CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Concrete is exposed to external factors such as extreme heat, cold, stress,
during service. Concrete shrinks and expands with variations in moisture and
temperature. Cracks can occur when changes to accommodate these factors are
not implemented in the design and development. Other factors that can affect
concrete and its lifespan include shrinkage, design flaws or poor quality of
construction materials. Due to these factors in addition to several more it is
inevitable that reinforced concrete eventually develop cracks. When cracks
originate in concrete structures, a sequence of serious events begins to occur
within those structures. Not only do these cracks affect the functionality of the
structure, but they also affect the durability and strength of the structure. In
order to enhance concrete resistance to these defects and degradations, the
innovation of self-healing concrete is promising.
Self-healing concrete can be defined as concrete that possesses selfhealing agents, which will automatically heal concrete structures, when cracks
occur during their life cycle. Self-healing agents may be transferred through
strong core microcapsules, hollow reinforced fibers and even by forms of
organic matter. All of these methods are currently undergoing testing and
analysis in order to test their durability and longevity. Recent studies in the
literature have demonstrated the ability of self-healing processes to be effective
in enhancing the overall life of concrete.
1.2 CONCRETE:
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material
(the aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or
1

binder) that fills the space between the aggregate particles and glues them
together. We can also consider concrete as a composite material that consists
essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or
fragments of aggregates. The simplest representation of concrete is:
Concrete = Filler + Binder.
According to the type of binder used, there are many different kinds of concrete.
For instance, Portland cement concrete, asphalt concrete, and epoxy concrete. In
concrete construction, the Portland cement concrete is utilized the most. Thus,
in our course, the term concrete usually refers to Portland cement concrete. For
this kind of concrete, the composition can be presented as follows
Cement +
(+ Admixture)
+ Water

Cement paste
+

mortar

Fine aggregate

concrete

Coarse aggregate
Here we should indicate that admixtures are almost always used in modern
practice and thus become an essential component of modern concrete.
Admixtures are defined as materials other than aggregate (fine and coarse),
water, fibre and cement, which are added into concrete batch immediately
before or during mixing. The widespread use of admixture is mainly due to the
many benefits made possible by their application. For instance, chemical
admixtures can modify the setting and hardening characteristic of cement paste
by influencing the rate of cement hydration. Water-reducing admixture can
plasticize fresh concrete mixtures by reducing surface tension of water, airentraining admixtures can improve the durability of concrete, and mineral

admixtures such as pozzolanas (materials containing reactive silica) can reduce

thermal cracking.
1.3 CRACKS IN CONCRETE:
1. Shrinkage cracking: A crack that occurs only in unhardened concrete. It is
often seen as relatively straight lines running parallel with the span of the floor.
2. Plastic cracking: A type of shrinkage crack that also only occurs in
unhardened concrete. It is seen as diagonal lines in the top of a slab. It is often
caused by rapid drying of the surface due to delays in applying the curing
membrane.
3. Settlement cracking: Caused by local restraining of unhardened concrete
around reinforcement or some other obstruction.
4. Structural cracking: Usually a result of corrosion of the reinforcing steel or
structural over stressing.
5. Tension cracking: Only occurs in reinforced concrete and is caused by
elongation of the reinforcement in tension zones. It is sometimes seen around
columns in flat slabs and on beam soffits near the middle of a span.
6. Rust cracking: The most common and most serious cause of structural
cracking caused by inadequate reinforcement cover. It gradually develops at
varying rates over time depending upon the degree of protection offered by the
concrete cover.
7. Thermally-induced cracking: Results from stresses produced by
temperature changes.
1.4 CAUSES OF CRACKS:
1. Plastic Shrinkage Cracking:

It occurs within 1 to 8 hours after placing, when subjected to a very rapid

loss of moisture caused by a combination of factors, which include air and
concrete temperatures, relative humidity and wind velocity at the surface of the
concrete. These factors can combine to cause high rates of surface evaporation
in either hot or cold weather
2. Plastic Settlement Cracking:
After initial placement, vibration and finishing concrete has tendency to
continue to consolidate. During this period, the plastic concrete may be locally
restrained by reinforcing steel, earlier placed hardened concrete or formwork.
This local restraint may result in voids under the obstruction and cracks above
the obstruction.
3. Drying Shrinkage Crack:
When associated with reinforcing steel, settlement cracking increases
with increasing bar size, increasing slump and decreasing cover. The degree of
settlement may increase with insufficient vibration, lack of compaction at top
layers of concrete, or by the use of leaking or highly flexible forms. This is
more of a problem with high bleed concrete particularly in winter when the
cooler temperatures provide longer time to initial set and therefore a higher
amount of bleed
4. Long Term Shrinkage Cracking:
Shrinkage is the inherent property of cement paste, which in pure form
may shrink up to 1%. Aggregate provides internal restraint that reduces the
magnitude of this volume change to about 0.06 percent. Shrinkage also occurs
partly due to hydration of cement. On wetting concrete tends to expand but to a
lower extent as compared to original shrinkage. Concrete would continue to
shrink during its lifetime at a very reduced rate.
4

If the shrinkage of concrete could take place without restraint, the concrete
would not crack. The combination of shrinkage and restraint cause tensile
stresses to develop in the concrete, leading to cracking. The larger shrinkage at
the surface causes cracks to develop that may, with time, penetrate deeper into
the concrete.
5. Concrete Crazing:
Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks or
fissures on the surface of concrete caused by shrinkage of the surface layer.
These cracks are rarely more than 3mm deep, and are more noticeable on over
floated or steel-troweled surfaces. The irregular hexagonal areas enclosed by the
cracks are typically no more than 40mm wide and may be as small as 10mm in
unusual instances. Often they are not readily visible until the surface has been
wetted and it is beginning to dry. They do not affect the structural integrity of
concrete and rarely do they affect durability. However crazed surfaces can be
unsightly.
6. Thermal Cracking:
Temperature difference within a concrete structure may be caused by
portions of the structure losing heat of hydration at different rates or by the
weather conditions cooling or heating one portion of the structure to a different
degree or at a different rate than another portion of the structure. These
temperature differences result in differential volume change, leading to cracks.
This is normally associated with mass concrete including large and thicker
sections ( 500mm) of column, piers, beams, footings and slabs.
7. Cracking due to Chemical Reaction:
Deleterious chemical reactions may cause cracking of concrete. These
reactions may be due to materials used to make the concrete or materials that
5

come into contact with the concrete after it has hardened. Concrete may crack
with time as the result of slowly developing expansive reactions between
aggregate containing active silica and alkalis derived from cement hydration,
admixtures or external sources (e.g. curing water, ground water, alkaline
solutions stored or used in the finished structure).The alkali silica reaction
results in the formation of a swelling gel, which tends to draw water from other
portions of the concrete. These causes local expansion and accompanying
tensile stresses and may eventually result in the complete deterioration of the
structure.
8. Steel Corrosion induced Cracking:
Corrosion of the steel produces iron oxides and hydroxides, which have a
volume much greater than the volume of the original metallic iron. This
increase in volume causes high radial bursting stresses around reinforcing bars
and results in local radial cracks. These splitting cracks can propagate along the
bar, resulting in the formation of longitudinal cracks or spalling of the concrete.
A broad crack may also form at a plane of bars parallel to a concrete surface
resulting in delamination, a well-known problem in bridge decks. Cracks
provide easy access for oxygen, moisture and chlorides and then minor splitting
cracks can create a condition in which corrosion and cracking are accelerated.

Fig 1.1 Spalled concrete due to corrosion of steel

6

9. Errors in Design and Detailing:

Errors that may result in unacceptable cracking include:
Poorly detailed re-entrant corners in walls, precast members and slabs.
Improper selection and / or detailing of reinforcement.
Restraint to members subjects to volume changes caused by variations in
temperature and moisture.
Lack of adequate contraction joints. Improper design of foundations
resulting in differential movement within the structure.
10. Improper Construction Joint:
Construction joints (C/J) are the weak planes vulnerable for development
of cracks unless it is properly prepared.

CHAPTER 2
SELF HEALING CONCRETE
2.1 GENERAL:
Self-healing materials are a class of smart materials that have the
structurally incorporated ability to repair damage caused by mechanical usage
over time. The inspiration comes from biological systems, which have the
ability to heal after being wounded. Cracks and other types of damage on a
microscopic

level

has

been

shown

to

change thermal, electrical,

and acoustical properties, and eventually their propagation leads to wholesale

failure of the material. In general, cracks are hard to detect at an early stage, and
repair is performed by manual intervention.
A material that can intrinsically correct damage caused by normal usage
could lower costs of a number of different industrial processes through longer
part lifetime, reduction of inefficiency over time caused by degradation. For a
material to be strictly defined as autonomously self-healing, it is necessary that
the healing process occurs without human intervention. Some examples shown
below, however, include healing polymers that require an external intervention
change,to initiate the healing process.
Self-healing materials can be dated back to Roman times when some
mortars were already self-healing, however,their development took place mostly
since around the end of the 1990s.Although most cases are found with polymers
or elastomers, self-healing covers all classes of materials, including metals,
ceramics, cementitious materials, and the healing mechanisms vary from an
instrinsic repair of the material to the addition of a repair agent contained in a
microscopic vessel.

2.2 SELF HEALING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS:

Cementitious materials have existed since the Roman era. These materials
have a natural ability to self-heal, which was first reported by the French
Academy of Science in 1836. This ability can be improved by the integration of
chemical and biochemical strategies.
2.2.1 Autogenous healing:
Autogenous healing is the natural ability of cementitious materials to
repair cracks. This ability is principally attributed to further hydration of
unhydrated

cement

particles

and

carbonation

of

dissolved

calcium

hydroxide. Cementitious materials in fresh-water systems can autogenously heal

cracks up to 0.2 mm over a period of 7 weeks.
2.2.2 Chemical additives based healing:
Self-healing of cementitious materials can be achieved through the
reaction of certain chemical agents. Two main strategies exist for housing these
agents, namely capsules and vascular tubes. These capsules and vascular tubes,
once ruptured, release these agents and heal the crack damage. Studies have
mainly focused on improving the quality of these housings and encapsulated
materials in this field.
2.2.3 Bio-based healing:
The self-healing ability of concrete has been improved by the
incorporation of bacteria, which can induce calcium carbonate precipitation
through their metabolic activity.These precipitates can build up and form an
effective seal against crack related water ingress. Jonkers et al. first incorporated
bacteria within cement paste for the development of self-healing concrete. It
was found that the bacteria directly added to the paste only remained viable for
4 months. Later studies saw Jonkers use expanded clay particles and Van
Tittlelboom use glass tubes, to protect the bacteria inside the concrete.
9

2.2.4 Epoxy Resin system:

In epoxy resin system, a low viscosity epoxy resin in an organic film
pipe that melts at 93C. Upon formation of a crack, sensed via a strain gauge,
there is a reduction in electrical conductivity and hence increased resistance and
temperature. This increased temperature melts the organic supply tube and cures
the epoxy resin after it has flowed into the crack.
2.2.5 Cyanoacrylates:
Commonly known as super glues, cyanoacrylates are a one part system
that, in the presence of moisture, react and cure very rapidly forming a bond
often stronger than the material it is bonding, i.e. concrete. Hence the healed
crack is actually stronger than the surrounding material itself. This system
showed that if a system is damaged and healed and then damaged again, a new
crack will form around the healed crack. The use of cyanoacrylates in concrete
is further enhanced by them being an acidic solution, which due to the
concretes alkaline environment causes yet quicker healing.
2.2.5 Alkali-Silica Solutions:
Alkali-silica solutions have also been utilized as healing agents mainly; in
the presence of oxygen, the solution causes hydration and hence bonding of the
original crack faces. Although this system produces lower bond strength, it
causes less material compatibility problems than the previous two systems.
2.3 SELF HEALING COATINGS:
Coatings allow the retention and improvement of bulk properties of a
material. They can provide protection for a substrate from environmental
exposure. Thus, when damage occurs (often in the form of microcracks),
environmental elements like water and oxygen can diffuse through the coating
and may cause material damage or failure. Microcracking in coatings can result
10

in mechanical degradation or delamination of the coating, or in electrical failure

in fibre-reinforced composites and microelectronics, respectively. As the
damage is on such a small scale, repair, if possible, is often difficult and costly.
Therefore, a coating that can automatically heal itself (self-healing coating)
could prove beneficial by automatic recovering properties (such as mechanical,
electrical and aesthetic properties), and thus extending the lifetime of the
coating. The majority of the approaches that are described in literature regarding
self-healing materials can be applied to make self-healing coatings, including
microencapsulation and the introduction of reversible physical bonds such as
hydrogen

bonding, ionomersand

chemical

bonds

(Diels-Alder

chemistry). Microencapsulation is the most common method to develop selfhealing coatings. The capsule approach originally described by White et al.,
using microencapsulated dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) monomer and Grubbs
catalyst to self-heal epoxy polymer was later adapted to epoxy adhesive films
that are commonly used in the aerospace and automotive industries for bonding
metallic

and

composite

substrates. Recently,

microencapsulated

liquid

suspensions of metal or carbon black were used to restore electrical

conductivity in a multilayer microelectronic device and battery electrodes
respectively; however the use of microencapsulation for restoration of electrical
properties in coatings is limited. The most common application of this technique
is proven in polymer coatings for corrosion protection. To prove the
effectiveness of microcapsules in polymer coatings for corrosion protection,
researchers have encapsulated a number of materials. These materials include
isocyanates monomers such as DCPD GMA epoxy resin, linseed oil and tung
oil. By using the aforementioned materials for self healing in coatings, it was
proven that microencapsulation effectively protects the metal against corrosion
and extends the lifetime of a coating.

11

CHAPTER 3
SELF-HEALING CONCRETE METHODS
The healing agents described in previous chapter require a method to
encapsulate them in the cementitious matrix until they are required for
healing.There are various self-healing methods for concrete that have been
instituted throughout modern practices. The most common methods of selfhealing in concrete consist of Autogenous healing, Hollow Fiber Glass Systems,
Autonomic Healing of Polymer Composites, Microencapsulation of SelfHealing Agents, Autonomous healing by bacteria,chemical encapsulation,
chemicals in glass tubing, mineral admixtures, intrinsic healing with selfcontrolled tight crack width and bacterial encapsulation.In the following
sections, a detailed and thorough overview is provided concerning these
processes and methods.

3.1 AUTOGENOUS SELF-HEALING AND SELF-SEALING:

In most of the traditional concrete mixtures 20-30% of the cement is left
unhydrated. The amount of unreacted cement is higher the coarser the cement
and the lower the water/cement ratio of the mixture. If cracking of the concrete
occurs, unreacted cement grains may become exposed to moisture penetrating
the crack. In that case the hydration process may start again and hydration
products may fill up and heal the crack. This inherent self-healing mechanism is
known since long and known as autogenous healing.
This autogenous healing of cracks in fractured concrete has been noticed by the
French Academy of Science in 1836 already in water retaining structures,
culverts and pipes. According to Hearn the self-healing phenomenon was
studied by Hyde at the end of the nineteenth century already. A more systematic
analysis of healing phenomena was executed by Glanville and dates back to
12

1926. Already at that time a distinction was made between self-sealing and selfhealing.
The three main processes of autogenous healing according to Joseph are
(i)

Swelling and hydration of cement pastes;

(ii)

Precipitation of calcium carbonate crystals,

(iii)

Blockage of flow paths due to deposition of water impurities or

movement of concrete fragments that detach during the cracking
process.

Figure 2.1 Self healing/sealing mechanisms: a) dissolution, deposition and

crystallization, b) physical clogging, c) continuing hydration and
d) swelling of the cement matrix.

3.2 Hollow-Fiber Glass Systems:

FRPs

(Fiber-Reinforced

Polymers)

have

great

performance

characteristics in relation to strength and stiffness. FRPs allow for a versatility

and flexibility in performance. Nevertheless, due to their inherent microstructure, delamination may occur due to its poor performance under loading.
FRPs not only give an advantage to incorporate a healing agent, but they also
have positive structural improvements. When failure or overstresses of broken
fibers occur, the healing agents flow into the damaged area. Some chemicals
13

used in the past for healing agents are ethyl cyanoacrylate, methyl methacrylate,
and cyanoacrylate.
Glass fibers, which contain specific healing agents, can represent two different
methods. One method can serve as a one-part adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate.
The system can also serve as a two-part epoxy system, containing both a resin
and a hardener. Both of these methods will be located perpendicular to one
another; however, one is implemented within the matrix itself and one within
the fibers.It has been shown in previous studies that these hollow fibers are
multifunctional; since the fibers themselves store a liquid healing agent while
simultaneously provide structural reinforcement.
These hollow fiber systems offer a flexibility to place healing plies in different
locations within the laminate in order to tailor the repair to the likely damage.
This is an excellent process for the self-healing of concrete process. However, if
these self-healing hollow glass fibers are not located in an area where the crack
occurs, the self-healing agent will not be utilized. Although an excellent
method, more research and analysis must be completed before implementation
into the market place.
3.3 AUTONOMIC HEALING OF POLYMER COMPOSITES:
As previously discussed and addressed with Hollow Glass Fiber Healing,
it was founded that cracks can develop deep within polymer structures, causing
mechanical degradation at times. Despite the bases for the cracks, the
composition of the polymer structure can be significantly compromised. Beyond
the Hollow Glass Fiber method, an additional process exists in which a
structural polymeric material has the capability to automatically heal cracks
within concrete structures. Just like the Hollow Glass Fiber Self-Healing
method, a microencapsulated healing agent is released into the crack plane once
the damage occurs. Once the healing agent comes into contact with the
14

embedded catalyst, a bonding action takes place called Polymerization.

Autonomic healing consists of polymerization capsules that have non-ending
chain ends. This allows the epoxy matrix to heal multiple cracks
simultaneously.
Regardless of the application or design of the microcapsule, configuration and
geometry is the key. The walls on the manufactured capsules cannot be too
profuse or too small; otherwise, they might rupture prematurely or might not
rupture at all.An additional and important design factor is the microcapsules
strength and stiffness as well as the relationship between the microcapsules and
the matrix. This supports a theory known as ROMP (ring opening metathesis
polymerization). There are several essential factors that have contributed to the
ROMP theory (Dry and Sottos 1993). These factors are as follows:
1. Promotes long life
2. Low monomer viscosity
3. Rapid polymerization at ambient conditions
4. Low shrinkage upon polymerization
This

linked

polymer

network

causes

reaction

that

polymerizes

dicyclopentadiene (DCDP) at room temperature within minutes.DCPD, a highly

stable monomer with excellent shelf life, was encapsulated in urea
formaldehyde (UF) microcapsules. These DCDP micro-capsules (filled with
urea-formaldehyde) provide a protective shell between the catalyst and the
DCDP in order to prevent premature polymerization during the development of
the composite.In order to ensure that polymerization has occurred, SEM and
microscopy analysis were administered on the specimens. Effectiveness of the
healing agent was shown by damage under the SEM, as well as absorption
within the film through Infrared Spectroscopy.
15

Materials and components such as these presented should increase the reliability
and service life of thermosetting polymers (Brown et al. 2003). However, the
amount utilized when placing DCDP microcapsules within concrete structures
is unclear. In addition, there are many questions that must and should be
answered in order to effectively utilize this unique and rare self-healing
property in the commercial market. For example, the reproduction potential in
mass quantity is speculative.
3.4 MICRO-ENCAPSULATION PROCESSES:
The in-situ process is an extremely important component due to the fact
that this was the process selected for the preparation of the microcapsules. An
essential part of the microcapsule is the core shell itself. The method utilized to
generate the microcapsules core can be by liquid or gaseous phase, liquid or
slurry, multiple wall capsule, etc. Within the in-situ process, an emulsification
process produces a spherical core solid wall. The second integral section of the
microcapsule is the shell wall itself. In order to establish to proper wall
application, the type of materials for the given product desired must be selected.
The material utilized must be appropriate to assist the microcapsules in
enduring its required environment.
The in-situ process includes a combination of aqueous and interfacial
polymerization. For the aqueous phase, the core material must be immersible in
water. The walls will form when the dissolved material creates a phase out and
wrap around core particles to make a suitable change.In order for this to occur,
the system of the aqueous solution must be changed by the following factors:
reduction in temperature, addition of chemical precipitating agent, or pH
alteration. The micro-encapsulation process is also successful by utilizing an
interfacial polymerization technique. The formation of a polymer at the

16

interface between two liquid (Water and DCDP Interface) phases is known as
interfacial polymerization.
3.5 AUTONOMOUS HEALING BY BACTERIA:
Self-healing concrete is a product that will biologically produce limestone
to heal cracks that appear on the surface of concrete structures. Specially
selected types of the bacteria genus Bacillus, along with a calcium-based
nutrient known as calcium lactate, and nitrogen and phosphorus, are added to
the ingredients of the concrete when it is being mixed. These self-healing agents
can lie dormant within the concrete for up to 200 years. However, when a
concrete structure is damaged and water starts to seep through the cracks that
appear in the concrete, the spores of the bacteria germinate on contact with the
water and nutrients. Having been activated, the bacteria start to feed on the
calcium lactate. As the bacteria feeds oxygen is consumed and the soluble
calcium lactate is converted to insoluble limestone. The limestone solidifies on
the cracked surface, thereby sealing it up. It mimics the process by which bone
fractures in the human body are naturally healed by osteoblast cells that
mineralize to reform the bone. The consumption of oxygen during the bacterial
conversion of calcium lactate to limestone has an additional advantage.Oxygen
is an essential element in the process of corrosion of steel and when the
bacterial activity has consumed it all it increases the durability of steel
reinforced concrete constructions.

Fig 2.2 SELF HEALING BACTERIAL CONCRETE

17

The two self-healing agent parts (the bacterial spores and the calcium
lactatebased nutrients) are introduced to the concrete within separate expanded
clay pellets 2-4 mmwide, which ensure that the agents will not be activated
during the cementmixing process. Only when cracks open up the pellets and
incoming water brings the calcium lactate into contact with the bacteria do these
become activated. Testing has shown that when water seeps into the concrete;
the bacteria germinate and multiply quickly. They convert the
nutrients into limestone within seven days in the laboratory. Outside, in lower
temperatures, the process takes several weeks. Refer Figure for self- healing
process.

Fig 3.3 Schematic of self-healing process in bacterial concrete. (A) water

enters from the left into a micro crack activating the embedded bacterial
spores. (B) the active bacteria seals the cracks with the production of
limestone, protecting the embedded steel reinforcement (brown bar) from
attack and erosion.
3.5.1 FINDING THE RIGHT BACTERIA:
The starting point of the research was to find bacteria capable of
surviving in an extreme alkaline environment. Cement and water have apH
value of up to 13 when mixed together, usually a hostile environment for life:
18

most organisms die in an environment with a pH value of 10 or above. The

search concentrated on microbes that thrive in alkaline environments which, can
be found in natural environments, such as alkali lakes in Russia, carbonate rich
soils in desert areas of Spain and soda lakes in Egypt. Samples of endolithic
bacteria (bacteria that can live inside stones) were collected along with bacteria
found in sediments in the lakes. Strains of the bacteria genus Bacilluswere
found to thrive in this high-alkaline environment. Backat Delft University the
bacteria from the samples were grown in a flask of water that would then be
used as the part of the watermix for the concrete. Different types of bacteria
were incorporated into a small block of concrete. Each concrete block would be
left for two months to set hard. Then the block would be pulverized and the
remains tested to see whether the bacteria had survived. It was found that the
only group of bacteria that were able to survive were the ones that produced
spores comparable to plant seeds. Such spores have extremely thick cell walls
that enable them to remain intact for up to 200 years while waiting for a better
environment to germinate. They would become activated when the concrete
starts to crack, food is available, and water seeps into the structure.This process
lowers the pH ofthe highly alkaline concrete to values in the range (pH 10
to11.5) where the bacterial spores become activated. Finding a suitable food
source for the bacteria that could survive in the concrete took a long time and
many different nutrients were tried until it was discovered that calcium lactate
was a carbon source that provides biomass. If it starts to dissolve during the
mixing process, calcium lactate does not interfere with the setting time of the
concrete.

3.5.2 HOW DOES BACTERIA REMIDIATE CRACKS:

When the concrete is mixed with bacteria (bacillus subtilus), the bacteria
go into a dormant state, a lot like seeds. All the bacteria need is exposure to the
19

air to activate their functions. Any cracks that should occur provide the
necessary exposure. When the cracks form, bacteria very close proximity to the
crack, starts precipitating calcite crystals.
Oxygen is an essential element in the process of corrosion of steel and
when the bacterial activity has consumed it all it increases the durability of steel
reinforced concrete constructions. Tests all show that bacteria embedded
concrete has lower water and chloride permeability and higher strength regain
than the surface application of bacteria. The most promising bacteria to use for
self-healing purposes are alkaliphilic (alkali- resistant) spore-forming bacteria.
The bacteria, from the genus Bacillus, subtilus is adopted for present study. It is
of great concern to the construction industry whether or not these bacteria are
smart enough to know when their task is complete because of safety concerns.
Bacillus Subtilus which is a soil bacterium (isolated from JNTUH soil) is
harmless to humans as it is non-pathogenic microorganism.
Chemistry of the Process Microorganisms (cell surface charge is negative) draw
cations including Ca2+ from the environment to deposit on the cell surface. The
following equations summarize the role of bacterial cell as a nucleation site
Ca 2+ + Cell --------> Cell- Ca 2+
Cell- Ca 2+ +CO 32-----> Cell-CaCO 3
The bacteria can thus act as a nucleation site which facilitates in the
precipitation of calcite which can eventually plug the pores and cracks in the
concrete. This microbiologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation
(MICCP) comprises of a series of complex biochemical reactions. As part of
metabolism, B.Subtilus produces urease, which catalyses urea to produce CO 2
and ammonia, resulting in an increase of pH in the surroundings where ions Ca
2+ and CO 32- precipitate as CaCO 3 . These create calcium carbonate crystals
that further expand and grow as the bacteria devour the calcium lactate food.
20

The crystals expand until the entire gap is filled. In any place where standard
concrete is currently being used, there is potential for the use of bacterial selfhealing concrete instead. The advantage is that the perpetual and expected
cracking that occurs in every concrete structure due to its brittle nature can be
controlled, reduced, and repaired without a human work crew. Bacterial selfhealing concrete also prevents the exposure of the internal reinforcements. This
form of self-healing concrete was created to continuously heal any damage done
on or in the concrete structure. With this process, money can be saved,
structures will last far longer, and the concrete industry as a whole will be
turning out a far more sustainable product, effectively reducing its CO2
contribution.
3.5.3 CONCLUSION:
Use of bacteria as self-healing agents helps in healing the cracks that are
caused in the structure due to many reasons.The calcite material secreted by
bacteria when exposed to the environment fills the cracks developed.With this
not only cracks are healed but life of concrete is also enhanced. The action of
bacteria is automatic so there is no need of tension as cracks are healed itself.
The overall conclusion of this work is that the proposed two component biochemical healing agent, composed of bacterial spores and a suitable organic biocement precursor compound, using porous expanded clay particles as a
reservoir is a promising bio-based and thus sustainable alternative to strictly
chemical or cement-based healing agents, particularly in situations where
concrete parts of a construction are not accessible for manual inspection or
repair.

21

CHAPTER 4
SCOPE OF SELF HEALING CONCRETE
When the strength of regular and self-healing concrete are tested in a lab,
the advantage of this new concrete is apparent. Traditional concrete, when put
under a stress load of .01 percent, cannot hold a load and fractures under the
force exerted on it. However, self-healing concrete can recover nearly all of its
strength when placed under a stress load of 3 percent. This amount of strain is
strong enough to not only destroy a structure made of original concrete, but
could also severely deform metal.The fact that this new concrete can heal itself
will allow it to last much longer than regular concrete, and even reinforced
concrete. The increased strength of self-healing concrete allows it to have a
much longer lifespan than traditional concrete.
4.1 SELF-HEALING CONCRETE COST EFFECTIVE:
Self-healing concrete is estimated to be about three times the price of
traditional concrete, in the end it will cost much less. With traditional concrete,
the amount of repairs required will practically pay for the self-healing concrete.
Take the Grove Street Bridge for example. The Grove Street Bridge passes over
in Ypsilanti, Mich. It was built with traditional concrete and has an average of
$350,000 a year in maintenance and repair costs. If the same bridge was built
from self-healing concrete, it is estimated to have a 50% less life-cycle cost over
a 60 year lifespan. The savings would add up to about $11 million over the
entire lifespan of the bridge, which could justify an original cost that is so much
greater than that of traditional concrete.
4.2 REDUCTION IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT:
The concrete industry is responsible for close to 10% of the CO2
emissions in the United States. The production of concrete requires a large
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amount of energy. The materials have to be mined out of the earth, transported
to concrete plants, and then the concrete must be created. With self-healing
concrete reducing the amount of repairs large concrete structures need,
significantly less amounts of concrete will be needed. When less concrete is
needed and produced, the amounts of CO2 released into the atmosphere will be
reduced significantly.
4.3 OTHER ADVANTAGES:
1. Incorporation of the healing agent will be relatively cheap well as easy when
the aggregate is immobilized in porous light weight aggregate prior to addition
to the concrete mixture.
2. Oxygen is an agent that can induced corrosion, as bacteria feeds on oxygen
tendency for the corrosion of reinforcement can be reduced.
3. Self healing bacteria can be used in places were humans find it difficult to
reach for the maintenance of the structures. Hence it reduces the risking of
human in dangerous life and also increases durability of the structures.
4.4 SELF-HEALING CONCRETE AND THE CODE OF ETHICS:
Self-healing concrete fits into the first fundamental canon of the code of
ethics for the National Society of Professional Engineers because it abides by
the rules of protecting the publics safety, health, and welfare. The first concern
of all engineers should be to ensure the safety of the public, because their job is
to make life easier. Self-healing concrete fits perfectly into this because the
whole idea of this new invention is to create a stronger type of concrete. If
concrete is made stronger, it will be more difficult to damage, therefore, making
it safer for the public to use.

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4.5 DISADVANTAGES:
1. If the volume of self healing agents (bacteria and calcium lactate ) mixed
become greater than 20%, the strength of concrete is reduced.
2. Preparation of self healing concrete needs bacteria, calcium lactate or other
agents.Preparation of calcium lactate from milk is costlier.Hence the cost of self
healing concrete is double than the conventional concrete.
4.6 APPLICATIONS:
In regions that are high in corrosive chemicals, concrete structures are
likely to develop more cracks than in the typical environment. These corrosive
chemicals can be as mild as the salt used on roads to melt ice in the winter or as
harsh as acid rain. The self-healing technology can work to slow this process by
healing the microcracks before they have a chance to worsen, thus significantly
increasing the lifespan of otherwise unsafe structures.
Self-healing concrete would also be particularly effective in regions that
are prone to earthquakes. If the concrete structures in earthquake zones were
constructed out of self-healing concrete, the structures that only suffered from
microcracks after an earthquake could be left to heal themselves and the
structures would not require demolition and reconstruction. This healing
technology would create structures that are better equipped to withstand minor
earthquakes without the need for external crack repair, making them more
sustainable.
Self healing bacterial concrete can be used in sectors such as tunnel
linning, structural basement walls, highway bridges concrete floors and marine
structures.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

Self-healing concrete is a kind of smart concrete and becoming one of the

research focus both in material and civil engineering field. Self-healing concrete
is likely to provide the greatest global benefit over the coming years. Current
technologies under development include autonomic systems, where cracks are
automatically repaired with internally released resins, as well as more natural
autogenic systems, such as swelling and hydration of cement paste into cracks.
This can be significantly enhanced by systems that help to close up the cracks,
such as activating embedded shrinkable polymer bars. Considering that over 6
billion cubic meters of concrete is used annually, and that the majority of its
durability problems originate from cracking, then the development of smart
cementation material with the ability to self-heal cracks offers potentially
massive savings to the annual amount of money spent on repair and
maintenance of concrete structures. A core element of sustainability referenced
in the definition of sustainability by the United States General Services
Administration is creating healthy, productive environments. The use of selfhealing concrete to enhance the viability of unmaintainable structures fulfills
this tenant, thus making this a sustainable application of self-healing concrete.

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REFERENCES

1. Simon Dunn, BEng (hons), Cardiff University, Self Healing Concrete

A Sustainable Future
2. Ramakrishnan V, Ramesh KP, and Bang SS. South Dokata School of
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3. Ramchandran SK, Ramakrishnan V, and Bang SS. South Dokata School
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4. N. Hearn, Self-healing, autogenous healing and continued hydration:
What is the difference? Materials and Structures, Vol. 31, 563-567 (1998)
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