WHAT IS ROM?

Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at
all, so it is mainly used to store firmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware
and unlikely to need frequent updates) or application software in plug-in cartridges.
Strictly, read-only memory refers to memory that is hard-wired, such as diode matrix and the
later mask ROM (MROM) which cannot be changed after manufacture. Although discrete
circuits can be altered in principle, integrated circuits (ICs) cannot, and are useless if the data
is bad or requires an update. That such memory can never be changed is a disadvantage in
many applications, as bugs and security issues cannot be fixed, and new features cannot be
added.
More recently, ROM has come to include memory that is read-only in normal operation, but
can still be reprogrammed in some way. Erasable programmable read-only memory
(EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) can be
erased and re-programmed, but usually this can only be done at relatively slow speeds, may
require special equipment to achieve, and is typically only possible a certain number of times.

History
The simplest type of solid-state ROM is as old as the semiconductor technology itself.
Combinational logic gates can be joined manually to map n-bit address input onto arbitrary
values of m-bit data output (a look-up table). With the invention of the integrated circuit
came mask ROM. Mask ROM consists of a grid of word lines (the address input) and bit
lines (the data output), selectively joined together with transistor switches, and can represent
an arbitrary look-up table with a regular physical layout and predictable propagation delay.
In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed
during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages:
1. It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities, since users must contract
with a foundry to produce a custom design.
2. The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask ROM and receiving
the finished product is long, for the same reason.
3. Mask ROM is impractical for R&D work since designers frequently need to modify
the contents of memory as they refine a design.
4. If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the only way to fix it is to recall the
product and physically replace the ROM in every unit shipped.

Use for storing programs

Every stored-program computer may use a form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that
retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the
computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping,
often abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs
some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes.

Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most
early stored-program computers, such as ENIAC after 1948. (Until then it was not a storedprogram computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could
take days to weeks.) Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a
mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be
implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see historical examples below).
With the advent of integrated circuits in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart
static RAM were implemented as arrays of transistors in silicon chips; however, a ROM
memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since
the latter needs a latch (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell
might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a
bit line to a word line.[3] Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit
than RAM for many years.
Use for storing data
Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it
is really only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need
modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been
used in many computers to store look-up tables for the evaluation
of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a floating-point
unit might tabulate the sine function in order to facilitate faster
computation). This was especially effective when CPUs were slow
and ROM was cheap compared to RAM.
Types
A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or field programmable readonly memory (FPROM) or one-time programmable non-volatile memory

(OTP NVM) is a form of digital memory where the setting of each bit
is locked by a fuse or antifuse. It is one of the type of ROM (readonly memory). The data in them is permanent and cannot be
changed. PROMs are used in digital electronic devices to store
permanent data, usually low level programs such as firmware
(microcode). The key difference from a standard ROM is that the
data is written into a ROM during manufacture, while with a PROM
the data is programmed into them after manufacture. Thus, ROMs
tend to be used only for large production runs with well-verified
data, while PROMs are used to allow companies to test on a subset
of the devices in an order before burning data into all of them.
An EPROM (rarely EROM), or erasable programmable read-only memory,
is a type of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply
is switched off. Computer memory that can retrieve stored data
after a power supply has been turned off and back on is called nonvolatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually
programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages
than those normally used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light
source (such as from a mercury-vapor light). EPROMs are easily
recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window in the top of
the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which
permits exposure to ultraviolet light during erasing.

EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced "e-e-prom", "double-e-prom" or "esquared-prom") stands for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory and is a
type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices to store

relatively small amounts of data but allowing individual bytes to be erased and
reprogrammed.
EEPROMs are organized as arrays of floating-gate transistors. EEPROMs can be
programmed and erased in-circuit, by applying special programming signals. Originally,
EEPROMs were limited to single byte operations which made them slower, but modern
EEPROMs allow multi-byte page operations.
Flash memory is an electronic (solid-state) non-volatile computer storage medium that can
be electrically erased and reprogrammed.
Toshiba developed flash memory from EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable readonly memory) in the early 1980s and introduced it to the market in 1984. The two main types
of flash memory are named after the NAND and NOR logic gates. The individual flash
memory cells exhibit internal characteristics similar to those of the corresponding gates.
Whereas EPROMs had to be completely erased before being rewritten, NAND-type flash
memory may be written and read in blocks (or pages) which are generally much smaller than
the entire device. NOR-type flash allows a single machine word (byte) to be writtento an
erased locationor read independently.