Ore Geology Reviews 70 (2015) 290304

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Application of ASTER data for exploration of porphyry copper deposits: A

case study of DaralooSarmeshk area, southern part of the Kerman
copper belt, Iran
Masoumeh Alimohammadi a,b,, Saeed Alirezaei a, Daniel J. Kontak b
a
b

Faculty of Earth Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 31 December 2014
Received in revised form 25 March 2015
Accepted 5 April 2015
Available online 28 April 2015
Keywords:
ASTER imagery
Porphyry copper deposit
Hydrothermal alteration
DaralooSarmeshk
UrumiehDokhtar
Iran

a b s t r a c t
The Cenozoic UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt (UDMB) of Iran is a major host to porphyry Cu Mo Au deposits (PCDs). Most known PCDs in the UDMB occur in the southern section of the belt, also known as the Kerman
Copper Belt (KCB). Three major clusters of PCDs are distinguished in the KCB and include the Miduk,
Sarcheshmeh and Daraloo clusters. The Daraloo and Sarmeshk deposits occur in a northwestsoutheast-trending
fault zone that is characterized by the presence of a narrow zone of alterationmineralization that contains a series of Oligocene granitoids and Miocene porphyritic tonalitegranodiorite plutons that cut Eocene andesitic lava
ows and pyroclastic rocks. Here we use various techniques, including different ratio images, minimum noise
fraction, pixel purity index, and matched lter processing to process ASTER data (14 bands) and generate
maps that portray the distribution of hydrothermal minerals (e.g., sericite, kaolinite, chlorite, epidote and carbonate) related to PCD alteration zones. In order to validate the ASTER data, follow-up ground proong and related
mineralogical work was done which, in all cases, proved to be positive. The results of this work have identied the
regional distribution of hypogene alteration zones (i.e., phyllic, argillic, propylitic and silicic), in addition to areas
of secondary Fe-oxide formation, which are coincident with known sites of PCDs. The regional distribution and
extent of the alteration zones identied also highlighted the role of regional structures in focusing the mineralizing/altering uids. These results demonstrate very convincingly that ASTER imagery that uses the appropriate
techniques is reliable and robust in mapping out the extent of hydrothermal alteration and lithological units, and
can be used for targeting hydrothermal ore deposits, particularly porphyry copper deposits where the alteration
footprint is sizeable.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Porphyry copper deposits (PCDs) presently provide most of the
world's Cu, Mo, and Re, about 20% of the world's Au, and minor amounts
of other metals such as Ag, Pd, Te, Se, Bi, Zn, and Pb (Sillitoe, 2010).
These deposits typically develop at shallow crustal depths (b 26 km
from surface) and are associated with extensive hydrothermal alteration, typically zoned from an inner potassic assemblage, dominated
by biotite and K-feldspar, which grades outward and upward into
phyllic, argillic, and propylitic zones, respectively (e.g., Lowell and
Guilbert, 1970; Mars, 2010, 2014; Mars and Rowan, 2006). The phyllic
zone typically contains sericite and pyrite-rich rocks, the argillic zone
consists of alunitic and kaolinitic rich-rocks, and the outer propylitic
zone consists of a variable mineralogy of chloriteepidote and calcite
(e.g., Abrams and Brown, 1984; Hunt and Ashley, 1979; Lowell and
Corresponding author at: Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University,
Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada.
E-mail address: Malimohammadi@laurentian.ca (M. Alimohammadi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.04.010
0169-1368/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Guilbert, 1970; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Seederoff et al., 2005; Spatz
and Wilson, 1995). In addition, silicic alteration distinguished by the
replacement of earlier alteration products and also primary igneous
minerals by silica, and also by silica lithocaps and quartz veins, has
been reported from the upper parts of many porphyry systems
(e.g., Alimohammadi and Alirezaei, 2012; Ninomiya, 2003; Sillitoe,
1995; Titley, 1972; Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007).
The potassic and phyllic alteration zones are closely associated with
economic sulde mineralization and, therefore, are considered as prime
targets for PCD exploration. In particular, phyllic alteration can cover a
large area and has served as an efcient tool in regional exploration
for PCDs. This alteration typically overprints earlier potassic assemblages due to ingress of acidic to near-neutral uids and is associated
with the destruction of original magmatic minerals (e.g., plagioclase,
K-feldspar), as well as secondary hydrothermal biotite and K-feldspar
(e.g., Dilles and Einaudi, 1992; Reed, 1997; Singer et al., 2008; Sillitoe,
2010; Titley, 1972). The hypogene ore in these systems is characterized
by the common occurrence of pyrite (b110%) and chalcopyrite (b 1
3%) with subordinate bornite and molybdenite. Exhumation of PCDs

M. Alimohammadi et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 70 (2015) 290304

results in their differential exposure at surface and more importantly

also enhances oxidation of suldes with the development of Fe oxides/hydroxides, jarosite (a hydrous KAl sulfate) and production of
acid alteration of earlier mineral assemblages. During this exhumation,
Cu-bearing minerals can, at least partly, be leached and the Cu mobilized and re-precipitated to produce a supergene enriched blanket
below the contemporaneous water table, and this leads to upgrading
of the original hypogene ore.
The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reection
Radiometer (ASTER) is an advanced multispectral satellite imaging system that has created new opportunities for the mapping of geological
structures and detecting certain alteration minerals or assemblages
(e.g., Cudahy et al., 2008; Hewson et al., 2005; Mars and Rowan, 2006;
Rowan and Mars, 2003; Rowan et al., 2003). ASTER is a cooperative effort between NASA and Japan's Ministry of Economic Trade and Industry
(METI). The instrument was launched on board NASA's TERRA spacecraft in December 1999 and consists of three separate subsystems
with a total of 14 bands: (1) the visible near infrared (VNIR) subsystem
obtains optical images of three bands (0.52 to 0.86 m), with a spatial
resolution of 15 m; (2) the shortwave infrared (SWIR) subsystem
scans optical images of six bands (1.60 to 2.43 m), with a spatial resolution of 30 m; and (3) the thermal infrared (TIR) subsystem obtains
optical images of ve bands (8.12 to 11.65 m) with a spatial resolution
of 90 m (Fujisada, 1995). ASTER also has a backward-looking VNIR telescope with a resolution of 15 m which means that stereoscopic VNIR

291

images can be acquired at 15 m resolution. The swath width is 60 km,

but off-nadir pointing capability extends the total cross-track viewing
of ASTER to 232 km (Fujisada, 1995).
The Cenozoic UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt (UDMB) of Iran is an
important metallogenic terrain for hosting porphyry Cu Mo Au deposits (Fig. 1; e.g., Alirezaei and Hassanpour, 2011; McInnes et al., 2005;
Richards et al., 2012). The UDMB is a relatively narrow (5080 km), linear belt dominated by calc-alkaline intrusive and extrusive rocks, and
associated pyroclastic materials. The evolution of the UDMB is associated with the successive stages of closure of the Tethyan Ocean, including
subduction during the CretaceousOligocene, and continentcontinent
collision in the late PaleogeneNeogene (e.g., Agard et al., 2005; Allen
et al., 2004; Berberian et al., 1982; Dercourt et al., 1986; McClay et al.,
2004; Mohajjel et al., 2003; Ricou, 1994). Most of the known PCD systems are located in the southern section of the UDMB, also known as
the DehajSardoieh belt or Kerman copper belt (Fig. 1). The National
Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICICO) has conducted extensive
exploration for PCDs in the UDMB, as well as other Cenozoic magmatic
assemblages in Iran, since 2005. Processing satellite images has proven
to be an effective tool in regional exploration for PCDs, including a variety of settings in Iran (e.g., Mars and Rowan, 2006; Mars, 2010; Pour
et al., 2011; Ranjbar et al., 2004; Tangestani et al., 2008), examples of
which include the following: (1) Ranjbar et al. (2004) identied iron oxides/hydroxides and hydroxyl-bearing minerals associated with hydrothermal and supergene alterations in PCD systems in the southern part

Fig. 1. (a) Major structural and geological subdivisions of Iran, after Stocklin (1968) and Nabavi (1976), which show the location of the Kerman Copper Belt (KCB) in the UrumiehDokhtar
Magmatic Belt; (b) simplied litho-structural map of the KCB and location of three major porphyry Cu deposit clusters (Miduk, Sarcheshmeh and Daraloo) that are discussed in the text.
Compiled from Dimitrijevic, 1973; Saric and Mijalkovic, 1973; Walker, 2006; Shaei et al., 2009.

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of the UDMB with the use of ETM+ data; (2) Mars and Rowan (2006)
developed logical operator algorithms based on ASTER dened band ratios for regional mapping of phyllic- and argillic-altered rocks in the
Zargros magmatic zone; (3) Tangestani et al. (2008) evaluated ASTER
Level-1B radianceat-sensor and surface reectance (AST-07) data for
alteration zone enhancement related to PCD formation in northern
Shahr-e-Babak; (4) Mars (2010) distinguished the sericitic, argillic and
propylitic alteration zones associated with the Sarcheshmeh deposit in
the Kerman copper belt, by using logical operator algorithms; and
(5) Pour et al. (2011) discriminated hydrothermal alteration zones associated with Miduk and Sarcheshmeh PCDs in the southern UDMB
using ASTER Level-1B radiance-at-sensor data.
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the accuracy of ASTER images,
using data recorded in the spring and autumn of 2001, for targeting
the alteration zones of PCD systems in an extensive area of the southern
part of the Kerman copper belt where previous work was focused on a
more regional scale (Mars and Rowan, 2006). A detailed analysis of
the spectral mapping method is used to detect various alteration minerals associated with Cu mineralization in the Daraloo and Sarmeshk
deposits. Upon correcting for the inuence of topography and atmospheric conditions, the ASTER performance is evaluated as a means for
both identication and discrimination of lithologies and also for determining their distributions (i.e., as a mapping instrument). Finally, we
also compare the signature of the satellite data with that derived from
laboratory-based measurements, and then apply the appropriate
image processing techniques. The processing of these data enabled us
to generate an alteration map that highlights a large area of hydrothermal alteration that has a high potential for PCD mineralization in the
southern part of the Kerman copper belt, Iran.
The results of this study form part of a broader study of the nature of
the porphyry mineralization in the area that includes whole-rock chemistry, detailed petrological studies of the alteration and mineralization,
geochronology, uid inclusion studies, and stable and radiogenic isotope analyses in order to characterize the source and nature of the
magmas and uids responsible for the alteration and mineralization in
the Daraloo and Sarmeshk deposits. The results of this work are currently being prepared for publication, but have been presented in preliminary form (Alimohammadi et al., 2014a,b).
2. Geological background
2.1. Regional geology of the Kerman copper belt
Arc volcanism in the KCB started in Middle Eocene to form the Bahr
Aseman complex, and continued into the Upper Eocene to form the
Razak complex (Dimitrijevic, 1973; Hassanzadeh, 1993). The volcanic
complexes consist of calc-alkaline basaltic to rhyolitic lava ows and pyroclastic materials that are interbedded with mostly marine sedimentary rocks. These Eocene volcanic-sedimentary successions were intruded
by voluminous Late EoceneOligocene plutonic bodies, some of batholithic size (Fig. 1). The intrusions range in composition from granites
to diorites and locally gabbros, and are commonly characterized by having granular textures (Dimitrijevic, 1973; Ghorashizadeh, 1978;
McInnes et al., 2003; Shaei et al., 2009). In addition, these intrusions
have a chemistry that indicates a high- to medium-K calc-alkaline afnity (Atapour, 2007; Shaei et al., 2009). These intrusions are known as
the Jebal-Barez type granitoids (Dimitrijevic, 1973), named after a
mountain range in the southern Kerman province where they outcrop
extensively, and to date no major metallic mineralization has been reported to occur within these intrusive bodies. Volcanic activity continued into the Middle Oligocene and generated the Hezar calc-alkaline
volcanic complex (Dimitrijevic, 1973; Hassanzadeh, 1993) that is overlain unconformably by Upper Oligocene to Middle Miocene molassetype sediments and carbonate rocks (Dimitrijevic, 1973).
The Middle and Upper Miocene was a time of magmatic reactivation
in the KCB region, with numerous shallow intrusive bodies cutting the

older volcanic and plutonic rocks (Ghorashizadeh, 1978; Hassanzadeh,

1993; McInnes et al., 2005). These intrusions range in composition from
diorites and quartz-diorites to granodiorites with the quartz-diorites
dominating (Alirezaei and Hassanpour, 2011). The intrusions, known as
the Kuh-Panj type granitoids after the Kuh-Panj Mountain southeast of
Sarcheshmeh (Dimitrijevic, 1973), are associated with major porphyrystyle mineralization in the KCB (Fig. 1). These intrusions have a high-K
calc-alkaline chemistry and display features typical of I-type magmas
(e.g., Atapour, 2007). In addition, many of the porphyritic intrusions
have chemical attributes, such as high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios, that suggest
an adakitic afnity (e.g., Alirezaei and Mohammadzadeh, 2009; Shaei,
2008).
This shallow-level intrusive activity continued into the Late Miocene
and Pliocene in a post-collisional tectonic setting (Atapour, 2007;
Shaei et al., 2009) with the generation of many sub-volcanic intrusions
(Dehaj type), two isolated stratovolcanoes (Masahim type) and several
cones (Aj type) (Fig. 1). These rocks vary in composition from dacite to
rhyolite and locally andesite (Dimitrijevic, 1973; Hassanzadeh, 1993).
The youngest manifestation (Plio-Quaternary) of magmatic activity in
the KCB is represented by lamprophyres, olivine-alkali basalts and
foidites (Atapour, 2007; Dimitrijevic, 1973; Hassanzadeh, 1993).

2.2. Nature of alteration and mineralization of the Kerman porphyry copper

deposits
As in many other PCD provinces worldwide, the deposits within the
KCB occur in clusters (Fig. 1) and three major clusters have been distinguished that include, from northwest to southeast, the following:
(1) the Miduk cluster which is represented by the Miduk and several
smaller deposits (e.g., Abdar, Serenu, Sara, Chahruzeh, Iju, Kader, and
God-e-Kolvari,); (2) the Sarcheshmeh cluster which consists of the
Sarcheshmeh deposit at its center that is surrounded by several smaller
deposits (e.g., Darrehzar, Kuh-Panj, Sarkuh, Nowchun, Seridune, and
Baghkhoshk); and (3) the Daraloo cluster that consists of Daraloo and
several smaller deposits (e.g., Sarmeshk, Hanza, Peynegin, Lalehzar,
Goruh and Chahartaq).
In the Kerman copper belt, the largest known deposit is
Sarcheshmeh (~ 1200 Mt of ore at 0.7% Cu and 0.03% Mo) where its
host rock has been dated at 13.6 0.1 Ma based on zircon UPb dating
(McInnes et al., 2003). At the smaller Miduk deposit (~170 Mt of ore at
0.85% Cu, 0.006% Mo), the host rock has been dated at 12.5 0.1 Ma
(zircon UPb, McInnes et al., 2003). For the Daraloo deposit (80 Mt of
ore at 0.5% Cu and N 0.003% Mo), a similar Miocene age of ca. 12 Ma
has been obtained, but in this case by dating hydrothermal mica using
40
Ar/39Ar method (unpublished data of M. Alimohammadi), which provides the time of cooling of the mica below its blocking temperature,
and given the high-level nature of PCDs is considered a good estimate
of the time of hydrothermal activity.
The density of porphyry Cu mineralization within the KCB increases
from southeast to northwest with the majority of the deposits being located in elevated, thickened arc crust (4550 km) (Shaei et al., 2009).
No volcanic rocks have been identied that are contemporaneous with
the mineralized porphyry intrusions (Waterman and Hamilton, 1975;
Hassanzadeh, 1993). Country rocks in most deposits are considered to
be Eocene volcanicpyroclastic materials with local intercalations of
sandstones, shales and limestones (e.g., Atapour, 2007; Dimitrijevic,
1973; Shaei, 2008).
Most of the PCDs in the KCB are associated with well-developed potassic, sericitic, silicic, propylitic, and locally argillic alteration zones. The
hypogene mineralization occurs as quartz-sulde stockworks, as well as
disseminated suldes, in both the Miocene porphyritic stocks and the
Eocene volcanic rocks. Common hypogene minerals are chalcopyrite
and pyrite, with subordinate molybdenite and bornite. Most known deposits are decient in molybdenum (i.e., b 100 ppm). The deposits have
been variably affected by supergene oxidation and secondary Cu-

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enrichment, which is best developed only in the larger PCDs in the Kerman copper belt, such as Sarcheshmeh, Miduk, and Darrehzar.
3. Methods
3.1. ASTER data normalization
Two ASTER level 1B scenes cover the study area, the AST_L1B
0111070701030111221288 acquired on 07/11/2001, and the AST_L1B
0108030704250108120031 acquired on 03/08/2001. In both scenes,
pre-processing procedures are essential to obtain spatially and radiometrically corrected images in order to analyze and compare spectral
data. For geometrically correcting remote sensing images, each raw
image must be separately converted to an ortho-image. A 3D model
geometric correction has been applied by generating a Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) based on digital topographic data and using a group of
Ground Control Points (GCPs) in the orthorectication of ASTER images.
Radiometric correction is also essential for ensuring high-quality information from remote sensors. The ASTER SWIR data may be affected by
the crosstalk instrument problem, which is an offset or additive error
in radiance due to the leakage of photons from one detector element
to another. This cross detector leakage is most pronounced from band
4 to bands 5 and 9, but it also affects all SWIR bands (Iwasaki et al.,
2001; Rowan and Mars, 2003). For very dark pixels adjacent to bright
pixels, the crosstalk effect will approach 100% of the input radiance signal (Hewson et al., 2005). A spatial software correction for crosstalk has
been developed by Iwasaki et al. (2001) and has since been incorporated by the Japanese ASTER Ground Data System (GDS) as a part of its L1B
Pre-processing.
In order to maximize the dynamic range of the SWIR and VNIR data
and process the L1B data into calibrated radiance at the sensor (W/
m2/sr/m), a set of gains (unit conversion coefcients) were applied
after the crosstalk correction (Abrams et al., 2002). The calibration to
spectral radiance units of the ASTER data was then obtained using the
equation (Hewson et al., 2005):
Radiance DN1  Gain:

After calibrating the ASTER SWIR and VNIR data to radiance, they
were converted to reectance data in order to reduce the atmospheric
effects. The path radiance effect was minimized by using the Dark Subtract method and the solar radiation response, and atmospheric absorption features were minimized by applying the IAR Reectance
calibration (Internal Average Relative Reectance) or Log Residual calibration methods that are useful and also applied to derive aerosol scattering effects (Abrams et al., 2002).
ASTER TIR bands were corrected for the atmospheric effects after
orthorectication, using the ENVI utility named Thermal Atmospherical
Correction, which is based on a Normalized Pixel Regression method
(Bertoldi et al., 2011; Scheidt et al., 2008). The TIR data were calibrated
to emissivity by using Emissivity Normalization Envi programs (Abrams
et al., 2002).
After radiometric correction, a mask based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was applied to the data in order to mask
out vegetation spectral adsorption features that may interfere with
mapping spectral absorption features of minerals associated with
PCDs (Mars and Rowan, 2006). For the ASTER sensor, NDVI is dened
as follows:
NDVI band 3band 2=band 3 band 2:

Negative NDVI values indicate cloud and snow/ice pixels, since these
are more reective in the VIS region than in the NIR one. Values of NDVI
greater than 0.20.3 are evidence of vegetation and NDVI values less
than 0.20.3 include rocks and soil pixels, as well as snow/ice and
cloud pixels (Bertoldi et al., 2011; Fung and Siu, 2000). In the study

293

area, values greater than 0.97 represent vegetated pixels in the autumn
image, and values greater than 1.16 are vegetated pixels in the spring
image.
After pre-processing procedures, 3 VNIR bands were combined with
6 SWIR bands which resulted in a SWIR image that has the same dimensions as the VNIR image and helped forming a nine band image data set
VNIR + SWIR in 15 m spatial resolution. This method of processing allows construction of useful ratio images for qualitative analysis and
quick detection of alteration minerals with high accuracy geolocation
(cf., Fujisada et al., 2001).
In support of the above study, and to characterize the mineralogy of
various alteration assemblages in the porphyry copper deposits, a large
set of X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were carried out in collaboration
with the National Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICICO). The results are summarized as follows: 1) For the phyllic alteration, the analyses detected muscovite, illite, and quartz as major phases, and
kaolinite, albite, chlorite, goethite and jarosite as minor phases; 2) In
argillic alteration, the analyses detected as major phases kaolinite,
quartz and albite along with minor amounts of muscovite, illite, montmorillonite and goethite; 3) In propylitic alteration zones, the analyses
indicated the occurrence of chlorite, epidote, clinozoisite and quartz as
major phases, with minor calcite and muscovite; 4) For sodiccalcic alteration, the analyses indicated actinolite, tremolite, quartz and albite
with minor epidote; 5) For potassic alteration, biotite and orthoclase
are the characteristic phases, associated with quartz; and 6) for the silicic alteration, the major phases are quartz, muscovite and illite.
3.2. Spectral properties
To nd suitable analogue data for detecting the target minerals, we
analyzed the laboratory spectral signatures of minerals from the
ASTER Spectral Library which includes contributions from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Johns Hopkins University (JHU) and the
United States Geological Survey (USGS). We also selected the laboratory
spectral features from the USGS Mineral Spectral Library (Clark et al.,
1993) which is loaded in Envi ver. 4.2 software.
In the visible through shortwave infrared (VNIR-SWIR) range, the
Fe-oxide/hydroxide phases along with phyllic, argillic and propylitic alteration types were characterized using the following features: (1) The
phyllic-altered rocks typically contain sericite, which exhibits a prominent absorption feature at 2.20 m (6th ASTER band, due to ALOH absorption, Fig. 2a), and a less intense absorption feature at 2.33 m (8th
ASTER band), due to Fe, MgOH absorption; (2) The argillic-altered
rocks are typied by kaolinite and alunite, and these minerals exhibit
ALOH absorption features at 2.20 and 2.17 m (5th ASTER band), respectively (Abrams and Brown, 1984; Hunt and Ashley, 1979; Rowan
et al., 2003; Spatz and Wilson, 1995); (3) Propylitic-altered rocks typically contain varying amounts of chlorite, epidote and carbonates, commonly calcite, which exhibit an absorption feature at 2.33 m due to Fe
OH, MgOH and CO3 vibrational bonds (Rowan and Mars, 2003); and
(4) The Fe-oxide/hydroxide phases present in PCD systems, which are
due to secondary processes, typically include limonite, goethite, hematite, and jarosite. Goethite, hematite, and limonite have strong Fe3+ absorption features at 0.970.83 (Fig. 2b) and 0.48 m, whereas jarosite
has FeOH absorption features at 0.94 and 2.27 m (Hunt, 1977).
In order to allow a comparison between laboratory signatures and
ASTER spectra, the laboratory spectra were re-sampled to the 9
VNIR + SWIR ASTER band passes. As shown in Fig. 2, the key spectral
absorption features of the high resolution laboratory signatures (dashed
lines) are still present at the lower ASTER resolution (solid lines), except
for some of the Fe-oxides/hydroxides. Thus, these ASTER mineral spectra can be distinguished in spite of their much lower spectral resolution
for the more important and dominant alteration phases and predicting
mineral suites (Rowan et al., 2003) which is summarized in Fig. 2:
(1) ASTER band 1 and band 3 absorption features detect mainly Feoxides/hydroxides; (2) band 5 and band 6 absorptions detect AlOH

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M. Alimohammadi et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 70 (2015) 290304

Fig. 2. Laboratory spectra of common hydrothermal alteration minerals (Clark et al., 1993) showing spectra at full resolutions (420 bands, dashed lines) and ASTER re-sampled to the 9
VNIR + SWIR bands (solid lines). The vertical arrows indicate wavelength location of important absorption features in the adjacent spectrum, as discussed in the text. ASTER band wavelength position is shown at the top of the box diagrams. (a) The laboratory spectra which are used in this study are grouped according to alteration assemblages and include the following:
(1) muscovite, which is typical in phyllic alteration, with a 2.20 m absorption feature (6th ASTER band); (2) kaolinite and alunite, which are typical constituents in argillic alteration, exhibit AlOH absorption features at 2.20 and 2.17 m (5th ASTER band), respectively; and (3) epidote, chlorite and calcite are associated with propylitic alteration and display absorption
peaks at 2.312.33 m absorption features (8th ASTER band); (b) laboratory spectra of limonite, jarosite, hematite, and goethite. Hematite, limonite and goethite have strong Fe3+ absorption features at 0.970.83 and 0.48 m, whereas jarosite has FeOH absorption features at 0.94 and 2.27 m.

caused by alunite, clay minerals and muscovite/sericite; (3) band 7 detects FeOH caused mainly by jarosite and/or Fe-muscovite; and
(4) ASTER band 8 detects MgOH caused mainly by chloriteepidote
and/or carbonates (CO3) (Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007). Based on
these unique absorption features for each mineral, many useful approaches have been applied for discrimination and mapping of the hydrothermal alteration zones in the Daraloo cluster including Daraloo,
Sarmeshk and some smaller deposits (e.g., Hanza, Peynegin, Lalehzar
and Chahartaq; Fig. 3) which have been under exploration by National
Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICICO) since 2010.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. ASTER false color composite and ratio images
ASTER False color composite 468 (RGB) images typically show
argillic- and phyllic-altered rocks as red tones, and propylitic-altered
rocks as green tones due to AlOH (centered at ASTER band 6) and
Fe, MgOH (centered at ASTER band 8) absorption features, respectively (e.g., Mars, 2010; Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007). The false
color composition RGB: 468 for the study area shows the alteration
halo enhanced in two different color zones, the phyllic- and argillicaltered rocks with light red to pink color highlighting the PCDs which
have been mapped in the eld, and the propylitic-altered rocks with
green color surrounding the PCDs (Fig. 4).
Ratio images designed to display the spectral contrast of specic absorption features, have been used extensively in geologic remote sensing (e.g., Cudahy et al., 2008; Rowan et al., 1977, 2006; Tommaso and

Rubinstein, 2007). Image spectral reectance of alunite, muscovite and

kaoline, as well as jarosite, shows absorption features in bands 5, 6
(AlOH absorption, Fig. 2a), and 7 (FeOH absorption), respectively;
therefore band ratio transformation RGB: 4/5, 4/6, and 4/7 (Fig. 5) highlights the jarositic phyllic- and argillic-altered rocks in white color and
the areas underlain by PCD mineralization within the white regions.
The band ratio transformation RGB: 4/6, 5/8, and 3/4 (Fig. 6) is also
useful for discriminating among different lithologies present. In this
false color view, three main units can be discriminated in the study
area: (1) a red zone, having high 4/6 band ratio values, which indicates
the presence of muscovite and clay minerals and coincides with outcrops of intrusions of both MiddleLate Miocene (Kuh-Panj type) and
Late EoceneOligocene (Jebal-Barez type) age, as well as felsicintermediate volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (compare with Fig. 3); (2) a green
zone, having high 5/8 band ratio values, which reects the presence of
regionally extensive secondary chlorite, epidote and calcite phases.
This zone corresponds mainly with propylitic alteration of the EoceneOligocene volcanic-sedimentary rocks (Bahr-Asman, Razak and
Hezar complexes) that surround the intrusive bodies; and (3) a blue
zone, having high 3/4 band ratio values, which shows unaltered rocks
that include volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. This band ratio diagram
also highlights the observation that extensive propylitic alteration
zones form well-dened regions around a core area that includes the
phyllic and argillic alteration zones and hosts the porphyry deposits,
as veried by eld investigations. In addition, particularly in the southeast, the areas of phyllic and argillic alteration dene northwesttrending corridors that likely reect a structural control for the hydrothermal uids that caused this alteration.

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Fig. 3. Simplied geological map of the southern part of the Kerman copper belt (redrawn from Saric and Mijalkovic, 1973) superposed on a shaded relief map of the area. The location of
Daraloo cluster of porphyry copper deposits is shown by the white outline and includes the Daraloo, Sarmeshk, Hanza, Peynegin, Lalehzar and Chahartaq. which have been under exploration by National Iranian Copper Industries Company since 2010.

Relative Band Depth (RBD) images are useful for displaying the intensities of AlOH, Fe, MgOH, and CO3 absorption (Crowley et al.,
1989; Rowan and Mars, 2003). The RBD is dened by the ratio between
the sum of the bands at the shoulders of a dened absorption peak and
the band closest to the peak itself (Crowley et al., 1989; Mars and
Rowan, 2006). The following RBD images are calculated: (1) RBD4
[(band 3 + band 5)/(band 4) 2], used for detecting volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The laboratory spectral signatures of some volcanic and
sedimentary rocks (andesite, siltstone and sandstone) from the ASTER
Spectral Library, Johns Hopkins University (JHU), show absorption features in band 4. This laboratory spectral signatures (not shown in the
gures) have been used to calculate this RBD and found to be consistent
with the presence of volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the area;
(2) RBD5 [(band 4 + band 6)/(band 5) 2] and RBD6 [(band
4 + band 7)/(band 6) 2] for detecting AlOH absorption in muscovite
and clay minerals; however, the RBD6 is better for detecting muscovite;
and (3) the RBD8 [(band 7 + band 9)/(band 8) 2] is focused on Fe,
MgOH and CO3 absorption and is used for delineating chlorite, epidote and carbonates.
In the study area, the RGB false color composite of RBD 6, RBD 8
and RBD 4 conrmed the result of band ratio transformation 4/6, 5/8,
and 3/4, as is shown in Fig. 6, and highlights both the areas of phyllic
and propylitic alterations, and unaltered volcanic and pyroclastic
rocks. In the RGB false color composite of RBD 5, RBD 6 and RBD 4
(Fig. 7), four main units could be discriminated: (1) a yellow zone,
which includes high RBD 5 and RBD 6 values, which indicates the

presence of muscovite and clay minerals and that is consistent with

the alteration of intrusive rocks (Kuh-Panj and Jebal-Barez type granitoids), as well as volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. Note that porphyry type
mineralization underlies this area; (2) a light blue zone with high RBD 4
values, which is coincident with outcrops of unaltered volcanic and pyroclastic rocks; (3) a dark blue color, which indicates the presence of
mainly chlorite, epidote, and minor calcite, and reects the propylitic alteration of volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. Similar to yellow zone, these
dark blue areas also dene northwest-trending corridors; and (4) and
a dark green zone that is mainly related to the presence of carbonates
(CO3) in the propylitically altered rocks, and which is conned to
areas underlain by sedimentary rocks (Oligocene, Qom-Chahar Gonbad
Formations in Fig. 3).
4.2. Application of spectral mapping method in the DaralooSarmeshk
deposits
4.2.1. An overview of deposit scale geology, alteration and mineralization
The Daraloo and Sarmeshk copper deposits are situated in a
northwest-trending fault zone, 10 km long and 0.51 km wide, with
two deposits located at the ends of this corridor (Fig. 8a). The area is
characterized by a series of porphyritic tonalitegranodiorite plutons
of inferred Miocene age based on regional correlations with units towards the northwest (e.g., Ghorashizadeh, 1978; Hassanzadeh, 1993;
McInnes et al., 2003; Mirnejad et al., 2013; Shahabpour and Kramers,
1987); this is also substantiated by our recent 40Ar/39Ar dating of

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Fig. 4. ASTER false color composition RGB 468 shown on the Daraloo cluster area. In this image, rocks with phyllic (serecitic) and argillic alteration are enhanced with red color, and green
color shows rocks with propylitic alteration. The areas with signicant porphyry copper mineralization are highlighted by the white ellipses.

hydrothermal mica phases (unpublished data of M. Alimohammadi).

These intrusions cut Eocene andesitic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks.
All these units are intruded by post-Miocene diabasic, andesitic and
rhyodacitic dykes (Fig. 8b, c).
The ore deposit at Daraloo denes an elongated body of mineralized
rocks of approximately 0.7 km2 that occurs within a 1.2 km long northwestsoutheast trending corridor. Alteration assemblages in Daraloo
are comparable to those in porphyry Cu Mo deposits and are well

developed, with both sericitic and silicic alterations predominantly

observed in outcrops. Hypogene sulde mineralization occurs in two
styles: quartz-sulde stockworks and disseminated mineralization,
and both of these occur in the porphyritic intrusive rocks and the
adjacent volcanic and pyroclastic rocks within the deposit area.
Hypogene mineralization is characterized by the presence of abundant
pyrite and magnetite, with minor chalcopyrite, and trace bornite and
molybdenite.

Fig. 5. ASTER band ratio values 4/5, 4/6, and 4/7 shown on the Daraloo cluster area. The areas underlain by white show a response of band 5 and band 6 (AlOH absorption) and band 7 (Fe
OH absorption) which highlights jarositic phyllic and argillic alterations associated with porphyry copper mineralization. The areas outlined by the white ellipses are the porphyry copper
deposit areas shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 6. ASTER band ratio values 4/6, 5/8, and 3/4 shown on the Daraloo cluster area. In this view of false colors, three main units can be discriminated: (1) a red zone with high 4/6 band ratio
values, indicating the presence of muscovite and clay minerals; (2) a green zone with high 5/8 band ratio values, indicating the presence of chloriteepidote and calcite; and (3) a blue zone
with high 3/4 band ratio values, showing unaltered basement rocks. The areas outlined by the white ellipses are the porphyry copper deposit areas shown in Fig. 4.

Mineralization in the Sarmeshk deposit can be subdivided into two

types based on the nature of the associated alteration. In the western
part of the deposit, the features are more similar to those observed at
Daraloo, with the Cu mineralization closely associated with areas of intensively developed sericite and silica alteration of the host pyroclastic

rocks. The mineralized area, which has an average grade of 0.3% Cu, occurs in a wedge-shaped zone approximately 0.3 km2 that is up to 500 m
wide. In contrast to the above style of mineralization, in the eastern part
of the Sarmeshk deposit, the mineralization, with an average grade of
0.2% Cu or less, is coincident with sodiccalcic and lesser potassic

Fig. 7. The RGB false color composite of RBD5, RBD6 and RBD4 shown on the Daraloo cluster area. The false colors show consistent results for lithologic discrimination, and four main units
are distinguished: (1) a yellow zone with high RBD 5 and RBD 6 values, indicating the presence of muscovite and clay minerals; (2) a blue zone with high RBD 4 values, showing unaltered
volcanic-sedimentary rocks; (3) a dark blue color indicating the presence of mainly chloriteepidote; and (4) a dark green color mainly related to the presence of carbonates (CO3) in
propylitic alteration and in the sedimentary rocks. Note that the results are in good agreement with the geological map in Fig. 3. The areas outlined by the white ellipses are the porphyry
copper deposit areas shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 8. False color ASTER image and geological maps for the DaralooSarmeshk area which is characterized by a series of plutonic and subvolcanic bodies of felsic-intermediate compositions that intrude EoceneOligocene lava ows and pyroclastic rocks. (a) A 3D surface image view of a band combination RGB: 468 showing the DaralooSarmeshk area along a northwesttrending fault zone. The light red to pinkish areas consist of phyllic- and argillic-altered rock whereas the light to dark green areas consist of propylitic rock; (b and c) Geological-alteration
maps from eld mapping of the Daraloo and Sarmeshk deposit areas, respectively.
After National Iranian Copper Industries Company (NICICO), 2010.

alteration, as observed in outcrops. The host rocks are mostly thermally

metamorphosed and silicied andesitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks
which occur from surface to shallow depths (100150 m), based on
drill hole data. In the two mineralized zones, drilling indicates that
stockwork type mineralization is not well developed and, instead,
mineralization occurs mainly as disseminations and sparse veinlets.
Propylitic alteration, developed mostly in the host volcanic rocks, is distinguished by the presence of chlorite, epidote and carbonates. Argillic
alteration, which appears to be mainly of supergene origin, has affected
both the Daraloo and Sarmeshk deposits (Fig. 8b, c). Examples of phyllic,
argillic, and propylitic alterations exposed in outcrops, hand samples,
and thin sections are shown in Fig. 11. Supergene enrichment is poorly
developed at Sarmeshk; however an enriched blanket, 5 to 50 m thick, is
developed at Daraloo. This lack of supergene enrichment at Sarmeshk
might be attributed to less efcient leaching due to intense silicic alteration, and to lower copper assays in the hypogene mineralization.
4.2.2. ASTER VNIR and SWIR data analysis of porphyry style alteration and
secondary Fe oxides
The VNIR + SWIR data were analyzed by using a matched ltering
procedure (Harsanyi et al., 1994; Farrand and Harsanyi, 1997). This procedure minimizes the response of the background materials by
projecting each pixel vector onto a subspace, which is orthogonal to
the background spectra, and then maximizes the response of the end

members of interest by comparing the residual pixels to each of the reference spectra (Rowan et al., 2006).
For the study area, ASTER bands 1 through 9 were used for all the
end members because of the importance of ferric and ferrous iron
absorption, and reference spectra were selected from the ASTER image
by using the Pixel Purity Index (PPI), which was preceded by
minimum-noise transformation processing (c.f. Boardman et al., 1995;
Green et al., 1988). The reference spectra were compared to ASTER resampled spectra from the USGS spectral library (Fig. 9) for identication
of phyllic, argillic and propylitic mineral groups, and Fe-oxides/
hydroxides. The SWIR wavelength region of the reference spectra for
rocks with phyllic, argillic and propylitic alteration is also shown in
Fig. 9. The overall shapes of the ASTER image spectra in the SWIR wavelength region are similar to the ASTER laboratory spectra; there are,
however, some differences in the absorption features in the VNIR wavelength region that show the presence of Fe-oxides/hydroxides associated with phyllic- and argillic-altered rocks. The hydrothermal alteration
maps of the DaralooSarmeshk area, compiled from matched ltering
(Fig. 10), show that argillic (kaolinite) and phyllic (muscovite/illite)
mapped rocks are associated with the PCDs and mainly reect alteration
of intrusive rocks as well as volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. Chloriteepidote and minor calcite are related to propylitic alteration of the volcanicpyroclastic rocks in the area. The numbers in Fig. 10 indicate the
location of eld sites where rock sampling was done in order to verify

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Fig. 9. A summary diagram of the ASTER image spectra that have been used as references
in the matched-lter processing of VNIR + SWIR data to map phyllic, argillic and
propylitic mineral groups and Fe-oxides/hydroxides. For each hydrothermal alteration
mineral shown, the reference spectra (dashed lines) were compared to ASTER re-sampled
spectra from the USGS spectral library (solid lines), and for all minerals (except for jarosite
and goethite) the SWIR wavelength region of the reference spectra is also shown. The
short vertical arrows indicate some important ASTER band wavelengths in the related
spectrum that are used to help distinguish mineral phases present. The ASTER band wavelength positions are also shown at the top of the box diagram.

299

the physical alteration types inferred from ASTER imagery. In Fig. 11 the
observations of the various alteration types are summarized, and samples collected from the study area verify the matched lter hydrothermal alteration map.
Ratio images and matched lter processing were employed to delineate the Fe-oxides/hydroxide phases in the DaralooSarmeshk region
(Fig. 12). The ASTER re-sampled reectance spectra display an intense
ferric iron absorption feature in ASTER bands 1 and 2; therefore the
ratio band 2/band 1 is useful for expressing the reectance decrease in
band 1 relative to band 2 for ferric-iron absorption. Ferrous-iron absorption may be discernable in some ASTER reectance spectra due to its
low reectance in the VNIR bands coupled with either nearly constant
values in the SWIR bands or a steep rise towards bands 4 and 5. However, the lack of a band pass in the 1.00 m region in the ASTER instrument
limits the capability to detect ferrous iron absorption (Rowan and Mars,
2003). Fe-oxides/hydroxide phases in the DaralooSarmeshk region include jarosite, goethite, and minor hematite and limonite. As shown in
the reference spectra of jarosite in Fig. 9, the weak absorption feature
in band 6 may be due to low concentrations of muscovite/illite or kaolinite in the Fe-oxides/hydroxide phases. As for the other ASTER maps,
eld checks were used to verify the alteration types and these sites
are shown in Figs. 12 and 13, the latter being photos of the eld samples.
In summary, the data obtained by ASTER imagery and the conclusions regarding the types and distribution of alteration present in the
study area are in good agreement with the geologicalalteration maps
(compare to Fig. 8b, c). As noted already, the alteration maps derived
from the ASTER data were controlled by eld observations (Figs. 11,
13), petrographic studies, and XRD analyses for different alteration assemblages in the DaralooSarmeshk area, and the results were found
to be in good agreement.
4.2.3. ASTER TIR data analysis
4.2.3.1. Spectral emittance feature analysis for silica. Feldspar and quartz
generally do not show any absorption features in VNIR + SWIR regions,
with the exception of a small absorption peak observed at 2.22 m,
which is attributed to vibration modes from isolated OH point defects
of SiOH groups (Bertoldi et al., 2011; Cordier and Doukhan, 1991).

Fig. 10. Mineral map showing the results of matched ltering method using ASTER SWIR data superposed on the ASTER PCA1 gray-tone image of the DaralooSarmeshk area; phyllic (red),
argillic (blue) and propylitic (green). 13: location of sampled eld sites.

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Fig. 11. (a) Regional view of phyllic alteration in volcanic and pyroclasic rocks from the western part of the Sarmeshk area (site 1, Fig. 10); (bcd) Close-up view of outcrop and handspecimens showing phyllic alteration at site 1; (e) Photomicrograph of highly sericitized and silicied sample from site 1. The silica occurs as ne-grained quartz as well as quartz veinlets,
whereas the sericite occurs in patches; (f, g) Regional view of argillic alteration in volcanic rocks of the Daraloo area showing intense bleaching (site 2 in Fig. 10); (h to j) Close-up view and
hand-specimens of argillic alteration in site 2; (k) Regional view of propylitic alteration in andesiticbasaltic country rocks (site 3, Fig. 10); (l to o) Close-up view, hand-specimens and
photomicrograph showing the propylitic alteration at site 3 in Fig. 10.

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301

Fig. 12. Mineral map showing the results of matched ltering method using ASTER VNIR data (Fe-oxides/hydroxides, in brown) superposed on an ASTER PCA1 gray-tone image. The
Sarmeshk area is shown by white box, and the numbers 45 are the location of sampled eld sites to verify the ASTER data.

Laboratory spectral emissivity features for silica are shown in Fig. 14a,
where the sample spectrum shows the stretching vibrations of the Si
O bonds in the thermal infrared region, with doublet emissivity

absorption at 8.29 m (10th ASTER band) and 9.07 m (12th ASTER

band), and a small peak at 8.63 m (11th ASTER band). Samples were
measured with a Micro-FTIR spectrometer using a gold plate, as

Fig. 13. (a) Regional view of Fe-oxides/hydroxides distribution in volcanic rocks (sites 4 and 5, Fig. 12) in contact with a porphyry stock in center; (bc) Close-up views of supergene alteration from site 4 in Fig. 12; (d) Hand-specimens of Fe-oxide/hydroxide-bearing volcanic country rocks from site 5 in Fig. 12.

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Fig. 14. (a) Emissivity spectra for quartz at Micro-FTIR spectrometer resolution (Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007); (b) Re-sampled spectrum to the 5 ASTER TIR band passes; (c) Pixel spectral plot extracted from the emissivity image in the study area.

referenced in the Inernillo porphyry deposit, Argentina (Tommaso and

Rubinstein, 2007), and then re-sampled to ASTER TIR band resolution
(Fig. 14b).
Hydrothermally altered silica-rich rocks in the DaralooSarmeshk
area, were mapped in the 5 thermal-infrared (TIR) bands by using the
Quartz Index (Ninomiya, 2003) that is given as Qi = (b11 b11)/
(b10 b12); this factor, Qi, is expected to be high for quartz and low
for K-feldspar (inverse Qi) (Ninomiya et al., 2005). Some desired and almost pure pixels for quartz (Fig. 14c) were extracted from the Qi-image
and subsequently used as reference in the matched lter processing of
TIR data to map the distribution of silicied rocks in the study area
(Fig. 15). Hydrothermally altered silica-rich rocks associated with
PCDs consist primarily of quartz veins, silica lithocaps, or silicied materials (e.g., Sillitoe, 1995, 2010; Titley, 1972). In the DaralooSarmeshk
area, quartz-bearing rocks include both intrusive bodies and silicied
rocks. Outcrops with potassic and sodiccalcic alterations in the study
area are both sparse and small in size and could not therefore be distinguished in the TIR pixel resolution; however, all the intrusive rocks and
the area of sodiccalcic and potassic alteration have been silicied at
surface exposures and shallow depths (down to 100150 m), based
on drill hole data. The ASTER TIR band passes were useful in detecting

the silicic alteration. The areas of silica enrichment follow the patterns
of other alteration types noted above, and dene a northwesttrending linear structure that is spatially coincident with the presence
of mineralized centers. The minerals mapped remotely are consistent
with the dominant mineralogy, as determined by petrographic studies
and XRD analyses, which conrms that quartz is the dominant mineral.
Examples of rocks and prepared thin sections of material for selected
sites in areas of silica alteration are shown in Fig. 15 with evidence of
the alteration highlighted in Fig. 16. It is further noted that similar silicic
alteration occurs in the Raziabad, Zavork, and Kerver PCDs in the southern section of the Kerman copper belt (Alirezaei and Hassanpour, 2011;
Alimohammadi and Alirezaei, 2013).
5. Conclusions
The use and application of VINIR + SWIR ASTER data for mapping the
regional extent of hydrothermal alteration in the southern part of the Kerman copper belt of Iran, including a more detailed analysis of the highly
prospective DaralooSarmeshk porphyry district, are accurate and helpful
in detecting and mapping out extensive zones of phyllic, argillic and
propylitic alteration, and also Fe-oxides/hydroxides. In addition, TIR

Fig. 15. Mineral map showing the results of matched ltering method using ASTER TIR data to detect silicied rocks in DaralooSarmeshk area which is overlain on an ASTER PCA1 graytone image. The numbers shown (678) refer to site locations sampled within the silicied alteration zones.

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Fig. 16. Outcrop and hand specimens along with the correlated thin section photomicrographs showing examples of silica alteration in the study area (see Fig. 15 for location of the sites);
(a, b) Outcrop and photomicrograph of highly silicied rocks in Daraloo (site 6). Note that the silicication occurs as both ne-grained quartz as well as quartz veinlets; (c, d) Hand specimen of silicied pyroclastic rock in Sarmeshk (site 7) with accompanying thin section photomicrograph; (e, f) Outcrop of a highly silicied volcanic rock adjacent to the porphyry intrusion
in eastern part of the Sarmeshk area (site 8) with accompanying thin section photomicrograph.

emissivity analysis is useful for distinguishing and mapping out silicic alteration, with the most promising results obtained by the matched-lter
processing technique. For all alteration types noted, follow-up eld observation and sampling validated the inferred alteration types based on
ASTER data and actual alteration zones present. The results of this study
indicate the presence of extensive phyllic and silicic alteration zones,
with more restricted areas of kaolinite (argillic), that are surrounded by
broader zones of propylitic alteration. Thus, the alteration zonation
mapped with the use of ASTER data coincides well with classical models
portraying the zonal distribution of alteration types associated with porphyry deposits (i.e., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). The distribution of the alteration patterns highlights the role of regional structures in localizing
uid ow, an integral part of porphyry deposit formation (e.g., Richards,
2003). Furthermore, the analysis of ASTER TIR data and follow-up eld
observations also show that silicic alteration, which is not generally
discussed as a common alteration feature in porphyry systems
(e.g., Seederoff et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2010) tends to be associated with
the porphyry type mineralization in the well mineralized Daraloo
Sarmeshk area. In summary, the results of this study conrm that
ASTER images can be a useful and powerful tool in the initial steps
of exploration for those deposit types where large alteration zones
are an integral part of the deposit model because these data provide
highly accurate and reliable information about the distribution of alteration minerals. When integrated with eld studies, the use of
ASTER data provides an effective means to delineate areas that are
most favorable for mineralization.

Acknowledgments
We are sincerely grateful to the National Iranian Copper Industries
Company (NICICO), in particular the Research and Development
Department, for providing access to the area and logistical support.
We thank Dr. Jeffrey L. Mauk, the Associate Editor of Ore Geology
Reviews who handled this paper, Dr. John C. Mars and an anonymous
reviewer for their detailed and insightful comments which helped to
clarify several aspects which resulted in substantial improvement and
clarity of the paper.

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