in most
cases, cannot be directly transformed into time-domain
ordinary differential equations. The MOC succeeded in
doing such a transformation easily for lossless transmission lines. Although this method was originally developed in the time domain using what was referred to as
characteristic curves (hence the name), a short alternative
derivation in the frequency domain is presented here. By
rearranging the terms in (18), we can write
V1 5 Z0I1 1 e 2gd 3 2V2 2 e 2gd 1 Z0I1 1 V1 2 4 ,
V2 5 Z0I2 1 e 2gd 3 2V1 2 e 2gd 1 Z0I2 1 V2 2 4 .

(20)

W2 5 e 2gd 3 2V1 2 e 2gd 1 Z0I2 1 V2 2 4 .

(21)

Using (19) and (21), a recursive relation for W1 and W2

can be obtained as
W1 5 e 2gd 3 2V2 2 W2 4 ,
W2 5 e 2gd 3 2V1 2 W1 4 .

(22)

A lumped model of the transmission line can then be

deduced from (19) and (22), as in Figure 16(b) [2].
If the lines are lossless (in which case we will have
1
g s 2 5 s"LC), (22) can be analytically converted into
time domain using inverse Laplace transform as
w1 1 t 1 t 2 5 2v2 1 t 2 2 w2 1 t 2 ,
w2 1 t 1 t 2 5 2v1 1 t 2 2 w1 1 t 2 ,

(19)

(23)

Next, (19) can be rewritten as

where e 2s"LC is replaced by a time shift (or delay).
Each transmission line can therefore be modeled by
two impedances and two voltage controlled voltage
sources with time delay. Since this transmission line
model is in the time domain, it can be easily linked to
transient simulators.
For lossy lines, the propagation constant is not
purely imaginary and hence cannot be replaced by
a pure delay. In such cases, analytical expressions
for w1 and w2 cannot be found in the time domain. To
handle such cases, classical MOC can be extended
through Pad synthesis of the characteristic impedance and the complex propagation constant [28]. In
the case of MTLs, MOC can be applied through the
decoupling of MTL equations [18].

0.6
0.5

Vout (V)

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1

0.5

1.5

2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (s)

4 4.5 5
109

Lumped (N = 5)
Lumped (N = 50)
Ideal (Lossless TL)

Matrix-Rational Approximation
This algorithm directly converts the exponentialbased partial differential equations of (10) and (11)
into time-domain macromodels based on Pad

Figure 15. Comparison of transient responses.

i1(t )

i2(t )

v1(t )

v2(t )

+
V1

I1

Z0

Z0
W1 +

x=0

(a)

x=d

W2

I2

+
V2

(b)

Figure 16. Macromodel using method of characteristics [2].

70

August 2011

rational approximations of exponential matrices [36],

[37]. In this technique, coefficients describing the
macromodel are computed a priori and, analytically,
using the closed-form Pad approximant of exponential matrices. For the purpose of illustration, consider
the closed-form relations available for a scalar exponential function:
M

e <
x

g i50 Qi xi
N

g j50 Pj xj

gM
i50 Q
g j50 Q
N

1 N 1 M2i 2 !
M!
1 N 1 M 2 ! R Q 1 M2i 2!i! R

xi

.
1 N 1 M2j 2 !
N!
j
R Q 1 N2j 2 !j! R 1 2x 2
1 N 1 M 2!

(24)

The large number of coupled lines in

an interconnect structure is a serious
limiting factor in simulating highspeed circuits.
of the original transmission line circuit. To address
these difficulties, the modified Lie product formula
(MLF)
sEd Dd sEd

For example, if a Pad approximation of order 2/3 is

required, then these orders are simply substituted in
the above expression and the corresponding coefficients can be computed in a closed-form as follows:
1 2 1 32i 2 !

g 2i50 Q 1 2 1 3 2 ! R Q 1 22i2!2!3i! R xi
Q2 1 x 2
e <
5
1 2 1 32j 2 !
P3 1 x 2
g 3j50 Q 1 2 1 3 2 ! R Q 1 32j3!2 !3j! R 1 2x 2 j
x

ex <

1 1 25x 1 201 x2
1235 x 1 203 x22601 x3

(25)

In the MRA algorithm, the above concept was generalized and necessary relations were developed to
directly obtain the closed-form relation to obtain the
Pad approximation coefficients of the matrix exponential represented in (13). An important advantage
of the method is that, since closed-form relations are
used, it doesnt suffer from the usual ill-conditioning
experienced with the direct Pad approximations.
Therefore, it allows higher-order (or broadband)
approximation. Also, it guarantees the passivity of the
resulting macromodel. Proof of preserving the passivity of the macromodel can be found in [36].

Delay Extraction-Based Passive

and Compact Macromodel
For long lossy delay lines, MRA-type pure rational
approximation-based algorithms may require highorder approximations, making the macromodel inefficient. To address this difficulty, the DEPACT algorithm
[38] employs delay extraction prior to approximating
the exponential stamp to generate compact macromodels, while ensuring the passivity. From (13), it can
be noted that the delay part in the MTL response is
essentially contributed by the matrix E. However, due
to the fact that the matrices D and sE do not commute,
extracting the delay from eD1sE is not an easy task.
This can be addressed using the Lie product formula
[53], which can be written for the transmission line
problem as
Dd

e1D1sE2 5 lim q Q e m e m R .
mS`
sEd

(26)

However, (26) suffers from the fact that not only it converges slowly with respect to m (requiring large order
macromodels), but also fails to maintain the symmetry

August 2011

e1D1sE2 5 lim q ae 2m e m e 2m b
mS`

(27)

was developed in [38]. Equation (27) provides better convergence with respect to m compared to (26)
(thereby leading to compact macromodels). It also
maintains the symmetry of the original transmission
line circuit as well as ensures the passivity of the macromodel (proof and details can be found in [38]).
The products represented by (27) can be viewed as
a cascade of m MLF cells. It is to be noted that each of
the MLF cells consists of a cascade of lossy and lossless
transmission line subnetworks [38]. The lossy module
can be represented by the MRA algorithm efficiently
since the major part of the delay is already extracted
from it.
In addition, the extension of the MRA and DEPACT
algorithms to handle frequency-dependent parameters can be found in [39]. Further simplified formulations for special cases of interconnects (such as
with frequency independent RLGC parameters or
with only frequency dependent R, L parameters etc.)
can be found in [39]. For example, if the associated
RLCG parameters are frequency independent, each
kth MLF cell can be represented as in Figure 17 (where
z0 5 "R/G; g 5 "RG; l 5 d/m), which provides for a
much simpler implementation of the algorithm. Additional applications of these algorithms for concurrent
signal integrity and EM interference analysis can be
found in [50].

Waveform Relaxation and Transverse

Partitioning Based Methods
The large number of coupled lines in an interconnect
structure is a serious limiting factor in simulating
high-speed circuits. The increased computational
cost due to coupling occurs at two stages: the first
is during the formulation of the interconnect stamp
and the second, which is more costly, is during the
transient simulation of the signal path, including terminations [41].
The complexity of the equivalent circuit grows
approximately at a rate of N2, where N is the number of coupled lines. On the other hand, the average
CPU expense of simulating a circuit of size M is proportional to Ma, with 1.5 , a , 2 (depending on the
sparsity of the circuit). Consequently, the average cost

71

(Lossless Transmission
Line: Delay Element)

(Lossy Part (eDd/m )

Represented by Resistors)

(Lossless Transmission
Line: Delay Element)

Rb
ae

sEd
2m

sEd

b
Ra

ll 2
1 = 1 = (1 e ) ;
Ra
Rc
z0(1 e2l )

a e 2m b

Rc

2ell
1 =
;
Rb
z0(1 e2l )

Figure 17. Exact realization of the kth modified Lie product formula cell (27) for a single conductor transmission line with
frequency-independent parameters [39].

of simulating an N-coupled lines circuit is expected to

be proportional to Nb; where 3 , b , 4. This results in
a prohibitively time-consuming simulation task compared to the simple case of simulating a single line. The
computational effort for simulating an interconnect
circuit with a varying number of lines using a SPICEbased circuit simulator is demonstrated numerically
(CPU time versus number of lines) in Figure 18 [41].

1,200

CPU Time (s)

1,000

'
'
v 1 z, t 2 5 2 rkk ik 1 z, t 2 2 lkk ik 1 z, t 2 2 ek 1 z, t 2 ,
'z k
't

Conventional
Lumped
Segmentation

800
600
400

Waveform
Relocation Using
Transverse
Partitioning

200
0
10

20

30
40
50
Number of Lines (n)

60

Figure 18. CPU cost versus the Lumped number of lines

using SPICE and waveform-relaxation and transverse
partitioning simulations [40].

Tabulated Data
Vector Fit
Passivity Checking

Passivity Enforcement
Transient Simulation

(Rational Function
Based Macromodeling)
(Hamiltonian Based
Techniques)
(First-Order
Perturbation
Techniques)
(SPICE)

Figure 19. Macromodeling process for tabulated scattering

parameters.

72

The issue of higher CPU cost due to coupling

between a large number of lines was recently
addressed using WR and transverse partitioning
(TP) methods [41]. TP takes advantage of the weak
coupling between individual lines in an MTL structure [18]. The basic idea here is to simulate single
lines with the coupling to other lines represented by
lumped sources. This is similar to solving an inhomogeneous-like telegraphers equation of a single
line, with the terms corresponding to the coupling
represented as p.u.l. voltage and current terms as
shown below (for the kth line):

'
'
i 1 z, t 2 5 2 g^ kkvk 1 z, t 2 2 c^ kk vk 1 z, t 2 2 qk 1 z, t 2 , (28)
'z k
't
N

where g^ kk 5 a gkj and

j51

c^ kk 5 a ckj and
j51

'
ek 1 z, t 2 5 a arkjij 1 z, t 2 1 lkj ij 1 z, t 2b ,
't
N

j51
j2k

N
'
qk 1 z, t 2 5 a agkjvkj 1 z, t 2 1 ckj vkj 1 z, t 2b .
't

(29)

j51
j2k

For the application of WR, each line is divided into

small segments. At the terminals of each segment,
lumped current and voltage sources are connected,
which represent the coupling from the corresponding segments in all other lines. These sources could
be incorporated in a suitable way, depending upon
the specific transmission line macromodel being used.
For example, when using a lumped macromodel for
each segment, the equation for the mth segment of the
kth line between the distances, zm and zm 1 Dzm, can be
written using lumped sources derived by assigning a
suitable weighting factor, wm as

August 2011

vk 1 zm 1 Dzm, t 2 5 vk 1 zm, t 2 2 rkkDzmik 1 zm, t 2

'
2 lkk Dzm ik 1 zm, t 2 2 wm Dzmek 1 zm, t 2
't
ik 1 zm 1 Dzm, t 2 5 ik 1 zm, t 2 2 g^ kkDzmvk 1 zm, t 2
'
2 c^ kkDzm vk 1 zm, t 2 2 wmDzmqk 1 zm, t 2 .
't
(30)

As can be seen from Figure 18 [40], it is evident that

the WR-TP method yields significantly higher speedup compared to conventional SPICE.
In addition, the extension of the WR-TP algorithm
to handle frequency-dependent parameters can be
found in [42].

Macromodeling of High-Speed Modules

Based on Tabulated Data
Due to the continuous rise in operating frequencies
and complexities of modern high-speed circuits, it
is not always possible to find analytical or numerical models of many passive components such as
packages, vias, connectors, nonuniform transmission lines, on-chip inductors, etc., so that they can
be directly included in a circuit simulator. In such a
scenario, these devices are characterized by tabulated
multiport parameters, obtained either through measurements or from the physical layout using rigorous
full-wave EM simulations. The tabulated data can
be multiport scattering (S), admittance (Y), impedance (Z), transmission (T), or hybrid (H) parameters.
However, it is not trivial to include sampled data in a
circuit simulator such as SPICE. This has lead to significant research in this area, during the recent years
[43][48].
The macromodeling process for transient simulation of tabulated modules is illustrated in Figure 19.
In the recent years, the macromodeling-based transient simulation approaches have gained popularity
due to their computational advantages. The first step
involves computing a rational function approximation for the tabulated data [43]. For example, consider
the scattering parameters of an m-port subnetwork
which can be written in terms of a pole-residue formulation as
S 1 s 2 5 3 Sij 1 s 24 ; Sij 1 s 2 5 c i, j 1 a
N

q51

ki,q j
s2pq

; 1 i, j [ 1 cm 2 ,
(31)

where the residues (kq ) and poles (pq ) can be real

or complex conjugate pairs, N is the total number of poles and c represents the direct coupling
constant.
Several methods have been suggested in the literature, which start with the tabulated data to obtain the
macromodel via rational function approximation (31),

August 2011

It is not trivial to include sampled

data in a circuit simulator such as
SPICE. This has led to significant
research in this area during the
recent years.
such as vector-fitting [43], z-domain based orthonormal vector fitting [47], etc., which can yield substantially higher-order and broadband models without
encountering ill-conditioning.
While these methods may generate accurate approximations, the passivity of the resulting macromodel is
not guaranteed. Hence in the second step, passivity of
the resulting macromodel is verified using frequencysweep or more robust methods such as Hamiltonianbased formulations. If the macromodel is found to be
nonpassive, the passivity is enforced using first-order
perturbation techniques [44][46].

Summary
Due to the continually rising demands for high-speed,
high-density and broadband applications, signal integrity modeling and analysis has become imperative for
design and validation of modern VLSI designs. In this
review article, basic concepts of high-speed interconnect modeling were discussed. Also recent advances
in interconnect modeling, such as MRA, DEPACT and
WR-TP were reviewed.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank and acknowledge the
help and contributions provided by Prof. Michel
Nakhla and the current as well as past graduate students of the CAE group, Department of Electronics
at Carleton University during the preparation of this
review article.

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