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Documente Cultură
PROCESS
CALCULATIONS
SECOND EDITION
V. VENKATARAMANI
Formerly Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli
N. ANANTHARAMAN
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli
New Delhi-110001
2011
` 195.00
PROCESS CALCULATIONS, Second Edition
V. Venkataramani, N. Anantharaman and K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum
2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4199-9
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Second Printing (Second Edition)
February, 2011
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Meenakshi Art Printers, Delhi-110006.
To My Parents
V. Venkataramani
K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum
To My Mother
N. Anantharaman
Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................. xi
Preface to the First Edition ............................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... xv
1
16
MASS RELATIONS
734
viii
CONTENTS
IDEAL GASES
3573
3.1
VAPOUR PRESSURE
7486
PSYCHROMETRY
87110
CRYSTALLIZATION
111121
MASS BALANCE
122179
180195
CONTENTS
ENERGY BALANCE
ix
196220
9.1
10
221228
II
Preface
xi
xiii
Acknowledgements
xv
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical engineers are concerned with the design and development of
processes which involve changes in the bulk properties of matter. To make a
quantitative estimation of these processes, chemical equations showing the
quantities of reactants and products are used. Though internationally we
follow SI system of units, a chemical engineer is expected to be familiar and
conversant with all the systems so far adopted for measuring and expressing
various quantities. A review of literature and data over the years will be
available in various units. These are used to express properties, process
variables and design parameters in FPS, CGS, MKS and SI systems of
Units. Hence, one has to be conversant with their use and applications. This
chapter deals with the basic notations and conversion of a given quantity
from one system of units to another.
The quantities used in our analysis are classified as fundamental
quantities and derived quantities. The fundamental quantities comprise
length, mass, time and temperature. The quantities such as force, density,
pressure, mass flow rate derived from the fundamental quantities are called
derived quantities. While handling these quantities, we come across different
systems of units as mentioned earlier. Now let us see in detail these systems
of units and their conversion from one unit to another.
Metric Engineering
lb
ft
s
F
1
CGS
MKS
g
cm
s
C
kg
m
s
C
System
International,
SI
kg
m
s
K
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Mass (m)
1 kg = 2.205 lb
Length (L)
1 ft = 30.48 cm
= 0.3048 m
Time (t)
1 h = 3600 s
Temperature (T )
C
F 32
(Celsius and Centigrade are same)
1.8
Force:
1 dyne
= 1 kg m/s2
1 Joule
1 Joule
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
[1 dyne] [1 cm]
[1 g cm/s2] [1 cm]
1 g cm2/s2
(1 N) (1 m)
105 g cm/s2 100 cm
107 g cm2/s2
107 erg
Heat Unit:
1 Btu
1 cal
1 J/s
1.4 DEFINITIONS
System. This refers to a substance or group of substances under consideration, e.g. storage tank, water in a tank, hydrogen stored in cylinder, etc.
Process. Changes taking place within the system is called process, e.g.
burning of fuel, or reaction between two substances like hydrogen and
oxygen to form water.
Isolated system. Boundaries of the system are limited by a mass of
material, and its energy content is completely detached from all other matter
and energy. In an isolated system, the mass of the system remains constant,
regardless of the changes taking place within the system.
Extensive property. It is a state of system, which depends on the
mass under consideration, e.g. volume.
Intensive property. This state of a system is independent of mass. An
example of this property is temperature.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1.1
= (200)
kg
m2
2.205 (3600 s) (0.0929)
= 0.2712 kg/s.m2
1.2
1.3
The rate of heat loss per unit area is given by (0.5) [(DT)1.25/(D)0.25]
Btu/h ft2 for a process, where, DT is in F and D is in ft. Convert this
relation to estimate the heat flux in terms of kcal/h. m2 using DT in C
and D in m.
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
We know that,
9
C1 + 32 = F1
5
9
C2 + 32 = F2
5
Therefore,
0.5
( 'T )1.25
( D)0.25
( 'T F)1.25
q
, Btu/h ft2 = 0.5
A
( D ft)0.25
We know that,
1 Btu = 0.252 kcal
1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 ft = 0.3048 m
For DT F = 1.8 DT C
Btu/h ft2
[ 'T F)1.25
= 0.5
0.25
(D ft)
= (0.5)
= (0.7746)
Btu/h ft2
(a)
(b)
( 'T C)1.25
(D m)0.25
(c)
From (b) and (c) we get the expression for heat flux in units of
kcal/h m2 with temperature difference in Celsius and diameter in metre
as:
(0.7746)( 'T C)1.25
Heat flux, kcal/h m2 =
2.713
( D m)0.25
(d)
(18)1.25
(0.2)
0.25
(10)1.25
(0.06096)0.25
= 75.2 kcal/h m2
1.5
1.6
Iron metal weighs 500 lb and occupies a volume of 29.25 litres. Find
the density in kg/m3.
Basis: 500 lb of Iron = 500/2.2 = 227.27 kg
29.25 lit = 29.25 103 m3
227.27
Density =
103 = 7770 kg/m3
29.25
Etching operation follows the relation d = 16.2 16.2e0.021t, where t is
in s. and d is in microns. Convert this equation to evaluate d in mm
with t in min.
d = 16.2 [1 e0.021t]
Let d be in mm and t be in min. (d = d 103 and t = t 60)
Then, d = d 103 = 16.2 [1 e0.021t 60]
d = 0.0162 [1 e1.26t]
1.7
1.8
1211
.
T 52.2
1211
T 52.2
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
EXERCISES
1.1
1.2
42 ft2/h to cm2/s
25 psig to psia
100 Btu to hp-h
30 N/m2 to lbf/ft2
100 Btu/h ft2 F to cal/s cm2 C
1000 kcal/h mC to W/m K
=
=
=
=
1.4
The flow past a triangular notch weir can be calculated by using the
following empirical formula:
q = [0.31 h2.5/g0.5] tan F
where q = Volumetric flow rate, ft3/s
h = Weir head, ft
g = Local acceleration due to gravity, ft/s2
F = Angle of V-notch with horizontal plane
1.5
In the case of liquids, the local heat transfer coefficient, for long tubes
and using bulk-temperature properties, is expressed by the empirical
equation,
h = 0.023 G0.8 k0.67 Cp0.5/(D0.2 m0.47)
where G = Mass velocity of liquids, lb/ft2.s
k = Thermal conductivity, Btu/ft.h.F
Cp = Specific heat, Btu/lb F
D = Diameter of tube, ft
m = Viscosity of liquid, lb/ft.s
Convert the empirical equation to SI units.
Mass Relations
2.1
(i)
(2.1)
56
+
44
(ii)
(2.2)
231.52
+
8
239.52 239.52
Based on the reactions given by Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) we conclude that
when 100 parts by weight of CaCO3 reacts, 56 parts by weight of CaO and
44 parts by weight of CO2 are formed. Similarly, when 167.52 parts by
weight of iron reacts with 72 parts by weight of steam (water), we get
231.52 parts by weight of magnetite and 8 parts by weight of hydrogen.
Thus the total weight of reactants is always equal to the total weight of
products.
Such computations will help one to estimate the quantity of reactants
needed to obtain a specified amount of product.
gram atom (or g atom)
katom (or kg atom)
gram mole (or g mole)
kmole (or kg mole)
=
=
=
=
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
in
in
in
in
grams/Atomic weight
kg/Atomic weight
grams/Molecular weight
kg/Molecular weight
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
=
=
=
=
16 grams O
1 gram H
32 grams O
2 grams H
In other words,
16 grams of oxygen
32 pounds of oxygen
2 g atoms of oxygen
1 gram of hydrogen
2 kg of hydrogen
2 kg atoms of hydrogen
=
=
=
=
=
=
\
\
g atom or lb atom
g mole or lb mole
1
1
1
1
1
1
g atom of oxygen
lb mole of oxygen
g mole of oxygen
g atom of hydrogen
kmole of hydrogen
kmole of hydrogen
MASS RELATIONS
2.3
AVOGADROS HYPOTHESIS
2.4
For most of the chemical reactions the reactants will not be used in
stoichiometric proportion or quantities. One of the reactants will be present
in excess and remain unreacted even when the other reactant has completely
reacted. The reactant thus present in excess is termed excess reactant and
the other reactant which is present in a lesser quantity and cannot react with
whole of the other reactant (excess reactant) is called limiting reactant. All
calculations involved in estimating the quantity of product and conversion
are always based on the limiting reactant. The amount by which any
reactant is present in excess to that required to combine with the limiting
reactant is usually expressed as percentage excess. The percentage excess of
any reactant is defined as the percentage ratio of the excess to that
theoretically required by the stoichiometric equation for combining with the
limiting reactant. A limiting reactant is the one, which will not be present in
the product, whereas the excess reactant is the one, which will always be
present in the product.
Let us consider that 18 kg of carbon is burnt with 32 kg of oxygen. As
per stoichiometry
C + O2 CO2
i.e. 12 kg of carbon will burn with 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of CO2.
Hence, for 18 kg of carbon to react fully we should have 48 kg of
oxygen. Since 32 kg of oxygen alone is available, it is called the limiting
reactant and carbon is called the excess reactant. For 32 kg of oxygen to
react fully, it is sufficient to have 12 kg of carbon. However 6 kg of carbon
is present in excess.
Hence % excess of carbon is =
2.5
6
100 = 50%.
12
These terms are used for a chemical reaction where the reactants give out
new compounds or products.
10
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
2.6
2.6.1
Weight Percent
WA
100
W
2.6.2
Volume Percent
The ratio of the volume of each component and the total volume of the
system, for each 100 part of the total volume is called volume percent
MASS RELATIONS
Volume % of A =
11
VA
100
V
2.6.3
2.6.4
Weight ratio
Mole ratio
Molality
Molarity
Normality (N)
=
=
=
=
=
12
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
140
130
G
60
15
F C
60
15
141.5
131.5
G
MASS RELATIONS
2.7.3
13
Twaddell Scale
400
400
G
WORKED EXAMPLES
2.1
5000 100
10 6
2.2
= 0.5%
The strength of H3PO4 was found to be 35% P2O5. Find the weight %
of the acid.
The acid can be split into
2H 3 PO 4 P2 O 5 + 3H 2 O
(2 98)
142
(3 18)
35 72.5 = 48.3%
2.3
2.4
25
kmoles of Cl2
2 35.46
25 22.414
= 7.9 m3
2 35.46
14
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
500
= 22.31 g moles
22.414
22.31 g moles of propane weighs = 22.31 44 = 981.52 g.
2.5
2.6
A solution of naphthalene in benzene contains 25 mole % Naphthalene. Express the composition in weight %.
Basis: 100 g moles of solution
Component
Molecular
weight
Naphthalene C10H8
Benzene C6H6
128
78
Weight,
g mole
25
75
Actual
weight, g
25 128 = 3200
75 78 = 5850
9050
100.00
Total
2.7
Composition in
weight percent
2.8
1
= 0.0446 g mole
22.414
Weight of one litre methane = 0.0446 16 = 0.714 g
1 litre of methane 1
Element
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Atomic
weight
Weight, g
12
1
14
81.5
4.9
13.6
Weight,
g atom
81.5/12 = 6.8
4.9/1 = 4.9
13.6/14 = 0.9
Rounding of
atoms
Weight of
each element
7
5
1
84
5
14
Total
103
15
MASS RELATIONS
2.9
Component
Weight, g
Na2O
MgO
ZnO
Al2O3
B2 O 3
SiO2
7.8
7.0
9.7
2.0
8.5
65.0
Total
100.0
g mole
mole %
62.0
40.3
81.4
102.0
69.6
60.1
0.1258
0.1737
0.1192
0.0196
0.1221
1.0815
7.665
10.583
7.262
1.194
7.439
65.857
1.6419
100.0
Molecular weight
2.10 A gaseous mixture analyzing CH4 : 10%, C2H6 : 30% and rest H2 at
15 C and 1.5 atm is flowing through an equipment at the rate of
2.5 m3/min. Find (a) the average molecular weight of the gas mixture,
(b) weight % and (c) the mass flow rate.
Basis: 100 g moles of the gaseous mixture.
Component
Weight,
g mole
Molecular
weight
Weight,
g
CH4
C2H6
H2
10
30
60
16
30
2
160
900
120
Total
100
1180
Weight %
13.56
76.27
10.17
100
1180
= 11.8
100
1.5
Volumetric flow rate at standard conditions = 2.5
(273/288)
1
= 3.555 m3/min
3.555
= 0.156 kmole
22.414
Mass flow rate = moles average molecular weight = 0.156 11.8
= 1.84 kg/min
Moles of the gas =
16
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Basis: 1 kg of feed.
NaOH present is 0.04 kg, which appears as 25% in the thick liquor
formed
0.04
= 0.16 kg
0.25
Weight of water evaporated = (1 0.16) = 0.84 kg
I Engineer
II Engineer
N2
28x
14x
CO2
44y
44y
O2
32z
32z
100
3008
1874
Component
Total
x + y + z = 100
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
grams
Molecular
weight
g mole
Na2CO3
40
106
40/106 = 0.377
Water
60
18
60/18 = 3.333
3.710
100.00
Total
Composition in
mole %
MASS RELATIONS
17
2.14 What is the weight of iron and water required for the production of
100 kg of hydrogen?
3Fe + 4H 2 O
(4 18)
(3 55.84)
72
167.52
239.52
Fe 3 O 4
+ 4H 2
(4 2 1)
(3 55.84) + (4 16)
8
231.52
239.52
= 50 kmoles
50
= 37.5 katoms Fe
4
= (37.5 55.84) = 2094 kg of iron
50 kmoles H2 from
= 2994 kg
3 t
50
t 4 kmoles of water
4
2994 kg
18
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
2.15 How much super phosphate fertilizer can be made from one ton of
calcium phosphate 93.5% pure?
Atomic weights are: Ca : 40, P : 31, O : 16, S : 32
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 CaH4(PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
310
(2 98)
(2 136)
234
506
506
One ton of raw calcium phosphate contains 0.935 tons of pure calcium
phosphate
0.935
= 0.70577 tonne
\ Weight of super phosphate formed is = 234
310
2.16 SO2 is produced by the reaction between copper and sulphuric acid.
How much Cu must be used to get 10 kg of SO2?
Cu + 2H 2 SO 4 CuSO 4 + SO 2 + 2H 2 O
64
63.54
2HgO
(2 122.46)
244.92
(2 216.6)
2KCl
3O2
(2 74.46)
148.92
2Hg
(6 16)
96
O2
(2 200.6)
(2 16)
% of NH3
51
100
1931
2.64
% of H2O
81
100
1931
4.19
1931
MASS RELATIONS
% of MoO3 = 1728
100
1931
71
100
1931
Total
% of P2O5 =
89.49
3.68
19
= 100.00
2.19 How many grams of salt are required to make 2500 g of salt cake?
How much Glaubers salt can be obtained from this?
The molecular formula of Glaubers salt is Na2SO4 10H2O
(142 + 180 = 322)
2NaCl
(2 58.46 =116.92)
+ H 2 SO 4 Na 2 SO 4 + 2HCl
98
142
(2 36.46)
gives
5Fe2(SO4)3
(2 158 = 316)
(5 400 = 2000)
(3 400 = 1200)
3 g K2Cr2O7
Similarly, 5 g KMnO4
1200 t 316
= 189.6 g KMnO4
2000
3 t 189.6
= 1.935 g KMnO4
294
5 t 294
= 7.75 g K2Cr2O7
189.6
5t3
= 7.75 g K2Cr2O7
1.935
2.21 If 45 g of iron react with H2SO4, how many litres of hydrogen are
liberated at standard condition?
Alternatively,
20
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
(55.85)
(i)
(2)
2
= 1.611 g,
55.85
1.611
= 0.806 g mole
2
0.806 g mole 0.806 22.414 = 18.06 litres
i.e.
(b) Case II
2Fe + 3H 2 SO 4 Fe 2 (SO 4 )3 + 3H 2
(111.7)
(ii)
(6)
6
= 2.418 g
111.7
Molecular
weight
mole %
Weight, kg
CH4
16
83.5
83.5 16 = 1336
C 2H 6
30
12.5
12.5 30 = 375
N2
28
4.0
4.0 28 = 112
Total
1823
100.0
1823
100
Weight %
= 18.23
1823
2241.4
= 0.813 kg/m3
21
MASS RELATIONS
Molecular
weight
Weight, g
Weight, %
g mole
NaCl
58.5
230
20.03
Water
18
918
79.97
918/18 = 51.00
51/54.93 = 92.85
Total
1148
100.00
54.93
100.00
mole %
g atoms
Atomic %
Na
Cl
H
O
3.93
3.93
102.00
51.00
2.443
2.443
63.409
31.705
Total
160.86
100.000
230
= 0.252
918
22
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Molecular
weight
Weight, g
Weight,
g mole
mole
fraction
Anthracene
178
10
(10/178)
0.046
0.0562
78
90
(90/78)
0.954
1.1538
1.2100
1.00
Benzene
Total
0.0562
90
1000 = 0.624
Weight, g
Weight %
NaCl
105.228
9.52
H2O
1000.000
90.48
1105.228
100.00
1105.228
= 1042.67 cc
1.06
105.228
1042.67
= 100.92 g of NaCl.
MASS RELATIONS
23
20
= 2.09 lb.
9.57
62.47
= 8.35 lb.
7.48
Total weight of solution = weight of water + weight of salt
= 200 (G 1) \
Be = 145
(b) API =
Be =
145
= 145
G
141.5
G
G = 1.5
131.5 =
145
1.5
141.5
0.79
= 48.3 Be
131.5 = 47.6
140
130 = 47.2
0.79
24
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Basis: 1 m3 of solution.
Compound Molecular Volume, Density,
weight
m3
kg/m3
Ethanol
Water
Total
46
18
0.15
0.85
1.00
790
1000
Weight,
kg
Number
of moles
118.5
850
968.5
2.576
47.222
49.798
Weight
%
mole
%
12.235
5.173
87.765 94.827
100
100
100
= 46.67 kg of N2
60
(Theoretically)
The given sample has 40% N2
100
= 85.71%
46.67
2.31 If the nitrogen content in ammonium nitrate sample is 28%, estimate
the purity of ammonium nitrate.
100
= 35%
80
28
100 = 80%
35
MASS RELATIONS
25
:
:
:
:
:
:
kmole
kmole
kmoles
kmoles
Component
Weight,
kmole
Molecular
weight
Weight,
kg
Weight,
%
HNO3
0.425
63
26.775
1.133
H2SO4
10.408
98
1020.000
43.165
H2O
18
289.850
12.266
Nitrobenzene
8.075
123
993.225
42.032
C6H6
0.425
78
33.150
1.403
Total
2363.00
100%
(56)
(44)
(40)
(44)
26
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
56 x
= 0.56x kg of CaO.
100
Similarly, 84 kg of MgCO3 gives 40 kg of MgO
40
84
(2 x) kg of MgO
The weight of product left behind is 1.1 kg, i.e. weight of MgO +
CaO left behind
0.56x + (0.4672)(2 x) = 1.1
0.0838x = 1.1 0.96524
Therefore, x = 1.761 kg
Component
Weight, kg
Weight, %
CaCO3
MgCO3
Total
1.761
0.239
2.000
88.05
11.95
100.00
2NH3
(34)
+ 3H2
(28)
2H3PO4
(6)
P2O5 + 3H2O
(196)
(142)
(54)
(18)
(94)
(73)
N2, K2O and P2O5 are each equivalent to 15 weight % = 150 kg each
Ammonia reacted = 34
150
28
H3PO4 needed
150
= 207.04 kg
142
= 196
= 182.14 kg
KCl needed
MASS RELATIONS
27
350 650
=1
700
SB
rB = 1300 kg/m3
Therefore, specific gravity of B = 1.3
2.37 An aqueous solution contains 47% of A on volume basis. If the density of A is 1250 kg/m3, express the composition of A in weight %.
Basis: 1 m3 of solution
Volume of A in solution = 1 0.47 = 0.47 m3
Weight of A = 0.47 1250 = 587.5 kg
Volume of water = (1 0.47) = 0.53 m3
Therefore, the weight of water = 0.53 m3 1000 = 530 kg
Hence, weight % of A =
587.5
= 52.57%
530 587.5
43
= 312 g moles
138
0.312
= 2.833M
0.11
0.312
= 3.12 g moles/kg solvent.
0.1
28
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
mole %
C2H4
C6H6
O2
CH4
C2H6
N2
30.6
24.5
1.3
15.5
25
3.1
Molecular weight
28
78
32
16
30
28
Total
Density = Weight/Volume =
Weight, kg
Weight %
856.8
1911.0
41.6
248.0
750.0
86.8
22.00
49.07
1.07
6.37
19.26
2.23
3894.2
100.00
3894.2
22.414 = 1.737 kg/m3 = 1.737 g/l.
100
Mg
S
O
H2O
Weight,
g
Atomic weight
or Molecular
weight
Number
of moles
9.76
13.01
26.01
57.22
24
32
16
18
0.410
0.410
1.615
2.8738
Converting to
whole numbers
dividing by 0.41
1
1
3.94
6.92
Weight,
g
Atomic weight
or Molecular
weight
Ag
S
O2
1.978
0.293
0.587
108
32
16
Number
of moles
0.0183
9.156 103
0.0367
Converting to
whole numbers
dividing by
9.156 103
2
1
4.04
MASS RELATIONS
29
2.42 Two engineers are estimating the average molecular weight of gas
containing oxygen and another gas. One uses the molecular weight as
32 and finds the average molecular weight as 39.8 and the other uses
the atomic weight of oxygen as 16 and finds the average molecular
weight as 33.4. Estimate the composition of the gas mixture.
By using the atomic weight of oxygen as 16, the value is 33.4 and by
using the molecular weight of oxygen, the value is 39.8.
Let x be the mole fraction of oxygen in the mixture and the molecular
weight of the other gas be M
39.8 = (x) (32) + (1 x) (M)
33.4 = (x) (16) + (1 x) (M)
Solving, we get x = 0.4
i.e the fraction of oxygen in the mixture is 0.4
2.43 A mixture of methane and ethane has an average molecular weight of
21.6. Find the composition.
Let the mole fraction of methane be X
21.6 = (Molecular weight of CH4)(X) + (Molecular weight of C2H6)
(1 X)
21.6 = 16 X + 30 (1 X)
Solving, we get X = 0.6
2.44 A mixture of FeO and Fe3O4 was heated in air and is found to gain
5% in mass. Find the composition of initial mixture.
Reactions involved are:
2FeO + 0.5 O2 Fe2O3
2Fe3O4 + 0.5 O2 3 Fe2O3
Basis: 100 kg of feed mixture
Let X be the weight of FeO in the mixture
From 144 kg of FeO, Fe2O3 formed is 160 kg
Therefore, from X kg of FeO, Fe2O3 formed is 160
X
144
30
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
2.45 A sample of lime stone has 54.5% CaO. Find the weight % of lime
stone.
Basis: 100 kg of lime stone
100 kg of CaCO3 will have 56% CaO
If the CaO is 54.5%, then % of CaCO3 in the sample is
54.5 100/50 = 97.32%
2.46 Express the composition of magnesite in mole %.
Compound
Weight %
MgCO3
SiO2
H2O
81
14
5
Compound
Weight %
Molecular weight
moles
mole %
MgCO3
SiO2
H2O
81
14
5
84
60
18
0.964
0.233
0.278
65.34
15.82
18.83
(54)
(98)
196
= 48.3 H3PO4
142
(1)
(2)
Estimate (i) unreacted PbS, (ii) % excess oxygen supplied, (iii) total
SO2 formed, and (iv) the % conversion of PbS to Pb.
PbS + O2 Pb + SO2
(239.2)
(32)
(207.2)
(1)
(64)
(64)
(239.2)
(2)
(64)
MASS RELATIONS
31
6
= 6.927 kg of PbS
207.2
239.2 kg of PbO2 comes from 239.2 kg of PbS
32
= 0.927 kg
207.2
From Reaction 2:
239.2 kg of PbO2 requires 64 kg of oxygen
Therefore, to produce 1 kg of PbO2, oxygen required is 268 kg
Therefore, total oxygen used = 0.927 + 0.268 = 1.195 kg
(3 1.195)
100 = 151%
1.195
64
= 0.268 kg
239.2
Total SO2 formed = 1.853 + 0.268 = 2.121 kg
= 6.927
32
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
A
B
C
11
25
4
27.5
62.5
10.0
40
50
60
Total
40
100.00
moles,
kmole
mole
%
Density, Volume,
kg/m3
m3
0.275
0.500
0.067
32.66
59.38
7.96
0.842
100.00
750
800
900
0.0147
0.0313
0.0044
0.0504
40
= 793.65 kg/m3
0.0504
40
= 47.5
0.842
EXERCISES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
MASS RELATIONS
33
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
34
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
2.13 How many kilograms of silver nitrate are there in 55.0 g mole silver
nitrate?
2.14 Phosphoric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers and as a
flavouring agent in drinks. For a given 10 weight % phosphoric acid
solution of specific gravity 1.10, determine:
(a) the mole fraction composition of this mixture.
(b) the volume of this solution, which would contain 1 g mole H3PO4.
2.15 Hydrogen gas in the laboratory can be prepared by the reaction of
sulphuric acid with zinc metal
H2SO4 (l) + Zn(s) ZnSO4(s) + H2 (g)
How many grams of sulphuric acid solution (97%) must act on an
excess of zinc to produce 12.0 m3/h of hydrogen at standard
conditions. Assume all the acid used reacts completely.
2.16 Sulphur dioxide may be produced by the reaction
Cu + 2 H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2.
Find how much copper and how much 94% sulphuric acid must be
used to obtain 32 kg of SO2.
2.17 Aluminium sulphate is produced by reacting crushed bauxite ore with
sulphuric acid as shown below:
Al2O3 + 3 H2SO4 Al2 (SO4)3 + 3 H2O
Bauxite ore contains 55.4% by weight Al2O3, the reminder being
impurities. The sulphuric acid contains 77.7% H2SO4, the rest being
water. To produce crude aluminium sulphate containing 1798 kg of
pure Al2(SO4)3, 1080 kg of bauxite ore and 2510 kg of sulphuric acid
solution are used. Find (a) the excess reactant, (b) % of excess
reactant consumed, and (c) degree of completion of the reaction.
2.18 600 kg of sodium chloride is mixed with 200 kg of KCl. Find the
composition in weight % and mole %.
2.19 What is the weight of iron and water required to produce 100 kg of
hydrogen.
2.20 Cracked gas from petroleum refinery has the following composition
by volume:
Methane: 42%, ethane: 13%, ethylene: 25%, propane: 6%, propylene:
9%, and rest n-butane. Find: (a) average molecular weight of mixture,
(b) Composition by weight, and (c) specific gravity of the gas
mixture.
2.21 A gas contains methane: 45% and carbon dioxide: 45% and rest
nitrogen. Express (i) the weight %, (ii) average molecular weight, and
(iii) density of the gas at NTP.
Ideal Gases
3.1
=
=
=
=
=
=
nRT
Pressure of gas
Volume of n moles of gas
Number of moles of gas
Gas constant
Absolute temperature
Using the ideal gas law (PV = nRT) and the above information one can always
determine the weight of a gas if the volume is known and vice-versa.
Normal Temperature and Pressure/Standard Conditions
Parameters
Pressure
Molar volume
Absolute
temperature
Gas constant
English
Metric
2
SI
1 atm
359 ft3/lb mole
1.033 kgf/cm
22.414 m3/kmole
1.01325 bar
22.414 m3/kmole
491.69 oR
0.73 atm ft3/lb mole oR
273.16 K
0.085 kgf m3/kmole K
273.16 K
0.083 Bar m3/kmole K
35
36
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Pressure
Pressure
Volume
psia
psia
atmospheres
Pa
atmospheres
atmospheres
cm Hg
in3
ft3
ft3
m3
m3
cm3
cm3
Gas constant
Rg
18.51
10.73
0.73
8314
0.08206
82.06
6239.79
Units of gas
constant
in3psia/lb mole R
ft3psia/lb mole R
ft3atm/lb mole R
m3Pa/kmole K
m3atm/kmole K
cm3atm/g mole K
(cm3cm Hg)g mole K
IDEAL GASES
37
Components
Partial pressure
Number of moles
Pure component volume
pA
nA
VA
pB
nB
VB
pC
nC
VC
P
n
V
3.2.4
n RT
n RT
nA RT
; pB = B
; pC = C
V
V
V
Adding all the partial pressures of A, B and C, we have,
pA =
RT
P = pA + p B + p C =
(nA + nB + nC)
V
nA
RT
V
;
V
RT (n A + nB + nC )
pressure fraction = mole fraction.
Dividing, pA /P =
(b)
n A RTP
VA
= NA
=
P(n A + nB + nC ) RT
V
VA = NA V
38
3.3
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
The weight of unit mole of the mixture is called average molecular weight,
which is also equal to total weight of the gas mixture divided by the total
number of moles in the mixture. This is applicable only for gaseous
mixtures and not for solid or liquid mixtures. For example, air contains 79%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume.
Basis: 100 kmole
Number of moles of nitrogen = 79
and those of oxygen
= 21
Weight of a component = Number of moles respective molecular
weight
\ Weight of nitrogen = 79 28 = 2212 kg
Weight of oxygen = 21 32 = 672 kg
2884 kg
\ The weight of 1 kmole = 2884/100 = 28.84 kg
Hence, the average molecular weight of air = 28.84
3.4
DENSITY OF MIXTURE
WORKED EXAMPLES
3.1
= 5.643 m3
0.9
273
Calculate the volume occupied by 6 lb of chlorine at 743 mm Hg and 70 F
3.2
PV T
= 0 0 1
T0 P1
IDEAL GASES
39
760 530
= 30.34
743 492
= 33.4 ft3
3.3
= 200
= 3.76 ft3
760 296
3.4
Moles of water
3.76
=
= 0.01047 lb mole
359
Weight of water
= 0.3102 kmole
Volume at standard condition
= 20 0.02832 = 0.5664 m3
PV T
Pressure at the given condition P1 = 0 0 1
V1 T0
6.9528 303
= 1
0.5664 273
= 13.62 atm
3.5
Temperature T1
T V P
= 0 1 1
V0 P0
30 100
= 273
128.21 14.67
= 435.4 K = 162.4 C
40
3.6
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
When heated to 100 C and 720 mm Hg, 17.2 g of N2O4 gas occupies
a volume of 11,450 cc. Assuming that the ideal gas law applies,
calculate the percentage dissociation of N2O4 to NO2?
N 2 O 4 2NO 2
(92)
(2 46)
Parameter
Pressure
720 mm Hg
760 mm Hg
Temperature
373 K
273 K
Volume
11,450 cc
PV T
Volume at standard condition = 1 1 0
P0 T1
720 273
= 11450
760 373
= 7939.2 cc
7939.2
= 0.354
22, 414
(0.187 + x) = 0.354
x = 0.167
0.167
Percentage dissociation =
100 = 89.42%
0.187
3.7
Volume % =
mole %
CO2
O2
N2
13.1
7.7
79.2
Total
100.0
Molecular
weight
g mole
44
32
28
0.131
0.077
0.792
0.131 44 = 5.764
0.077 32 = 2.464
0.792 28 = 22.176
1.000
30.404
Weight, g
IDEAL GASES
3.8
41
Weight %
Molecular weight
lb mole
Hydrogen
Oxygen
0.111
0.889
2
32
0.111/2 = 0.0555
0.889/32 = 0.0278
Total
0.0833 lb moles
Temperature = 30 C = 86 F = 546 R
Volume of the gas at the given condition = 0.0833 359 (29.92/29)
(546/492) = 34.24 ft3
Density = (1/34.24) = 0.0292 lb/ft3
3.9
Volume % = mole %
Molecular weight
Weight, g
Oxygen
Nitrogen
0.21
0.79
32
28
6.72
22.12
Total
28.84 g
530 760
= 24.8 litres
Volume of air = 1 22.414
492 741
28.84
Density of air =
= 1.162 g/litre
24.8
42
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
0.26 492
1.00 710
= 180.169 ft3
180.169
lb moles of H2 =
= 0.502 lb moles
359
0.502
= 0.138
3.648
0.26
= 0.138
(c) Pressure fraction of hydrogen =
1.89
1.89 492
138
= 0.138
1000
Thus volume % = pressure % = mole %
0.32
= 0.169
189
Molecular
weight
Hydrogen
2
Nitrogen
28
Carbon dioxide 44
Total
mole %
13.8
16.9
69.3
100.0
1.31
= 0.693
1.89
0.26
= 0.138
1.89
lb mole
Weight, lb
Weight %
3550.0
0.78
13.33
85.89
100.00
IDEAL GASES
43
3550
(h) Average molecular weight =
= 35.5
100
492 1.89
1309.7
= 3.648 lb moles 3.648 35.5
359
= 129.55 lb.
= 1309.7 ft3
\
129.55
Density =
= 0.09892 lb/ft3
1309.7
Moles:
y
y
CxHy + x O2 xCO2 + H2O
2
4
y
y
x
1
x
2
4
2
Reactants (1 + x + y /4) 600 6
=
=
=
Products
( x + y /2)
700 7
7y
7 + 7x + = 6x + 3y
4
44
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
7y
3 y = 7
(7x 6x) +
4
5y
= 7
4
Since the hydrocarbon has carbon atoms less than 5, we have x < 5;
solving above equation assuming carbon atoms as 1, 2, up to 5 we get
the values of y as indicated below:
x = 1;
5y
= 8;
4
y=
32
5
x = 2;
5y
= 9;
4
y=
36
5
x = 3;
5y
= 10;
4
y=
40
=8
5
5y
44
= 11
y=
4
5
The value of y is to be an integer.
x=4
Water
273 743
This 100 g moles of entering gas 61% of gases leaving.
740 273
= 4950.7 litres
IDEAL GASES
(a)
45
(b)
3.13 How many g moles of nitrogen will occupy 1000 m3 at 112 103
N/m2 and 400 K
PV = nRT, where R = 8.314 J/g mole K = 8.314 (Pa) (m3)/g mole K
n=
PV
112 103 1000
=
= 33,678 g moles
RT
8.314 400
Alternatively,
P1 = 1.01325 105 N/m2
T1 = 273 K
since
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1
T2
V1 (at NTP) =
112 t 10 3 t 1000
273
= 754.4 m3
t
5
400
1.01325 t 10
22.414
(Error is due to the fact that T1 is taken as 273 K and not as 273.16 K
on taking T1 as 273.16 K the g moles of nitrogen will be 33,677)
3.14 In the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, a gas is obtained that
contains 25% HCl and 75% air by volume. This gas is passed through
an absorption system in which 98% of the HCl is removed. The gas
enters the system at 48.8 C and 743 mm Hg and leaves at 26.7 C
and 738 mm Hg. Applying the pure component volume method,
calculate:
(a) The volume of gas leaving per 1000 litres entering the absorption
column.
(b) The weight of HCl removed per 100 litres entering.
Basis: In 100 litres of entering gas volume of air = 75 litres
Pure component volume of HCl = 25 litres
Pure component volume of HCl absorbed = (25 0.98) = 24.5 litres
46
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Entering condition
Leaving condition
Pressure
743 mm Hg
738 mm Hg
Temperature
48.8 C
26.7 C
Volume
75.5 litres
743 299.7
= 70.8 lit.
738 321.8
Litre
HCl
0.5
0.66
Air
75.0
99.34
Total:
75.5
100.00
Component
(b) Composition:
743 492
= 20.3 litres
760 580
20.3
36.5 = 33.057 g.
22.414
3.15 Absorbing chlorine in milk of lime produces calcium hypochlorite. A
gas produced by the Deacon process enters the absorption apparatus at
740 mm Hg and 75 F. The partial pressure of Cl2 is 59 mm Hg and
the remainder being inert gas. The gas leaves at 80 F and 743 mm Hg
with Cl2 having a partial pressure of 0.5 mm Hg. Calculate, by
applying the partial pressure method:
742.5
297
= 92.5 litres
IDEAL GASES
47
59 mm Hg
297 K
100 litres
760 mm Hg
273 K
?
760 297
Volume at standard condition of Cl2 leaving
= 100
0.5
273
= 0.055 litre
760 299.7
Volume at standard condition of Cl2 absorbed
= 7.14 0.055 = 7.085 litres
= 92.5
7.285
71 = 22.45 g.
22.414
3.16 Nitric acid is produced by the oxidation of ammonia with air. In the
first step of the process, ammonia and air are mixed together and
passed over a catalyst at 700 C. The following reaction takes place.
4NH3 + 5O2 6H2O + 4NO. The gases from this process are passed
into towers where they are cooled and the oxidation is completed
according to the reactions:
2NO + O2 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
The NO liberated is re-oxidized in part and forms more nitric acid in
successive repetitions of the above reactions. The ammonia and the air
enter the process at 20 C and 755 mm Hg. The air is present in such
proportion that the oxygen will be 20% in excess of that required
for complete oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid. The gases leave
the catalyst at 700 C and 743 mm Hg. Given the overall reaction:
2NO + 1.5O2 + H2O 2HNO3, calculate the following:
(a) The volume of air to be used per 100 litres of NH3 entering the process
(b) The composition of gases entering the catalyzer
(c) The composition of gases leaving (assuming the reaction in
catalyzer is 85%)
48
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
(d) The volume of gases leaving the catalyzer for 100 litres ammonia
entering
(e) Weight of acid produced per 100 litres NH3, assuming 90% of the
nitric oxide entering the tower is oxidized to acid.
NH3
Air
Exit gas
Catalyzer
Absorber
HNO3
293 760
= 276.4 litres
273 755
293 760
= 24.2 litres
273 755
276.4 100
= 1142.2 litres
24.2
(b)
g mole
mole % = volume %
NH3
1.00
8.0
O2
2.40
19.3
N2
9.02
72.7
12.42
100.0
Component
Total
IDEAL GASES
49
6
= 1.275 g moles
4
Component
N2
O2
NH3
NO
H2O
Total
g moles
9.02
1.34
0.15
0.85
1.275
12.635
1.20
6.70
10.10
100.000
273 243
This is the volume of gases leaving for 24.2 litres of ammonia
entering
= 12.635 22.414
298
2 168000
= 1135 kg of hydrogen
296
50
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
10 1
H2 initially present in the cylinder (10 m3) = (1)
1 22.414
= 0.45 kmole
(by reducing to NTP condition)
1 2
= 0.09 kmole
H2 after use =
22.414 1
1135
= 567.5 kmoles
H2 needed = 1135 kg =
2
567.5
= 1577
Cylinders required per week =
0.36
3.18 A mixture of toluene and air is passed through a cooler where some
toluene is condensed. 1000 ft3 of gases enter the cooler per hour at
100 C and 100 mm Hg (gauge). The partial pressure of toluene is
300 mm Hg. 740 ft3 of gases leave cooler per hour at 40 mm Hg and
50 C. Calculate the weight of toluene condensed per hour. Vapour
pressure of toluene at 50 C = 90 mm Hg.
Basis: One hour
100 mm Hg (gauge) = 860 mm Hg (abs.)
300
3
Toluene entering = 1000
= 348.8 ft
860
348.8 860 273
Weight =
92 = 74 lb.
Weight =
92 = 19 lb.
359 760 323
51
IDEAL GASES
359 960
50
760
750
44
28
32
28
Total
Weight, kmole
9.5
0.2
9.6
80.7
(9.5
(0.2
(9.6
(80.7
Weight, kg
100.0
44)
28)
32)
28)
Weight %
= 418.0
=
5.6
= 307.2
= 2259.6
13.978
0.187
10.273
75.562
2990.4
100.000
0.5
= 0.01672 kmole
29.904
1.202
= 0.925
1.300
52
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
3.21 A producer gas has the following composition CO2 : 4.4%, CO : 23%,
O2 : 2.6% and N2 : 70%. Calculate the following:
(a) volume of air at 25 C and 750 mm Hg required for the
combustion of 100 m3 of gas at the same condition if 25% excess
air is used
(b) the composition and volume of gases leaving the burner at 350 C
and 750 mm Hg per 100 m3 of gas burnt.
Basis: 100 kmoles of producer gas.
CO = 23 kmoles
O2 needed = 23/2 = 11.5 kmole; O2 in feed = 2.6 kmoles
O2 actually needed = (11.5 2.6) = 8.9 kmoles
8.9 1.25
= 52.98 kmoles
0.21
O2 supplied = 52.98 0.21 = 11.125 kmoles
N2 in air = 52.98 0.79 = 41.85 kmoles
Air supplied =
298 760
298 760
1313.43 100
= 52.98 m3
2479.28
273 750
= 7332.92 m3
7332.92 100
= 295.76 m3
2479.28
53
IDEAL GASES
3.22 Natural gas has the following composition: CH4 : 94.1%, C2H6 : 3%
and N2 : 2.9%. This gas is piped from the well at 80F and 80 psi.
Calculate the following.
(a) Partial pressure of N2
(b) Pure component volume of N2 per 100 ft3 of the gas
(c) Density
Basis: 100 ft3 of the natural gas
80 2.9
= 2.32 psia.
100
(b) Pure component volume of N2 = 0.029 100 = 2.9 ft3
80 492
(c) Volume of gas at NTP = 100
= 497 ft3
14.67 540
497
= 1.38 lb moles.
359
lb mole
Weight, lb
Component
mole %
CH4
C2H6
N2
94.1
3.0
2.9
Total
100.0
1.380
23.157
23.157
Density of gas =
= 0.23157 lb/ft3
100
23.157
Density at standard condition =
= 0.0466 lb/ft3
497
3.23 Compare pressures given by the ideal gas and van der Waals equation
for 1 mole of CO2 occupying a volume of (381 106) m3 at 40 C
RT
= 6.831 106 N/m2
nV
where, R = 8.314 N.m/g mole K (J/g mole K); T = 313 K;
V = 381 106 m3
a
54
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
P =
8.314 t 313
0.3646
6
5
6 2
4.28 t 10 (381 t 10 )
381 t 10
P=
( P2V2 )
; T2
T2
( P2T1 )
P1
(64.67 460)
49.67
600 R
Temperature = 140 F
1 30
= 1.3 103 g/cc
22414
1 28.84
= 1.29 103 g/cc
22414
3.27 Acetylene gas is produced according to the reaction
Density of air =
Basis: 1 lb of CaC2 =
64
36
26
74
535 760
Volume of acetylene got = 0.0156 359
= 6.24 ft3
492 743
6.24
Time of burning =
= 3.12 h.
2
IDEAL GASES
55
1
= 0.0156 kmole.
64
298 760
= 392.6 litres.
Volume of C2H2 = 0.0156 22414
273 740
392.6
Time of burning =
= 9.8 h.
40
Molecular
weight
Weight, g
Weight,
g mole
Volume %
= mole %
Cl2
Br2
O2
71
160
32
67
28
5
(67/71) = 0.945
(28/160) = 0.175
(5/32) = 0.156
74.0
13.7
12.3
Total
100
1.276
100
298 760
(b) Volume of gases = 1.276 22.414
= 32 litres
273 740
100
= 3.12 g/litre
Density =
32
298 760
Alternatively, volume of air at 25 C and 740 mm Hg
760 298
= 22.414
= 25.13 litres
740 273
56
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
28.84
= 1.15 g/litre
25.13
3.12
Specific gravity of gas mixture =
= 2.7
1.15
3.29 A mixture of NH3 and air at 730 mm Hg and 30 C contains 5.1 NH3
by volume. This gas is passed at a rate of 100 ft3/min. through an
absorption tower in which NH3 is removed. The gases leave the tower
at 725 mm Hg and 20 C having 0.05% NH3 by volume. Calculate:
Density of air =
725 303
92.4
Volume of exit gas =
= 92.447 ft3/min.
0.9995
730 293
= 0.0482 ft3
(b) Volume of NH3 absorbed = (5.1 0.0482) = 5.0518 ft3
730 273
Volume of NH3 absorbed at NTP = 5.0518
760 303
= 4.372 ft3
4.372
= 0.012 lb mole = 0.207020 lb
359
3.30 1000 ft3 of moist air at 740 mm Hg and 30 C contains water vapour
in such proportions that its partial pressure is 22 mm Hg. Without the
total pressure being changed, the temperature is reduced to 15 C and
some water condenses. After that the partial pressure of water is 12.7
mm Hg. Using partial pressure method, find the following:
Moles of NH3 =
IDEAL GASES
57
727.3 303
(12.7 mm, 15 C)
12.7 303
Volume of air leaving at inlet condition = 938
22 288
= 570 ft3
Volume of water vapour condensed = 1000 570 = 430 ft3
430 22 273
(b) Water condensed =
18 = 0.562 lb
492 750
58
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
100
Air supplied = 10.68
= 50.85 lb moles
21
530 760
Volume of air = 50.85 359
= 19,930 ft3
492 750
492 750
19930 100
= 50.85 ft3
39200
(c) CO2 leaving = (23 + 4.4)
= 27.40 lb
= 1.78 lb
O2 remaining = (10.68 8.9)
N2 leaving (from air) = (50.85 10.68) = 40.17 lb
= 70.00 lb
N2 entering along with feed
= 110.17 lb
N2 Total
Total
= 139.35 lb
Composition of
CO2
O2
N2
Volume %
19.66
1.28
79.06
moles
moles
moles
moles
moles
moles
750 492
1,09,218 100
= 278.6 ft3
39,200
3.32 A furnace is to be designed to burn coke at the rate of 200 lb/h having
a composition C : 89.1% and ash : 10.9%. The grate efficiency of the
furnace is such that 90% of the carbon present in the coke charged is
burnt. Air supplied is 30% in excess of that required for complete
combustion. It may be assumed that 97% of the carbon burnt is
oxidized to carbon dioxide and the rest to carbon monoxide.
(a) Calculate the composition of the flue gases.
(b) If the flue gases leave the furnace at 550 F and 743 mm Hg,
calculate the rate of flow of gases in ft3/min.
Basis: 100 lb of coke.
C + O2 CO2
C : 89.1 lb. Ash : 10.9 lb.
Carbon burnt = 89.1 0.9 = 80.19 lb
IDEAL GASES
59
= 9.65 lb moles
100
Air supplied = 9.65
= 45.96 lb moles
21
lb mole
mole %
CO2
6.48
14.07
CO
0.20
0.43
O2
3.07
6.67
N2
36.31
78.83
Total
46.06
100.00
760 1010
(b) Volume of flue gases = 46.06 359
= 34,722 ft3
743 492
60
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Arc
NO
2%
Cooler
NO2
26 C,
750 mm
Chamber
N 2O 4
Abs.
Col.
HNO3
% NO = 2 =
N2
O2
NO
78
20
2x
100
\x=1
(b) Reaction in cooler NO + O2 NO2
2 g moles of NO gives 2 g moles of NO2
O2 remaining = (20 1) = 19 g moles
Reaction in chamber is 2NO2 N2O4
66% of NO2 remains as N2O4
Moles of NO2 associated to N2O4 = (2 0.66) = 1.32
\
Total moles:
N 2O 4
O2
N2
Total
IDEAL GASES
61
0.68 750
= 5.188 mm Hg.
98.34
0.66 750
= 5.030 mm Hg.
98.34
(c) Combined N2: in NO2 0.68 g mole
Thus,
PV
RT
1000
750
=
760 (0.082)(299)
= 40.25 g moles
(0.68)
= 0.278 g mole
98.34
3 moles of NO2 yields 2 moles of HNO3.
2
\ 0.278 kmole of NO2 yields 0.278 0.85 = 0.158 kmole of HNO3
3
(85% conversion)
\
3.34 The gas leaving a gasoline stabilizer has the following analysis by volume
C3H8 : 8%, CH4 : 78%, C2H6 : 10% and C4H10 : 4%
This gas leaving at 90 oF and 16 psia at the rate of 70,000 ft3/h is fed
to gas reforming plant where the following reaction takes place.
CnH2n + 2 + nH2O nCO + (2n + 1)H2
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
(1)
(2)
Reaction (1) is 95% complete and Reaction (2) is 90% complete. Find
(a) Average molecular weight of the gas leaving stabilizer;
(b) weight of gas fed to reforming plant (lb/h) (c) weight of H2
leaving (lb/h) and (d) composition of gases leaving (weight %)
Basis: One hour = 70,000 ft3 of gas.
492 16
Volume of gas at NTP = 70,000
= 68,295 ft3
550 14.67
68,295
Moles of gas =
= 190.24 lb moles
359
62
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Components
Volume %
lb mole
Molecular weight
Weight, lb
C3H8
CH4
C2H6
C4H10
Total
8
15.22
44
669.68
78
148.39
16
2374.24
10
19.02
30
570.6
4
7.61
58
441.38
100
190.24
4055.9
4055.9
= 21.32
190.24
(b) C 3 H 8 + 3H 2 O 3CO + 7H 2
44
54
84
14
CH 4 + H 2 O CO + 3H 2
16
18
28
C 2 H 6 + 2H 2 O 2CO + 5H 2
30
36
56
10
C 4 H10 + 4H 2 O 4CO + 9H 2
58
72
112
18
= 547.92 lb
= 4,725.54 lb
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Total CO formed = (15.22 3) + 148.39 + (19.02 2) + (7.61 4)
= 262.53 lb moles.
H2O needed for forming CO = (262.53 18) = 4725.54 lb.
Weight of gas fed to reformer = [4055.9 + (4725.54 2)]
= 13,506.98 lb/h.
(c) Hydrogen formed:
From Reaction (1) (hydrocarbons undergo 95% conversion), we
have
(15.22 0.95 7) + (148.39 0.95 3) + (19.02 0.95 5) +
(7.61 0.95 9) = 679.535 lb moles
Total CO formed = (262.53 0.95) = 249.40 lb moles
Hydrogen from CO (90% conversion) = (249.40 0.90)
= 224.46 lb moles
\ Total hydrogen leaving reformer = (679.535 + 224.46) 2
= 1808 lb/h
63
IDEAL GASES
C3 H 8
CH4
C2 H 6
C4H10
CO
CO2
H2O
H2
15.22 0.05 44
148.39 0.05 16
19.0 0.05 30
7.61 0.05 58
249.4 0.1 28
249.4 0.9 44
262.53 0.05 18
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
H2O
1808.000 lb
33.484 lb
118.712 lb
28.530 lb
22.069 lb
698.320 lb
9876.240 lb
236.277 lb
(from Reaction 1)
685.260 lb
(from Reaction 2)
13,506.892 lb
Component
C 3H 8
CH4
C 2H 6
C4H10
CO
CO2
H 2O
H2
Weight, lb
33.484
118.712
28.53
22.069
698.32
9,876.24
921.537
Weight %
0.248
0.879
0.212
0.163
5.17
73.12
Total
1808 13,506.892
6.823 13.385
100.000
Molecular weight
Weight, kmole
Weight, kg
CH4
16
68
68 16 = 1,088
CO2
44
30
30 44 = 1,320
NH3
17
Total
100
2 17 =
34
2,442
2, 442
= 24.42
100
303 1
64
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
1081.2
Molar flow rate of gases =
= 48.24 kmoles/h
22.414
2442
= 2.26 kg/m3.
1081.2
3.36 In the process of manufacturing Cl2, HCl gas is oxidized with air as
follows:
= 1 kmole
O2 supplied
= 1.3 kmoles
N2 entering
79
= 1.3 = 4.89 kmoles
21
O2 remaining
mole
mole %
HCl
O2
N2
Cl2
0.80
0.50
4.89
1.60
10.27
6.42
62.77
20.54
Total
7.79
100.00
IDEAL GASES
0.05% NH3,
20 C
725 mm Hg
Abs.
Tower
100 m3/h,
30 C,
730 mm Hg
5.1% NH3
65
= 3.86 kmoles
NH3 entering = 3.86 0.051 = 0.197 kmole
Air entering = (3.86 0.197) = 3.663 kmoles
3.663 kmoles of air contains 0.05% NH3 while leaving the absorber
Therefore the total moles of gases leaving the absorber is
3.663
= 3.665 kmoles
0.9995
Hence, NH3 leaving the tower = 0.002 kmole.
725 273
3.38 The analysis of a flue gas, from a fuel gas containing no N2 has
CO2 : 4.62%, CO : 3.08%, O2 : 8.91% and N2 : 83.39%. Calculate
(a) kmole of dry air supplied per kmole of dry flue gas (b) % excess air
(c) analysis of the fuel gas which is a mixture of CH4 and C2H6.
Basis: 100 kmoles of dry flue gas.
83.39
= 105.56 kmoles (from nitrogen balance)
0.79
kmole of dry air/kmole of dry flue gas = 1.0556
CH4
C 2H6
Air
CO2
CO
O2
N2
Reactions are:
CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
C2H6 + 31/2O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
3.08
= 1.54 kmoles
2
66
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Weight, kmole
mole %
CH4
C2 H 6
5.3
1.2
81.54
18.46
Total
6.5
100.00
3.39 A furnace is fired with coke containing 90% carbon and 10% ash. The
ash pit residue after being washed with water analyze 10% carbon;
40% ash and rest water. The flue gas analysis shows CO2 : 14%,
CO : 1%, O2 : 6.4% and the rest N2
Calculate the following:
(a) Volume of flue gas produced at 750 mm Hg and 250 C per tonne
of coke charged.
(b) % Excess air used
(c) % Of carbon charged which is lost in the ash.
Basis: 100 kmoles of exit gas.
N2 = 100 (14 + 1 + 6.4) = 78.6 kmoles
From the foregoing, air supplied = 78.6/0.79 = 99.5 kmoles; O2 in air
supplied is = 20.9 kmoles
Furnace
Flue gas
Coke (F)
Ash (P)
(1)
IDEAL GASES
Ash balance:
0.1F = 0.4P
67
(2)
(i.e.) F = 4P
Substituting for (1) from (2), we get
(0.9 4P) = 180 + 0.1P
(3.6P 0.1P) = 180
180
= 51.43 kg (ash)
3.5
F = 205.72 kg (coke)
\ P=
2C + O2 2CO
C + O2 CO2;
CO + O2 CO2
Carbon lost in ash: 10% = 51.43 0.1 = 5.143 kg (for 205.72 kg of
coke fed)
O2 needed theoretically:
O2 supplied: 20.9 kmoles
O2 needed (theoretically):
Total Carbon fed = 205.72 0.9
= 185.148 kg
= 15.429 katoms
O2 needed for conversion of C to CO2 is 15.429 kmoles (by stoichiometry)
Excess O2 = 20.9 15.429 = 5.471 kmoles
5.471
100 = 35.46 %
(b) % Excess air =
15
68
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
750 273
3.40 Hot air is being used to dry a wet wallboard. The hot air enters the
drier at 768 mm Hg and 166.7 C. The partial pressure of water
vapour in this air is 25 mm Hg. At the exit partial pressure of water is
100 mm Hg. For a total pressure of 760 mm Hg at 111.1 C in this
process, calculate the volume of exit air per cubic metre of inlet gas.
Basis: 1 m3 of inlet air = 1000 litres = 106 cc
1 768 273
Moles of air entering =
= 0.02799 kmole
100
= 0.1316
768
moles of dry air entering = 0.02799 (1 0.0326)
= 0.02707 kmole
384.1
= 0.03063 22.414
273
= 0.9659 m3
3.41 Applying Ideal gas law find out the maximum temperature which
20 kg of CO2 enclosed in 20 m3 chamber may be heated to with
pressure not exceeding 20 bar.
20
= 0.454 kmole
44
Volume at standard conditions: 0.454 22.414 = 10.19 m3
IDEAL GASES
We know that
P1V1
T
1
69
P2V2
T
2
20
725
= 1.111 kmole = 20 kg of water
Amount of water =
22.414
3.43 A gaseous mixture has the following three components X, Y, Z and the
composition is as expressed below. Find the molecular weight of Y
component.
902.79
Component
mole %
Weight %
Molecular weight
Weight
35
85
35 85
20.0
40 M
25
60
25 60
Total
4475 + 40M
100
(35 85) (40 M ) (25 60)
70
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
3
Partial pressure of CO2 = 2 = 0.75 atm
8
1
Partial pressure of H2 = 2 = 0.25 atm
8
v T0 1
Number of moles of N2 = pN 2
T P0 22.414
100 273 1
= 1
= 2.88 kmoles
423 1 22.414
v T0 1
423 1 22.414
Weight,
kmoles
Molecular
weight
Weight,
kg
Weight
%
mole
%
N2
2.88
28
80.676
45.531
0.500
CO2
2.16
44
95.080
53.66
0.375
H2
0.72
1.441
0.81
0.125
Total
5.76
177.197
00.00
1.000
EXERCISES
3.1
IDEAL GASES
71
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Air contains 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume. Estimate its
density at 20 C and 741 mm Hg pressure.
3.8
3.9
: 15%
H2O
: 12%
72
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
O2
: 7%
CO
: 1%
IDEAL GASES
73
Vapour Pressure
4.1
or
d(ln p) =
74
VAPOUR PRESSURE
75
p l 1 1
ln = -
p0 R T0 T
or
p l 1 1
log =
p0 2.303 R T0 T
B
Antoine equation, log p* (mm Hg) = A
(where, p* is the
T +C
vapour pressure and A, B, C are constants)
Limitations:
(i) Applicable only in the range of applicability of A, B, C.
(ii) Pressures below 10 bar.
Temperature
WORKED EXAMPLES
4.1
76
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
At 20 C,
1
6845
1
2.303 1.99 273 293
p
log
185
1
6845
1
2.303 1.99 273 308
p
log
185
60
65
68
69
390
460
510
520
150
190
215
225
70
550
235
540
650
725
745
distillation
temperature,
69 C
785
p pW
pB
Vapour
pressure
Temperature
g water
g benzene
Vapour pressure of C6 H 6
Vapour pressure of water
2.31
0.1
78
18
10.01
520
225
2.31
VAPOUR PRESSURE
4.3
77
Weight of steam
kg of acid
4.4
18
0.0098
1840 kg
(b)
78
4.5
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Component
Benzene
(C6H6)
Toluene
(C7H8)
Xylene
(C8H10)
Mol.
wt
Vapour
pressure,
mm Hg
Weight
%
78
1340
35
35/78 = 0.449
0.401
0.673
92
560
40
40/92 = 0.435
0.388
0.272
106
210
25
25/106 = 0.236
0.211
0.211 210 = 44
0.055
100
1.12
1.000
797
1.000
Total
Weight,
kmole
Mole
fraction
in
liquid
phase
Partial
pressure,
mm Hg
Mole
fraction
in
vapour
phase
760
1030
0.74.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
4.7
79
69
70
75
80
85
90
95
99.2
780
915
1060
1225
1405
1577
1765
302
348
426
498
588
675
760
Assuming Raoults law is valid, use the above data to calculate for
each of the above temperature the mole percent x of hexane in the
liquid and the mole percent y of hexane in vapour at 760 mm Hg.
p A = xA P A ;
p B = xB P B ;
(xA + xB) = 1
where PA, PB are vapour pressures of hexane (A) and heptane (B)
respectively.
pA = yAP;
pB = yBP;
(yA + yB) = 1
pA + pB = P; xB = (1 xA )
(xAPA) + (1 xA)PB = P
xA(PA PB) = (P PB)
xA 760 + (1 xA)295 = 760
At 69 C, (Boiling point of hexane)
xA(760 295) = (760 295); \ xA = 1
760
=1
760
At 70 C xA (780 302) = (760 302); \ xA = 0.96
pA = (0.96 780) = 748.8; \ yA = 748.8/760 = 0.985
yA =
80
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
80
1340
100
2624
0.553 - 0.316
=
100 = 42.8%
0.553
4.9
Methane burns to form CO2 and water. If 1 lb mole is burnt with 10%
excess pure O2 and the resulting gas mixture is cooled and dried,
calculate (a) volume of dry exit gas at 70 F and 750 mm Hg.
(b) Partial pressure of O2 in exit (c) Weight of water removed.
Basis: 1 lb mole of methane.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
O2 supplied = 2 1.1 = 2.2 lb moles
Gases leaving after drying: CO2 : 1.0 lb mole; O2 : 0.2 lb mole.
530 760
(a) Volume of dry exit gas = 1.2 359
492 750
= 470.26 ft3
0.2 750
= 125 mm Hg
1.2
(c) Water removed = 2 lb moles = 36 lb
4.10 Bottled liquid gas is sold. Determine (a) the pressure of the system;
(b) vapour composition. The composition in mole % in liquid phase is
given as follows:
n-Butane : 50%, Propane : 45%, and Ethane : 5%
VAPOUR PRESSURE
81
Vapour pressure (in bar) at 30 C are n-butane: 3.4, propane: 10.8 and
ethane: 46.6
Gas
n-Butane
Propane
Ethane
Total
Mole %
Vapour pressure at 30 C (bar)
Partial pressure (bar)
50
3.4
1.70
(3.4 0.5)
19.12
45
10.8
4.86
(10.8 0.45)
54.67
5
46.6
2.33
(46.6 0.05)
26.21
100
Vapour composition %
8.89
100
= 40.87 kmoles
75
Benzene present originally = 40.87
= 4.087 kmoles
750
0.012
= 5 104 kmole/h
760 323
22.414
840 273
82
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
(N2 + CH3COCH3) =
0.023
= 9.09 104 kmole/h
1.013 308
22.414
1.013 273
n-butane
n-propane
Ethane
0.50
0.45
0.05
Compound
n-butane
n-propane
Ethane
Mole fraction, VP at 30 C,
x, in liquid phase mm Hg
0.50
0.45
0.05
3.4
10.8
46.6
Total
y (Mole fraction) =
19.12
54.67
26.21
8.89
100.00
Partial pressure
Total pressure
1.7
=
100 = 19.12 for n-butane
8.89
54.67 for n-propane
26.21 for ethane.
When ethane is removed, total moles will be 0.95 kmole.
Compound
Mole fraction, VP at 30 C,
x, in liquid phase mm Hg
3.4
10.8
25.91
74.09
6.904
100.00
VAPOUR PRESSURE
83
84
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
PB x B 960 t 0.655
= 0.827
PTot
760
PT xT 380 t 0.345
= 0.173
PTot
760
VAPOUR PRESSURE
85
4.18 Vapour pressure of benzene is 3 atm and that of toluene is 1.333 atm.
A liquid fuel containing 0.4 mole benzene and 0.6 mole toluene is
vaporized. Estimate the mole fraction of benzene in vapour phase.
Partial pressure of benzene = (3)(0.4)
= 1.2
= 2.0 atm
EXERCISES
4.1
4.2
Prepare a Cox chart for ethyl acetate. The vapour pressure of ethyl
acetate is 200 mm Hg abs. at 42 C and 5.0 atm at 126.0 C. By
using the chart estimate the boiling point of ethyl acetate at 760 mm
Hg and compare with the experimental value (77.1 C).
4.3
The following data gives the vapour pressure (VP) for benzene (A)
toluene (B) system. Compute the vapour-liquid equilibrium data at a
total pressure of 760 mm Hg.
VPA, 760 811 882 957 1037 1123 1214 1310 1412 1530 1625 1756
mm Hg
VPB,
mm Hg
4.4
4.5
452
494 538
585
635
689
747 760
The following data gives the vapour pressure data for a binary system.
Compute the VLE vapourliquid equilibrium data at a total pressure of
760 mm Hg.
Vapour pressure of A, mm Hg
760
860
1002
1160
1262
Vapour pressure of B, mm Hg
433
498
588
698
760
86
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
4.6
4.7
A liquefied fuel has the following analysis: C2H6 : 2%, n-C3H8 : 40%,
i-C4H10 : 7%, n-C4H10 : 47% and C5H12 : 4%. It is stored in cylinders
for sale. (a) Calculate the total pressure in cylinder at 21 C and the
composition of the vapour evolved. (b) Find the total pressure at 21 C
if all C2H6 were removed.
Vapour pressure data (mm Hg):
C2H6 : 28500, n-C3H8 : 6525, i-C4H10 : 2250, n-C4H10 : 1560 and
C5H12 : 430.
4.8
Calculate the total pressure and the composition of the vapours and
liquid in molar quantities at 100 C for a solution containing 45%
benzene, 40% toluene and 15% xylene by weight. At 100 C, the
vapour pressures are benzene (C6H6) (molecular weight: 78) : 1340
mm Hg; Toluene (C7H8) (molecular weight: 92) : 560 mm Hg, xylene
(C7H8) (molecular weight: 106) : 210 mm Hg.
4.9
Psychrometry
5.1 HUMIDITY
5.2 DEFINITIONS
Dry bulb temperature (DBT): The temperature measured by a bare
thermometer or thermocouple is called the dry bulb temperature.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT): The temperature measured by a
thermometer or thermocouple with a wet wick covering the bulb, under
equilibrium condition, is called the wet bulb temperature.
Absolute humidity (nv): The substance that is transferred (vapour) is
designated by A and the main gas phase is designated by B.
It is defined as the moles of vapour carried by unit mole of vapour
free gas.
[ nv ]
yA
yB
pA
pB
pv
p pv
moles of A
moles of B
(5.1)
M
[ nv ] A
MB
pv M A
p pv M B
87
mass of A
mass of B
(5.2)
88
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
pv
100
ps
(5.3)
nv
100
ns
(5.4)
(5.6)
(5.7)
PSYCHROMETRY
89
1 nv
105
tG + 273
22.414
1.013
+
vH =
273
M B M A
1 nv tG + 273
= (8315)
+
p
MB M A
(5.8)
90
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
where,
pv = Partial pressure of vapour
ps = Vapour pressure of pure liquid
Percentage saturation = yp =
nv
100
ns
where,
nv = moles of vapour per mole of vapour free gas actually present
ns = moles of vapour per mole of vapour free gas at saturation.
If p is the total pressure, then from Daltons law,
pv
nv =
,
p - pv
and
ps
ns =
p - ps
nv pv p - ps
=
ns ps p - pv
p - pv
yp = (yr)
p - pv
WORKED EXAMPLES
5.1
pA
p - pA
pA
1.0133 105 - pA
105
20.69 = 1.0133
1
p A
PSYCHROMETRY
91
103
103 = 37.88%
12.332
31.5C
CS = CB + CA nv
1.005 + 1.884 (0.03)
1.062 kJ/kg of dry air C
% R.H. = 4.672
1 nv tG 273
(a) vH = (8315)
M B M A pt
1 nv
(325)
= (8315)
18 1.0133 10
28.84
= 0.969 m3 mixture/kg of dry air
Alternatively,
(b) Specific volume of saturated air = 1.055 m3/kg of dry air
Specific volume of dry air = 0.91 m3/kg of dry air
By interpolation vH = 0.91 + (1.055 0.91)(0.35)
= 0.961 m3/kg of dry air
5.2
92
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
lb mole
Weight, lb
Ether
74
0.593
79.4
Nitrogen
28
0.407
20.6
1.000
55.3
100.0
Component
Total
Weight %
760 293
(c) Volume of gas mixture = 1 359
= 393 ft3
745 273
43.9
lb of vapour/ft3 =
= 0.112
393
43.9
= 3.85
(d) lb of vapour/lb of vapour free gas =
11.4
0.593
= 1.457
0.407
A mixture of acetone vapour and nitrogen contains 14.8% acetone by
volume. Calculate yr and yp at 20 C and 745 mm Hg
184.8
745
ns =
560.2
745
yp =
nv
ns
0.248
= 0.329
0.752
0.174
= 52.9%
0.329
Always yr > yp
PSYCHROMETRY
5.4
93
Moist air is found to contain 8.1 grains of water vapour per ft3 at
30 C. Calculate the temperature to which it must be heated in order
that its relative saturation will be 15% (7000 grains = 1 lb)
Basis: 1 ft3 of water vapourair mixture
8.1
= 1.16 103 lb 6.42 105 lb moles
7000
Pure component volume of water at 30 C
Amount of water =
303
= 6.42 105 359
= 0.0256 ft3
273
0.0256
Partial pressure of water vapour = 760
= 19.4 mm Hg
1.00
19.4
= 130 mm Hg
0.15
This corresponds to a temperature of 57 C.
5.5
A stream of gas at 70 F and 14.3 psi and 50% saturated with water
vapour is passed through a drying tower, where 90% of water vapour
is removed. Calculate the pound of water removed per 1000 ft3 of
entering gas. Vapour pressure of water at 70 F = 0.36 psi.
Basis: 1000 ft3 of entering gas 70 F and 14.3 psi
1000 14.3 492
lb mole of gas mixture =
14.3 0.36
94
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
PSYCHROMETRY
95
Basis: for (b), (c) and (d): 1 lb mole of N2 passing through evaporator.
(b) Moles of acetone evaporated = (0.328 0.183) = 0.145
(c) Total moles entering = (1 + 0.183) = 1.183 lb moles
760 303
760 303
Volume of gases leaving = 1.328 359
750 273
= 526 ft3
526 1000
= 1102 ft3
477
Initial humidity =
35 760
= 1810 mm Hg
14.7
9.2
Final humidity =
1810 - 9.2
96
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
= 2.56 lb moles
359 760 293
736
lb mole of dry air = 2.56
= 2.51 lb moles
750
lb mole of water vapour initially = (0.019 2.51)
= 0.0477 lb mole
lb mole of water finally = (0.0051 2.51) = 0.0127 lb mole
\ water condensed = 0.035 lb moles = 0.63 lb.
(d) Total moles finally present = (2.51 + 0.0127) lb moles
= 2.5227 lb moles
760 283
= 395 ft3
Volume of wet air = 2.5227 359
1810 273
5.9
89.1
= 2110 mm Hg
0.0422
= 40.8 psi.
5.10 Air at a temperature of 20 oC and 750 mm Hg has a relative humidity
of 80%. Calculate,
PSYCHROMETRY
97
pv
14
=
p - pv 750 - 14
ps
9.2
=
p - ps 2000 - 9.2
= 4.6 103 g mole of water vapour/g mole of dry air
(iii) Basis: 1000 litres of original wet air
1000 750 273
g mole of wet air =
98
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
0.09
Drier
Dried solid 0.5%
feed =
995
= 1184.5 kg
0.84
184.5
= 2636 kg/h
0.07
2636
Dry air needed =
= 91.40 kmoles
28.84
2636 0.02
= 2.93 kmoles
18
Total moles of wet air = 94.33 kmoles
301
= 2331.17 m3
Volume of wet air = 94.33 22.414
273
5.12 A tunnel drier is used to dry an organic paint. 1000 lb/h of feed
having 10% water is to be dried to 0.5%. Air is passed counter current
to the flow of paint. Air enters at 760 mm Hg. 140 F and 10%
humidity while it leaves at 750 mm Hg 95 F and 70% humidity.
What flow rate of air is needed?
Air 10%
Dry product 0.5%
Air 70%
Drier
1000 lb/h; 10% moisture
PSYCHROMETRY
99
600
Volumetric flow rate of air = (543.77 359)
492
= 2,38,065 ft3/h.
5.13 Air at 100 oF and 20% relative humidity is forced through a cooling
tower. The air leaves at 85 F and 70% relative humidity. Atmospheric
pressure is 29.48 inches of Hg. Calculate the following.
(a) The pounds of water evaporated per pound of dry air.
(b) Volume of air leaving per 1000 ft3 of entering air.
Vapour pressure of water at 100 F = 1.9325 inches of Hg and at 85F
= 0.8754 inches of Hg.
(a) Partial pressure of H2O in entering air = 1.9325 0.2
= 0.3865 inches of Hg
Partial pressure of H2O in exit air = 0.8754 0.7
= 0.6128 inches of Hg
(lb mole H2O/lb mole dry air) in entering air
=
0.3865
= 0.01328
29.48 0.3865
0.6128
= 0.02123
29.48 0.618
359 560
100
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
= 2.447
1.02123
= 2.466 lb moles of wet air leaves
1.01328
535
= 962.8 ft3
Volume of air leaving = 2.466 359
492
5.14 Leather containing 100% of its own weight of water is dried by means
of air. The dew point of entering air is 40 F while that of leaving air
is 55 F. If 2000 lb of wet air is forced through the drier per hour,
how many lb of water is removed per hour. Total pressure 750 mm Hg.
Vapour pressure of water at 40 F = 6.3 mm Hg
and at 55 F = 11 mm Hg.
Basis: One lb mole of dry air
Water in entering air
=
6.3
750 6.3
2000
Dry air entering per hour =
= 1989.52 lb
1.00527
PSYCHROMETRY
101
(a) How many ft3 of incoming gas must be admitted per hour to
obtain the required rate of evaporation of the acetone?
(b) How many ft3 of gases leave the unit per hour?
N2, Acetone 100 F 750 mm Hg
partial pressure of acetone 10 mm Hg
Drier
N2, Acetone
85F, 740 mm Hg
85% saturation
50
= 0.862 lb mole
58
750 10
N2 in entering mixture =
100 = 98.67 lb moles
750
pv
yp = 0.85 =
740 pv
287
740 287
where
yp (percentage saturation) = 85%
pv (partial pressure)
= 258 mm Hg
258
740 258
= 0.5385
0.862
= 1.642 lb mole
0.525
Total moles of gas entering = 1.642 1.0135 = 1.664 lb moles
lb mole N2 needed/h =
560 760
102
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
492 740
= 1031.6 ft3
5.16 By adsorption in silica gel you are able to remove all the weight
(0.93 kg) of water from moist air at 15 C and 98.6 kPa. The same
air measures 1000 m3 at 20C and 108 kPa when dry. What was
the relative humidity of the air?
22.414
0.93
= 0.052 kmole
Water removed: 0.93 kg =
18
44.947
pv
0.114
, yr =
100 = 5.7%,
2
ps
5.17 At 297 K and 1 bar, the mixture of N2 and C6H6 has a relative
humidity of 60%. It is desired to recover 90% C6H6 present by
cooling to 283 K and compressing to a suitable pressure. What is the
pressure to which the mixture should be pressurised? Vapour pressures
of benzene at 283 K and 297 K are 6 kN/m2 and 12.2 kN/m2
respectively.
Relative humidity = 0.6 = Partial pressure/Vapour pressure
Partial pressure =
Humidity =
12.2 60 10 3
= 7.32 103 N/m2
100
7.32 10 3
101.3 10 7.32 10
3
78
= 0.217 kg of w.v./kg of d.a.
28
6 10 3
PT 6 10
78
28
PSYCHROMETRY
103
5.18 Humid air at 75 C, 1.1 bar and 30% relative humidity is fed at a rate
of 1000 m3/h. Determine the molar flow rates of water and dry air
entering the process, molar humidity, absolute humidity, percentage
humidity and dew point.
Vapor pressure at 75 C = 289 mm Hg
Partial pressure of water vapour
= Vapour pressure of water Relative humidity
= 86.7 mm Hg
Total pressure = 1.1 bar = 1.1 105 N/m2
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 1.013 105 N/m2
Therefore, 1.1 bar = 825.36 mm Hg
Mole fraction of water vapour = (86.7/825.36) = 0.105
Volumetric flow rate = 1000 m3/h at 75 C and 1.1 bar
1000 t 825 273
1
t
t
38 kmoles/h
348
760 22.414
100
= 21.7%
289 /(825 289)
Dew point = 49 C
5.19 A piece of wood entering furnace at 0.15 kg/s containing 60% moisture is
dried in a countercurrent dryer to give a fixed product containing 5%
moisture content. The air used is at 100 C and is having water vapour at
a partial pressure of 103 N/m2. The air leaves the dryer at 70% RH and at
40 C. Estimate the air required to remove the moisture. The vapour
pressure of water at 40 C = 7.4 103 N/m2
Water in incoming wood = 0.15 0.6 = 0.09 kg/s
Weight of dried wood = 0.15 0.4 = 0.06 kg/s
Weight of water in dried wood is 5%
0.06
= 0.0632 kg/s
0.95
Weight of water removed = 0.15 0.0632 = 0.0868 kg/s
104
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
103
1.013 10 5 103
18
28.84
= 0.00623 kg w.v./kg d.a.
= 9.97 103
Humidity of leaving air,
103
101.3 103 5.18 103
12.7
= 0.017
740
Therefore, mole fraction of dry air = 0.983
37.976
= 38.63 kmoles
0.983
PSYCHROMETRY
105
3
= 38.63 22.414
740 = 938.11 m /kg dry air
273
100
= 100000 s
0.001
100000
= 27.7 h
3600
5.22 Air containing 0.01 kg of water vapour per kg of dry air is passed
through a bed of silica gel to get air containing 0.001 kg of water
vapour per kg of dry air for a specific application. The column has
2.1 kg of silica gel initially and after 5 h of operation, the weight of
silica gel is found to be 2.2 kg. Calculate the flow rate of air both at
inlet and outlet.
2.2 2.1
= 0.02 kg/h
5
106
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
0.02
= 2.222 kg/h
0.009
i.e. the flow rate of dry air in kg/h = 2.222 kg/h
G =
EXERCISES
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
PSYCHROMETRY
107
5.9
= 1.70 kPa
108
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
5.14 The air supply for a drier has a dry-bulb temperature of 23 C and a
wet-bulb temperature of 16 C. It is heated to 85 C by heating coils
and introduced into the drier. In the drier, it cools along the adiabatic
cooling line and leaves the drier fully saturated.
(a) What is its humidity?
(b) What is the dew point of the initial air?
(c) How much water will be evaporated per 100 cubic metre of
entering air?
(d) How much heat is needed to heat 100 cubic metre air to 85 C?
(e) At what temperature does the air leave the drier?
5.15 A mixture of carbon disulphide vapour and air contains 23.3% carbon
disulphide (CS2) by volume. Calculate the relative saturation and
percent saturation of the mixture at 20 C and 740 mm Hg pressure.
Vapour pressure of CS2 at 20 C = 300 mm Hg
5.16 Air at 60 C and 745 mm Hg having a percent humidity of 10% is
supplied to a drier at the rate of 1100 m3/h. Water at the rate of
20 kg/h is to be removed from the wet material. The air leaves the
drier at 35 C and 742 mm Hg. Calculate (a) percent humidity of
leaving air and (b) volumetric flow rate of leaving air.
5.17 Air is available at a DBT of 310 K and a WBT of 305 K. Estimate
humidity, % saturation, dew point, humid volume and enthalpy using
humidity chart. Estimate humid volume and enthalpy using equations
and compare the results.
5.18 One thousand m3/min of methane saturated with water vapour at
1 atm, 49 C is cooled to 10 C, so that part of water vapour is
condensed. The mixture is then reheated to 24 C at 1 atm. What is
(a) the volumetric flow rate of leaving mixture, and (b) amount of
water condensed?
Data: Vapour pressure of water at 49 C, 24 C and 8 C are 100 mm
Hg, 27 mm Hg and 8 mm Hg respectively.
5.19 Air at a temperature of 30 C and pressure 760 mm Hg has a relative
humidity of 60%, calculate:
(a) The absolute humidity of air
(b) The humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to 20 C and
the pressure increased to 2600 mm Hg, condensing out some of
the water.
(c) The weight of water condensed from 1000 m3 of the original
wet air. VP of water at 30 C and 20 C are 32 mm Hg and
17.5 mm Hg respectively.
PSYCHROMETRY
109
110
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Crystallization
Crystallizer
Crystal, C kg/h
xC
: F kg/h
: E kg/h
: C kg/h
(6.1)
(6.2)
112
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
WORKED EXAMPLES
6.1
6.2
(1)
x = 129.03 kg
(2)
CRYSTALLIZATION
113
kg of NaNO3
kg of water
49
= 0.96
51
kg of NaNO3
at 40 C,
kg of water saturation
51.4
= 1.06
48.6
0.96
% saturation of given solution =
100 = 90.8%
1.06
6.4
114
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
0.39
K2Cr2O7 present then = 230
294 = 26.4 kg
1000
103.6
= 79.7%
130
A solution of sodium nitrate in water contains 100 g of salt per 1000 g of
water. Calculate the amount of ice formed in cooling 1000 g of this
solution to 15 C (solubility at 15 C = 6.2 g mole/1000 g H2O)
% Yield =
6.5
Na2CO3 balance = a
b
= 300 kg
286
121.5
180
100
700 286 230 121.5 = 630 kg
6.7
CRYSTALLIZATION
115
106
= 62.33 kg
286
= 86.88 kg
106
Discussion: In case (ii), water available in the salt is
180
= 54.68 kg
106
The additional water needed hence is 13.12 kg, thus making the total
water to 13.12 + 54.68 = 67.8 kg (which corresponds to solubility data)
32.2
6.8
116
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
10,000 kg/hr
Evaporator
Centrifuge
837.6 kg solution
198.7 kg
6% solution
Adhering
solution
+
crystal
Water
Drier
Dry crystal
361.7 kg
Tank
(100 + X) kg
0.57 wt. fr. of naphthalene
CRYSTALLIZATION
117
mole
Molecular
weight
Weight, kg
Weight
fraction
Naphthalene (C10H8)
0.12
128
15.4
0.183
Benzene (C6H6)
0.88
78
68.6
0.817
84.0
1.000
Total
322
119.4
a
b
322
119.4
118
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Water
20% NaCl
Evaporatorcrystallizer
Feed F
Basis: 1 h of operation
13,000 kg of salt with 20% brine
Weight of feed brine = 13,000 0.2 = 2,600
NaCl in this solution = 2,600 0.27 = 702
NaCl balance gives, 0.2F = (13,000 + 702)
\ Feed = 13,702/0.2 = 68,510 kg/h.
6.12 5000 kg of KCl are present in a saturated solution at 80 C. The
solution is cooled to 20 C in an open tank. The solubilities of KCl at
80 C and 20 C are 55 and 35 parts per 100 parts of water.
(a) Assuming water equal to 3% by weight of solution is lost by
evaporation, calculate the weight of crystals obtained.
(b) Calculate the yield of crystals neglecting loss of water by
evaporation; KCl crystallizes without any water of crystals.
3% Water
5000 kg KCl
80 C
Saturated
solution
Crystallizer
20 C
Saturated
solution
Crystal
CRYSTALLIZATION
119
100
= 36.37%
5000
6.13 A crystallizer is charged with 6,400 kg of an aqueous solution
containing 29.6% of anhydrous sodium sulphate. The solution is
cooled and 10% of the initial water is lost by evaporation.
Na2SO4.10H2O crystallizes out. If the mother liquor (after crystallization) is found to contain 18.3% Na2SO4, calculate the weight of the
mother liquor.
10% water
6,400 kg
Crystallizer
29.6%
18.3% Na2SO4
Mother liquor M
Na2SO4 10H2O
(142 + 180) = 322
322
100
322
= 4505.6 kg
6.14 What will be the yield of Glauber salt if pure 32% solution is cooled
to 20 C from hot condition? There is no loss of water. The solubility
of Na2SO4 in water at 20 C is 19.4 g per 100 g of water.
120
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Feed 32%
Crystallizer
Mother
Liquor, Y
Crystals, X
566.761
= 56.68%
1000
EXERCISES
6.1
6.2
6.3
CRYSTALLIZATION
121
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Mass Balance
This chapter deals with the mass balance both with and without chemical
reactions. The principles given in Chapter 2 still hold good. The application
of mass balance in unit operations and processes is illustrated through
worked examples and exercise problems.
WORKED EXAMPLES
7.1
cake = 78.68 kg
Evaporator
75% solids
MASS BALANCE
123
30,000
= 40,000 kg
0.75
Water evaporated/day = (1,00,000 40,000) = 60,000 kg
7.3
Drier
9% moisture
200 kg
Exit gas
from phosphate
reduction furnace
Air
Burner
CO2, O2,
CO, N2
Oxides of P
124
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
7.5
x = 4.7654 g moles
7.6
Drier
9% moisture
MASS BALANCE
125
552
= 606.6 kg
0.91
Water removed = 1200 606.6 = 593.4 kg
Weight of product =
Alternative method:
Water in feed = 1200 0.54 = 648 kg
Water in product = 606.6 0.09 = 54.6 kg
Water removed = 648 54.6 kg
= 593.4 kg
7.7
7.8
Exit (100 + x)
6% NH3
56
44
CaO got =
40.3
44
3780.8 56
= 2,117.3 kg
100
126
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
100
84.3
Exit stream =
98
142
(2 36.4)
2 36.4
(a) HCl formed = 1960
= 1221.6 kg
2 58.4
142
(b) Na2SO4 formed = 1960
= 2382.9 kg
2 58.4
40% acid formed = 1221.6/0.4 = 3054 kg
7.11 Dolomite chiefly a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates is
to be leached with concentrated H2SO4 to recover Mg as MgSO4. The
MASS BALANCE
127
rock analysis indicates 20% Ca, 10% Mg and 5% SiO2. After reaction
the soluble material is filtered off and the solid are washed and
discarded. Analysis of the sludge cake shows 50% moisture, 2% SiO2;
0.5% Mg and 1% Al. What fraction of Mg was extracted?
Basis: 100 g of dolomite
SiO2 is the tie element
5 g SiO2 2% sludge cake
5
= 250 g
0.02
0.5
= 1.25 g
Mg in sludge cake = 250
100
Mg extracted = (10 1.25) = 8.75 g
Fraction Mg extracted =
8.75
= 0.875
10
7.12 A certain soap contains 50% moisture on the wet basis when raw. The
moisture is reduced to 20% before the soap is pressed into cakes. How
many 300 g cakes can be pressed from 1 tonne of raw soap?
Basis: 1 tonne of raw soap = 1000 kg
Dry soap = 500 kg 80% after drying
\
500
= 625 kg
0.8
625
No. of cakes pressed =
= 2083
0.3
128
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
56
44
40.3
44
II
8,741.3 kg/h
z =
5,806.5 kg/h
Total
30,000.0 kg/h
MASS BALANCE
129
32
n CO ;
2
44
H 2 + O 2
2
16
nH O
2
18
0.07
= 0.814 (dry)
0.086
0.076
2
= 0.108 kmole
79
21
= 0.4063 kmole
0.108
= 0.5143 kmole
0.21
Exhaust gas contains CO2, N2 and O2
130
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Weight, kmole
CO2
O2
N2
0.0700
0.0710
0.6730
8.6
8.7
82.7
Total
0.8140
100.0
7.17 A company buys its paper from the manufacturer at the contract price
of ` 3/kg on a specification that the paper should not have more than
5% moisture. It is also agreed that the price can be suitably adjusted if
the moisture content differs from the specified value.
A shipment of 5,000 kg of paper was found to contain 7.86%
moisture. (a) Find the price to be paid to manufacturer as per contract.
(b) If it were agreed that the freight was to be borne by the company
and adjusted according to the moisture content, what would the
company pay to the manufacturer if the freight rate is ` 40/1000 kg of
dry paper.
Basis: 100 kg of 5% moist paper.
Dry paper 95 kg; moisture 5 kg
3
= ` 3.16
95
In the case of 5,000 kg paper with 7.86% moisture
MASS BALANCE
5% C2H4
Reactor
Gases
131
Ethylene, CO2,
O 2, N 2
pp.H2O 15.4 mm Hg
Absorber
95% air
Ethylene glycolwater
Reactions:
1. 2C 2 H 4 + O 2 2C 2 H 4 O
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
75
= 92 kmoles
0.81515
H 2O =
4
= 2 kmoles
2
C2H4 converted to C2H4O : 4 2 = 2 kmoles
132
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
moles
Weight %
(CH2OH)2
2.00
62
124.00
86.88
1.04
18
18.72
13.12
142.72
100.00
Ethylene glycol
(H2O)
Water
Total
3.04
7.19 The first step in the manufacture of H2SO4 from pyrites consists of
burning pyrites in air. The reactions taking place are:
FeS2 + 2.5O2 FeO + 2SO2
(1)
(2)
The flue gas analysis shows SO2 : 10.2%; O2 : 7.8%; N2 : 82% on dry
basis at 600 C and 780 mm Hg.
(a) In what ratio does the two reactions take place?
(b) How much excess air was fed if the reaction (2) is desired?
Basis: 100 kmoles of flue gas
SO2 : 10.2%; O2 : 7.8%; N2 : 82%
Let x kmole of FeS2 by reaction (1) and
y kmole of FeS2 by reaction (2) be reacted.
21
= 21.8 kmoles (using nitrogen balance)
79
O2 leaving = 7.8 kmoles; O2 used = 14 kmoles
(a) O2 fed = 82
(a)
(b)
x
y
0.1
= 0.02
5
5.5
= 14.025 moles
2
MASS BALANCE
133
Weight, g mole
C atom
CO2
C2 H 4
CO
H2
CH4
N2
9.2
0.4
20.9
15.6
1.9
52.0
9.2
0.8
20.9
1.9
0.4 3 = 1.2
20.9 0.5 = 10.45
15.6 0.5 = 7.8
1.9 2 = 3.8
Total
100.0
23.25
Reactions
C2H4 + 3O2
CO + 0.5O2
H2 + 0.5O2
CH4 + 2O2
2CO2 + 2H2O
CO2
H2 O
CO2 + 2H2O
134
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
100
% N2 from air = 52
= 22.3%
233
(1)
(2)
100
= 30%
12.3
100
= 4.9%
12.3
68
= 86 g moles; O2 = 18 g moles
0.79
12.3
= 0.143
86.0
12.3
= 6.15
2
MASS BALANCE
135
2.5 32
(1)
2 64
142
(2)
Cu 2 O + C 2Cu + CO
(3)
142
12
126
28
Crushing and
Flotation
Inert (2/3)
P1
Roaster
P2
Cu, CO
2
= 400 kg
3
Inert remaining = 200 kg = 0.333 P1 \ P1 = 600 kg
126
= 63 kg
142
7.23 Pyrites is roasted in producing SO2. The gases leaving the roaster have
a temperature of 500 C with composition SO2 : 9%, O2 : 8.6% and
N2 : 82.4%. Composition of pyrites by weight is Fe : 35%, S : 40%
and gangue 25%. Calculate for 100 kg of pyrites roasted.
136
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
FeS2 = 75 kg =
352
512
320
75
= 0.625 kmole
120
8
= 1.25 kmoles
4
SO2 = 1.25 kmoles 9% of exit gas.
1.25
= 13.89 kmoles
0.09
O2 in exit gas = 13.89 0.086 = 1.19 kmoles
11
= 1.72 kmoles
4
100
= 69.2%
1.72
1.19 1.72
= 13.86 kmoles
0.21
Volume of air supplied = 13.86 22.414 = 310.6 m3 at NTP.
773
= 881.5 m3
273
7.24 A fuel oil with the following composition C : 84%, H2 : 13%, O2 : 1%,
S : 1% and H2O : 1%; is burnt and the flue gas obtained gives the
following analysis: CO2 : 9.9%, CO : 1.6%, H2O : 10.75%, SO2 : 0.05%,
O2 : 3.7% and N2 : 74%. Calculate the % excess air used.
g atoms
O2 needed
Reaction
84
7.00
7.00
C + O2 CO2
H2
13
6.50
3.25
H2 + O2 H2O
0.03
0.03
S + O2 SO2
10.28
O2
0.03
H2O
0.06
0.03
10.25
MASS BALANCE
137
45.04
Air supplied =
= 57.02 g moles
0.79
S + 1.5O 2 SO 3
32
32
32
O2 needed
64
48
80
= 1.5 g mole
SO2
SO3
Weight, g mole
0.7
Mole %
8.28
3.55
O2
N2
7.70
Total
6.8
8.45
80.47
100.0
138
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
O2 = 0.65 0.5x
N2 = 6.8
Total = 8.45 0.5x
SO2 =
0.7 x
0.043
8.45 0.5 x
SO3
SO
2 exit
0.64
= 1.78
0.36
7.26 500 kg/h of pure sulphur is burnt with 20% excess air (based on S to
SO2) 5% S is oxidized to SO3 and rest to SO2. Find the exit gas
analysis.
500
Basis: 500 kg sulphur =
= 15.625 katoms
32
S + O 2 SO 2
32
32
64
S + 1.5 O 2 SO3
32
48
80
N2 entering = 18.75
SO2
SO3
O2
N2
Total
14.845
0.78
2.735
70.54
88.9
16.70
0.88
3.08
79.34
100.00
MASS BALANCE
139
12
56
32
88
12
40.3
32
2 44
Stack gas
Limestone
z coal
Burner
CaO Lime
y Air
12
2
140
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
44 187 0.81
12
= 555.4 kg of CO2
\ CO2 obtained from limestone = total CO2 CO2 from coal
= (1,073.6 555.4) = 518.2 kg
518.2
= 1,219.3 kg
0.425
56
Lime obtained from limestone = 518.2
= 659.5 kg
44
\ Limestone needed =
659.5
= 3.5
187
N2
O2
CO2
Hence, for 1 tonne or 1000 kg lime, the stack gas produced is 4,862.5 kg
7.29 A gas containing 80% ethane and 20% oxygen is burnt with 200%
excess air. 80% ethane goes to CO2; 10% to CO; and 10% remains
unburnt. Calculate the stack gas composition.
Basis: 100 g moles of gas
we have,
C2H6 : 80 g moles
O2 : 20 g moles
C2H6 + 3.5O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
C2H6 + 2.5O2 2CO + 3H2O
O2 needed = 80 3.5 = 280 g moles
O2 available in gas = 20 g moles
O2 theoretically needed = 260 g moles
200% excess oxygen is supplied
\ O2 supplied = (260 3) = 780 g moles
Total O2 available = 20 + 780 = 800 g moles
N2 entering = (780 79/21) = 2,934 g moles
CO2 formed = 80 0.8 2 = 128 g moles
CO formed = 80 0.1 2 = 16 g moles
MASS BALANCE
141
g moles
mole %
CO2
CO
O2
N2
H2O
C2H6
128
16
556
2,934
216
8
3.318
0.415
14.412
76.050
5.598
0.207
Total
3,858
100.000
7.30 Pure CO2 may be prepared by treating limestone with sulphuric acid. The
limestone used in the process contains CaCO3, MgCO3 and inert
compounds. The acid used contains 12% H2SO4 by weight. The residue
from the process had the following composition: CaSO4 : 8.56%,
MgSO4 : 5.23%, H2SO4 : 1.05%, Inert : 0.53%, CO2 : 0.12%, H2O : 84.51%.
During the process, the mass was warmed where CO2 and H2O got
removed. Calculate the following:
(a) The analysis of limestone
(b) The % excess acid used
(c) The weight and analysis of the material distilled from the reaction
mass per 1000 kg of limestone treated.
Basis: 100 kg of residue
Inert : 0.53 kg, CaSO4 : 8.56 kg, MgSO4 : 5.23 kg
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
100
98
136
44
18
98
120.3
44
18
100
= 6.3 kg of CaCO3
136
84.3
= 3.67 kg of MgCO3
120.3
142
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
CaCO3
MgCO3
Inert
Total
6.3
60
3.67
34.95
0.53
5.05
10.50
100.0
98
100
98
84.3
Total acid needed = 6.174 + 4.27 = 10.444 kg
10.444
100
84.3
18
18
100
84.3
H2O
CO2
1.694 kg
4.569 kg
27 % (weight %)
73 % (weight %)
47.56 mole %
52.44 mole %
Total
6.263 kg
100
100
100
= 596.5 kg
10.5
MASS BALANCE
143
12
2
Air supplied =
44
= 3.19kg = 17.41 wt %
12
18
= 0.63kg = 3.44 wt %
2
O2 remaining = (4.032 2.88) = 1.152 kg = 6.29 wt %
18.32 kg
100.00
7.32 A furnace using hydrocarbon fuel oil has a dry stack gas analysis as
follows:
CO2 : 10.2%, O2 : 8.3%, N2 : 81.5%; Find the following:
(a) % excess air used
(b) the composition of fuel oil in weight %
(c) m3 of air supplied/kg of fuel.
Basis: 100 kmoles dry stock gas
N2 in stack gas = 81.5 kmoles
Air supplied =
81.5
= 103.16 kmoles
0.79
O2 entering = 81.5
21
= 21.66 kmoles
79
144
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
y = 12.64 katoms
katom
Weight, kg
Weight %
C
H
10.20
12.64
122.40
12.64
90.64
9.36
135.04
100.00
Total
(c) Air supplied = 103.16 kmoles
22.414
135.04
7.33 The waste acid from a nitrating process contains 23% HNO3; 57%
H2SO4; 20% water. This acid is to be concentrated to 27% HNO3,
60% H2SO4 by addition of 93% H2SO4 and 90% HNO3. Calculate the
weight of acids needed to obtain 1000 kg of desired acid.
Basis: 1000 kg of desired acid
Let x kg be the weight of waste acid;
y kg be the weight of H2SO4 and
z kg be the weight of HNO3
Overall balance: x + y + z = 1000
Balance for H2SO4 gives, 0.57x + 0.93y = 1000 0.60 = 600
Balance for HNO3 gives, 0.23x + 0.9z = 1000 0.27 = 270
Solving, x = waste acid = 418 kg
y = con. H2SO4 = 390 kg
z = con. HNO3 = 192 kg
Total = 1,000 kg
MASS BALANCE
145
BaSO4 + IM + Na2CO3
(IM = infusible matter)
BaCO3 + Na2SO4 + IM
106
197
142
Na2SO4 = 27.7 kg
Weight of
BaSO4 reacted = 27.7
Na2CO3 reacted = 27.7
233
= 45.45 kg
142
106
= 20.68 kg
142
197
= 38.43 kg
142
BaSO4 initially present = (45.45 + 11.3) = 56.75 kg
Na2CO3 supplied = (20.68 + 20.35) = 41.03 kg
45.45
100 = 80%
(a) % conversion of BaSO4 to BaCO3 =
56.75
(b) Composition of original barites
BaSO4 = 56.75, IM = (40.65 38.43) = 2.22 kg
Also, total mass of products = total mass of reactants = 100 kg
Therefore, IM = 100 [56.75 + 41.03] = 2.22 kg
146
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
56.75
%BaSO4 =
100 = 96.24%
58.97
15.21
% excess =
100 = 58.9%
125.82
7.35 A fuel oil containing 88.2% C and 11.8% H2 is burnt with 20%
excess air. 95% of carbon is burnt to CO2 and the rest to CO. All the
Hydrogen is converted to water. Determine the orsat analysis of the
flue gas (dry flue gas).
Basis: 100 kg of fuel oil
Component
Weight, kg
kmole or katom
C
H2
88.2
11.8
7.35 katoms
5.90 kmoles
Total
100.0
C + O2 CO2
C + 0.5O2 CO
H2 + 0.5O2 H2O
95% C is converted to CO2 = 7.35 0.95 = 6.9825 katoms
Oxygen used for this reaction = 6.9825 kmole
5% C is converted to CO = (7.35 6.9825) = 0.3675 katoms
0.3675
= 0.18375 kmoles
2
Conversion of H2 to H2O = 5.9 kmoles
5.9
= 2.95
2
O2 needed (theoretically) = (7.35 + 2.95) = 10.3 kmoles
MASS BALANCE
147
CO2
6.9825
12.45
CO
O2
N2
0.3675
2.24375
46.50
56.0937
0.6600
4.00000
82.89
100.0000
Total
87.2
0.21 = 23.18 kmoles
0.79
Oxygen left = 1.40 kmoles
148
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
y
(i.e.) (a + b) = 11.33
4
SO2 : 0.45%
O2
N2
Converter
SO 2 + 0.5O 2 SO 3
x
gases leaving
(SO3 free basis)
x /2
SO2 (4 x)
O2 (13 x/2)
N2 83
Total
% SO2 in exit =
(100 1.5x)
4x
100 1.5 x
0.45
of exit gas.
100
MASS BALANCE
149
Molecular weight
CO
28.0
28
28 28 =
784
CO2
3.5
44
3.5 44 =
154
O2
0.5
32
0.5 32 =
16
N2
68.0
28
68 28 = 1,904
100.0
2,858
Component
Total
we have
CO + 0.5O2 CO2
Oxygen balance
O2 needed = 28 0.5 = 14 kmoles
O2 available in feed = 0.5 kmoles
Net O2 needed = 13.5 kmoles
O2 supplied = 13.5 1.2 = 16.2 kmoles
O2 consumed = 14 0.98 = 13.7 kmoles
O2 remaining = (16.2 + 0.5 13.7) = 3 kmoles
Carbon balance
CO2 formed = (28 0.98) = 27.44 kmoles
CO2 total = (27.44 + 3.5) = 30.94 kmoles
CO unreacted = (28 0.02) = 0.56 kmole
Nitrogen balance
79
= 60.9 kmoles
21
N2 in exit = (68 + 60.9) = 128.9 kmoles
Weight, kg
150
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Exit gas
kmole
Molecular
weight
mole % =
volume %
Weight,
kg
Weight %
CO2
30.94
44
18.93
1,359.0
26.60
CO
0.56
28
0.34
15.7
0.31
O2
3.00
32
1.84
96.0
1.88
N2
128.90
28
78.89
3,637.0
71.21
Total
163.40
100.00
5,107.7
100.00
100
= 178.7 kg
2,858
Feed
I Unit
Black
ash
Water
Residue x
II Unit
Na2CO3: 4%
Water solubles: 0.5%
Insoluble: 85%
Moisture: 10.5%
Na CO
2
Solution y
MASS BALANCE
151
7.6
100
= ` 10.88
0.6
= ` 0.63
100
Cost of 100 kg dry soap = (10.88 0.63) = ` 10.25 = cost of 105.25 kg
of wet soap
100
= ` 9.72
105.25
7.41 Phosphorus is prepared by heating in an electric furnace a thoroughly
mixed mass of calcium phosphate, sand and charcoal. It may be
assumed that in a charge the following conditions exist. The amount
of silica used is 10% in excess. Charcoal is 40% in excess of that
required to combine with P2O5 liberated, to form CO.
310
II
5C
(5 12)
(3 116)
142
+ P2 O 5 2P + 5CO
142
(2 31)
(5 28)
Weight,
kmole or katom
Mol.wt
or At.wt
Weight,
kg
Composition
in weight %
1.0
3.3
7.0
310
60
12
310
198
84
52.3
33.5
14.2
592
100.0
11.3
152
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
142
= 21.6 kg
310
62
= 6.6 kg
142
7.42 In the Deacon process for the manufacture of chlorine, a dry mixture
of HCl gas and air is passed over a hot catalyst, which promotes
oxidation of the acid. 30% excess air is used. Calculate the following.
(4 36.5) =146
O2
(2 16) = 32
2Cl 2
(2 71) =142
+ 2H 2 O
(2 18) = 36
Converter
N2
Cl2
HCl
O2
N2
H 2O
Gases
Weight, kg
Weight %
HCl
O2
N2
1.000
0.281
0.939
45.0
12.7
42.3
2.220
100.0
32
O2 remaining = 0.281 0.6
= 0.1495 kg
146
MASS BALANCE
153
142
= 0.585 kg
146
36
= 0.148 kg
H2O formed = 0.6
146
Gases
Weight, kg
Weight %
HCl
Cl2
O2
N2
H2O
0.4000
0.5850
0.1495
0.939
0.1480
18.0
26.33
6.73
42.27
6.66
2.2215
100.00
7.43 In the manufacture of H2SO4 by contact process, iron pyrites are burnt
in dry air. Iron is oxidized to Fe2O3. SO2 formed is further oxidized to
SO3 by passing the gases mixed with air over hot catalyst. Air
supplied is 40% in excess of the sulphur actually burnt to SO3. Of the
pyrites charged 15% is lost in grate and not burnt. Calculate the
following:
(a) Weight of air to be used/100 kg of pyrite charged
(b) In the burner 40% of S burnt is converted to SO3. Calculate the
composition (by weight %) of gases leaving I unit.
(c) The catalyst converts 96% of SO2 to SO3. Calculate the weight of
SO3 formed.
(d) Calculate the composition (by weight %) of gases leaving the II
unit.
(e) Calculate the overall degree of completion of sulphur to SO3
FeS2
Unit I
(Burner)
Air
SO3, SO2
O 2, N 2
Fe2O 3
FeS2
(5.5 32)
160
(2 32)
(4 80)
(4 64)
Unit II
(Converter)
Gases
154
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
(7.5 32)
(4 80)
160
320
= 45.3 kg
240
256
= 54.4 kg
240
32
240
32
240
= 71.4 kg
Weight, kg
Weight %
SO2
54.4
9.97
SO3
45.3
8.30
O2
47.6
8.72
N2
398.4
73.01
Total
545.7
100.00
320
256
2 32
= 13.05 kg
(d) O2 consumed = 54.4 0.96
4 64
MASS BALANCE
Weight, kg
Weight %
SO2
2.176
0.400
SO3
110.580
20.264
O2
34.550
6.332
N2
398.400
73.004
Total
545.706
100.000
Gases
155
64
= 53.3 kg
120
32
= 44.32 kg
80
100
= 83.4%
53.3
7.44 In the common process for the production of nitric acid sodium nitrate
is treated with 95% H2SO4. In order that the resulting niter cake may
be fluid, it is desirable to use excess acid, so that final cake contains
34% sulphuric acid. It may be assumed that the cake will contain
1.5% water and that the reaction will go to completion. 2% of HNO3
formed will remain in the cake.
(98)
(142)
(2 63)
142
= 83.5
170
126
= 74.0
170
kg
kg
98
= 57.65 kg
170
HNO3 remaining in cake = 74 0.02 = 1.48 kg
(H2SO4 + H2O)% in cake = (34 + 1.5) = 35.5%
156
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Weight, kg
Weight %
HNO3
Na2SO4
H2SO4
H2O
1.48
83.50
44.80
1.97
1.12
63.38
34.00
1.50
131.75
100.00
Total
Weight %
HNO3
H2O
72.64
3.42
95.50
4.50
Total
76.06
100.00
Components
MASS BALANCE
157
H 2O
Barites
(X)
Carbon
(CaS
impurity)
Reactions in (X):
Cake
Filter
Filtrate
106
= 7.96 kg
197.4
78
= 5.85 kg
197.4
\ Na2S formed along with CaCO3 = (6.85 5.85) = 1.00 kg
100
= 1.28 kg
78
CaCO3 impurity in soda ash = (1.63 1.28) = 0.35 kg
106
= 1.357 kg
100
Na2CO3 present in filtrate = 2.25 kg (2.25% in filtrate)
158
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
100
= 24.1%
9.317
169.4
= 12.72 kg
197.4
72
= 0.9216 kg
100
Components of original solution
Weight, kg
Weight %
BaS
CaS
Water
12.7200
0.9216
90.9000
12.17
0.82
87.01
Total
104.5416
100.00
Components
Weight, kg
Weight %
Na2CO3
CaCO3
11.567
0.350
97.06
2.94
Total
11.917
100.00
7.46 In the manufacture of straw pulp for the production of cheap straw
board paper, a certain amount of lime is carried into the beater. It is
proposed to neutralize this lime with acid of 67% H2SO4. In a beater
containing 5000 gallons of pulp it is found that there is lime
equivalent to 0.5 g of CaO per litre.
(a) Calculate the kmole of lime in the beater.
(b) Calculate kmole and kg of H2SO4 that must be added to beater in
order to provide an excess of 1% above needed to neutralize the
lime.
(c) Find the weight of acid.
(d) Find CaSO4 formed in kg (1 gallon = 4.4 litres).
MASS BALANCE
159
98
136
18
19.4432
= 29.02 kg
0.67
136
= 26,714 g = 26.714 kg
56
7.47 The available nitrogen content in a urea sample is 45%. Find the
actual urea content in the sample.
28
= 0.4666
60
100
= 96.43%
0.4666
7.48 Carbon tetrachloride is made as follows:
153.84
The product gases are found to contain CCl4 33.3%; S2Cl2 33.3%;
CS2 1.4% and Cl2 32%. Calculate the following:
(a) the percentage of the excess reactants used.
(b) the percentage conversion.
(c) kg of CCl4 produced per 100 kg Cl2 converted.
Basis: 100 kmoles of product gas
(a) CS2 reacted = 33.3 kmoles
CS2 remaining = 1.4 kmoles
CS2 taken = 34.7 kmoles
100
= 4.2%
33.3
CS2 is the limiting reactant and Cl2 is the excess reactant.
160
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
100
= 30.73%
104.1
(b) % Conversion:
CS2 = 33.3
100
= 95.97%
34.7
100
= 75.74%
131.9
(c) Cl2 reacted = 99.9 kmoles = 7084.91 kg
\ Cl2 = 99.9
7087.91
= 5122.87 kg CCl4
212.76
100
= 72.31 kg
7084.91
7.49 Limestone is a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates and
inert. Lime made by calcining the limestone by heating until the CO2
is driven off. When 100 kg of limestone is calcined 44 kg of CO2 is
obtained. If the limestone contains 10% inert, calculate the following:
(1)
CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2
100
56
44
MgCO3 MgO + CO 2
84.3
40.3
44
(2)
(3)
0.08y =
\ y = 55 kg MgCO3; x = 35 kg CaCO3
4.4
MASS BALANCE
161
12
32
56
88
12
32
40.3
88
88
= 3.08 kg
100
88
= 5.74 kg
84.3
8.82
= 0.2 kmole
44
Carbon present = 1.52 kg = 0.1266 k atom
Total
O2
CO2 = 8.82 kg =
79
= 0.9525 kmole
21
0.06
= 0.00333 kmole
18
Total CO2 in gases leaving
mole %
CO2
O2 (Excess)
N2
H2O
0.3266
0.1266
0.9525
0.0033
23.18
8.99
67.60
0.23
Total
1.4090
100.00
Gas
162
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
CO2 and H2O. Formation of CO2 is negligible. After the gases leave,
they are passed through an absorber in which the ethylene oxide is
removed. A typical orsat analysis of the gases leaving the absorber
is CO2 : 9.6%, O2 : 3%, C2H4 : 6.4% and N2 : 81%. Of the ethylene
entering the reactor, what percent is converted to oxide?
C 2H 4
Air
Reactor
CO2, O2,
N2
EO,
H 2O
Reactor
Exit Gases
CO2, O2, C2H4, N2
(a) the amount of salt crystallized out in the salt box of the
evaporator and
(b) the evaporation taken place in the system.
Basis: One hour
9.6
= 480 kg
100
Salt = 5,000 0.103 = 515 kg
Glycerol = 5,000
Water = 4,005 kg
MASS BALANCE
163
Entrained Vapour
5,000 kg/hr
Evaporator
Solution
Salt
\ Solution leaving =
N2 from air:
Exit gases
CO2
O2
N2
Total
g mole
mole %
7.5
16.8
1.875
4.2
35.27
79.0
44.645
100.0
7.53 Determine the weight of water removed while drying 1,000 kg of wet
substance from 35% to 5%.
Basis: 1,000 kg of wet material.
Dry material is the Tie element.
Moisture present is 1,000 0.35 = 350 kg
Dry material is 1,000 350 = 650 kg
164
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Solvent
Extraction unit
Extract E
Raffinate R
0.475
98
136
44
18
98
120.3
44
18
MASS BALANCE
165
680 44
= 299.2 kg
100
300 44
= 156.6 kg
84.3
Total weight of CO2 produced = 299.2 + 156.6 = 455.8 kg
Reaction (ii):
680 98
= 666.4 kg
100
300 98
= 348.8 kg
84.3
Total weight of H2SO4 required = 1,015.2 kg
Reaction (ii):
1,015.2
= 1,080 kg
Commercial acid required =
0.94
100
120.3
84.3
166
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Weight, g mole
Composition %
Wet basis
Dry basis
CH4
C2 H 6
CO2
CO
O2
N2
Total (dry)
H2O
7.0
2.0
89.1
9.9
415.9
2,257.0
2,780.9
180.0
0.236
0.067
3.010
0.334
14.049
76.224
6.080
Total (wet)
2,960.9
100.000
0.252
0.072
3.204
0.356
14.959
81.157
100.00
MASS BALANCE
167
7.334
Thus the exit gas moles is
= 54.73 kmoles
0.134
12
= 6 kmoles
2
Dry flue gas leaving is = 54.73 kmoles
7.58 Aviation gasoline is isooctane C8H18. It is burned with 20% excess air
and 30% of the carbon forms CO and rest goes to carbon dioxide.
What is the analysis of the exit gases (on dry basis)?
Basis: 1 kmole of the isooctane. The reactions that are taking place
are:
C8H18 + 8.5O2 8CO + 9H2O;
C8H18 + 12.5O2 8CO2 + 9H2O.
Oxygen required for complete combustion is 12.5 kmoles
Oxygen supplied is (12.5 1.2) = 15 kmoles
79
21
CO
O2
N2
Total
mole
5.6
2.4
3.7
56.43
68.13
mole %
8.22
3.52
5.43
82.83
100.0
Gases
168
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
3
1425
= 1283.9 m
303
1283.9
Amount of gases =
= 57.281 kmoles
22.414
= 0.84%.
Weight % of SO2 = 511
60,511
7.60 A pure gaseous hydrocarbon is burnt with excess air. The Orsat
analysis of the flue gas: CO2 : 10.2%, CO : 1%, O2 : 8.4% and rest
nitrogen. What is the atomic ratio of H to C in the fuel? Find the %
excess oxygen supplied.
Basis: 100 kmoles of the flue gases.
N2 in flue gas = 100 (10.2 + 1 + 8.4) = 80.4 kmoles
Let the hydrocarbon be CxHy.
Let a kmole of it get oxidized to CO2 and b kmole of it get oxidized
to CO.
The reactions are:
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 xCO2 + y/2H2O;
CxHy + (x/2 + y/4)O2 xCO + y/2H2O.
We also know that,
2C + O2 2CO
i.e. 2 kmoles of CO requires 1 kmole of O2.
\ 1 kmole of CO requires 0.5 kmole of O2 for conversion to CO2
\
21
79
MASS BALANCE
169
% excess air =
(1)
(2)
Substituting,
F = 100 kmoles/h, Xf = 0.4, XD = 0.95 and Xw = 0.1
100 = D + W
(3)
(4)
170
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Layer
Component
A
Top
10
05
60
25
Bottom
20
60
05
15
Estimate (i) the weight of each layer, (ii) weight of solvent, and
(iii) composition of C and D in solvent.
Basis: 100 kg of feed
Solvent
Feed
Extractor
y
Let the weight of top layer be x, and the weight of bottom layer be y
from the extractor.
Let the weight of solvent used be s
Total material balance gives
100 + s = x + y
(or)
s = [x + y] 100
Making component balance for A, we get
100(0.3) = x(0.1) + y(0.2)
30 = 0.1x + 0.2y
Similarly, making component balance for B, we get
100(0.7) = x(0.05) + y(0.6)
70 = (0.05)x + 0.6y
Solving, we get
x = 80 kg, and
y = 110 kg
Solvent used is
s = [x + y] 100
= 110 + 80 100 = 90 kg
Making a component balance for C and D
Weight of C = 80(0.6) + 110(0.05) = 48 + 5.5 = 53.5 kg
MASS BALANCE
171
xC =
172
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
y kmole
O2 : 21%
N2 : 79%
1 kmole
CO = 10%
CO2 = 50%
O2 = 5%
N2 = 35%
Mixer
(1 + y) kmole
N2 = 40%
Leaving stream:
Component
Weight, kmoles
mole %
CO
CO2
O2
N2
0.1
0.5
0.05 + 0.128 0.21 = 0.07688
0.35 + 0.128 0.79 = 0.45112
8.86
44.32
6.82
40.00
1.128
100.00
Total
Balance O2 = 10
2
x
2
Mole fraction of SO2 in the leaving stream = 0.005
= 100
MASS BALANCE
i.e.
173
5- x
= 0.005
x
2
Solving, we get
x = 4.511
100 -
4.511
100 = 90.22%
Fractional conversion of SO2 to SO3 =
5
Gas analysis:
Component
SO2
SO3
O2
N2
Total
Weight, kmoles
mole %
5 4.511 = 0.489
4.511
10 4.511/2 = 7.744
85.000
0.500
4.615
7.923
86.962
97.744
100.000
EXERCISES
7.1
The waste acid from a nitrating process contains 25% HNO3, 50%
H2SO4 and 25% water. This acid is to be concentrated to 30% HNO3,
60% H2SO4 by addition of 95.3% H2SO4 and 90% HNO3. Calculate
the weight of acids needed to obtain 10,000 kg of desired acid.
7.2
The gas obtained from a furnace fired with a hydrocarbon fuel oil
analyses
CO2: 10.2%, O2: 7.9%, N2: 81.9%.
Calculate: (a) percentage excess air, (b) C:H ratio in the fuel and
(c) kg of air supplied per kg of fuel burnt.
7.3
The flue gas from an industrial furnace has the following composition
by volume. CO2: 11.73%, CO: 0.2%, H2: 0.09% ,O2: 6.81% N2:
81.17%. Calculate the percentage excess air used, if the loss of carbon
in the clinker and the ash is 1% of the fuel used. The fuel gas has the
following composition by weight:
C: 74%, H2: 5%, O2: 5%, N2: 1%, H2O: 9% S: 1% and ash: 5%.
7.4
A fuel gas contains CO2: 2%, CO: 34%, H2: 41%, O2: 1%, C2H4: 7%,
CH4: 11% and rest N2. It is burnt with 25% excess air. Assuming
complete combustion, estimate the composition of leaving gases.
7.5
174
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
7.6
7.7
7.8
Thirty kilograms of coal analyzing 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen are
burnt with 600 kg of air yielding a gas having an orsat analysis in
which the ratio of CO2 to CO is 3 : 2. What is the percentage of
excess air?
7.9
7.10 Butane is burnt with 80% of the theoretical air. Calculate the analysis
of the gases leaving assuming that all H2 present is converted to water.
7.11 Determine the combustion gas analysis when a medium fuel oil with
84.9% carbon, 11.4% hydrogen, 3.2% sulphur, 0.4% oxygen and 0.1%
ash by weight is burnt with 25% excess air. Assume complete
combustion.
7.12 A synthetic fuel oil is known to contain only H and C, gives on
combustion an Orsat analysis of CO2: 2%, O2: 2.8% and N2: 80.6%.
Calculate the C:H ratio in the fuel.
7.13 A low grade pyrites containing 32% sulphur is mixed with 10 kg of
pure sulphur per 100 kg of pyrites so that the mixture will burn
readily forming a burner gas that analyzes 13.4% SO2, 2.7% O2 and
83.9% N2. No sulphur is left in the cinder. Calculate the % of sulphur
fired that burnt to SO3.
7.14 A mixture containing 20 mole % butane, 35 mole % pentane and rest
hexane, is to be separated by fractional distillation into a distillate
containing 95 mole % butane, 4 mole % pentane and rest hexane and
a bottom product. The distillate is expected to contain 90% of the
butane in the feed. Calculate the composition of the bottom product.
7.15 Gypsum (plaster of Paris: CaSO4 2H2O) is produced by the reaction
of calcium carbonate and sulphuric acid. A certain limestone analyzes:
CaCO3 : 96.89%, MgCO3 : 1.41% and inerts : 1.70%. For 5 metric
tonne of limestone reacted completely, determine:
MASS BALANCE
175
176
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Feed
Vapour
Liquid
C4H10
20
71.2
8.6
C5H12
30
23.8
C6H14
50
4.8
Estimate the flow rates of liquid and vapour stream for a feed rate of
100 kg/h. Also, evaluate the composition of other two components in
liquid phase.
MASS BALANCE
177
7.26 The petrol used for petrol engine contains 84% carbon and 16%
hydrogen. The air supplied is 80% of that required theoretically for
complete combustion. Assuming that all the hydrogen is burnt and that
carbon is partly burnt to CO and to CO2 without any free carbon
remaining, find the volumetric analysis of the dry exhaust gas.
7.27 Producer gases are produced by burning coke with a restricted supply
of air so that more CO is produced than CO2. The producer is
producing gas having CO:CO2 mole ratio as 5:1 from a coke
containing 80% carbon and 20% ash. The solid residue after
combustion carries with it 2% unburnt carbon. Calculate:
(a) moles of gas produced per 100 kg of coke burnt,
(b) moles of air supplied per 100 kg of coke burnt, and
(c) percentage of carbon lost in the ash
7.28 A furnace uses coke containing 80% carbon and 0.5% hydrogen and
the rest ash. The furnace operates with 50% excess air. The ash
contains 2% unburnt carbon. Of the carbon burnt 5% goes to form
CO. Calculate,
(a) the composition of the flue gas,
(b) the ash produced, and
(c) the carbon lost per 100 kg of coke burnt.
7.29 A petroleum refinery burns a gaseous mixture containing
C5H12 : 7%
C4H10 : 10%
C3H8 : 16%
C2H6 : 9%
CH4 : 55%
N2 : 3%
at rate of 200 m3/h measured at 4.5 bars and 30 C. Air flow rate is so
adjusted that 15% excess air is used and under these conditions the
ratio of moles of CO2: moles of CO in the flue gas is 20:1. Calculate
(a) m3/h of air being introduced at 1 atm and 30 C, and
(b) the composition of the flue gas on dry basis.
7.30 The off gas from a phosphate reduction furnace analyses
P4 : 8%
CO : 89%
N2 : 3%
178
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
and is burnt with air under the conditions such that phosphorus is
selectively oxidized. From the flue gas analysis, the oxides of
phosphorus precipitate on cooling and are separated from the
remaining gas. Analysis of the latter shows that:
CO2 : 0.9%
CO : 22.5%
N2 : 68%
O2 : 8.6%
It may be assumed that oxidation of phosphorus is complete and
phosphorus exists in the flue gas partly as P4O6 and partly as P4O10.
Calculate what % of CO entering the burner is oxidized to CO2, and
what % of P4 is oxidized to P4O10?
7.31 Determine the flue gas analysis, airfuel ratio by weight, and the
volume of the combustion products at 250 C, when the coal refuse of
the following composition burns with 50% excess air:
Proximate analysis
Moisture
Ash
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Air dried %
8
20
28.5
43.5
Ultimate analysis
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Air dried %
81.0
4.6
1.8
0.6
Balance is oxygen
If the rate of burning of coal is 3 tonnes/h, what is the capacity of the
air blower used? Assume complete combustion.
7.32 Determine the flue gas analysis and the airfuel ratio by weight when
a medium viscosity of fueloil with 84.9% C, 11.4% H2, 3.2% S,
0.4% O2 and 0.1% ash is burnt with 20% excess air. Assume complete
combustion.
7.33 A furnace burns producer gas with 10% excess air at a rate of 7200
Nm3/h and discharges flue gases at 400 C and 760 mm Hg. Calculate
the flue gas analysis, air requirement, and the volume of flue gases
per hour. The gas is supplied from the gas holder and its orsat analysis
is as follows:
MASS BALANCE
179
CO2 : 4%
CO : 29%
N2 : 52.4%
H2 : 12%
CH4 : 2.6%
Normal temperature = 30 C. Assume complete combustion.
7.34 The following is the ultimate analysis of a sample of petrol by weight:
C
H2
85%
15%
Volume %
11.5
0.9
1.2
86
RECYCLE
8.2 BYPASS
Bypassing of a fluid stream is dividing it into two streams, and is often used
in industries to have a closer control in operation. This is done if there is a
sudden change in the property of a fluid stream like excessive heating
(or cooling) as it passes through a preheater (cooler) before entering another
unit. In such cases this conditioned stream is mixed with a portion stream at
its original condition and then used in the process. This is called bypassing
operation.
8.3 PURGE
One of the major problems encountered during recycling is the gradual
increase in the concentration of inert or impurities in the system. A stage
may reach when the concentration of these components may cross
permissible levels. By bleeding off a fraction of the recycle stream, this
problem can be overcome. This operation is known as purging. This is quite
common in the synthesis of ammonia and electrolytic refining of copper.
The above (8.1, 8.2, and 8.3) definitions have been shown in Figure 8.1.
180
Bypass
Fresh
feed
Feed
Mixing
unit
181
Gross product
Separator
Process
Net product
Recycle
Purge
WORKED EXAMPLES
8.1
10,000 kg/h F
Distillation
column
Benzene 95% B
50% B, 50% T
96% Toluene
Figure 8.2
Overall balance
F =D+W
or, 10,000 = D + W
Benzene balance gives,
5000 = 0.95D + 0.04W
Solving, D = 5,050 kg/h
W = 4,950 kg/h
182
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Reflux ratio =
8.2
What is the flow rate in recycle stream in Figure 8.3 shown below?
Water W
300F
Evaporator
50% KNO3
M
Crystallizer
F Feed
10,000 kg/h
20% KNO3
C
Crystal with 4% H2O
Figure 8.3
Basis: One hour. KNO3 entering = 2,000 kg/h
\ Crystal leaving crystallizer, C =
Overall balance
since
8.3
2000
0.96
= 2,080 kg/h
F =C+W
F = 10,000 kg/h
C = 2,080 kg/h
\ W = 7,920 kg/h
Crystallizer balance gives, M = C + R = (2,080 + R)
KNO3 Balance gives 0.5M = 0.96C + 0.375R
Thus R = 7,680 kg/h
Metallic silver may be obtained from sulphide ores by roasting to
sulphates and leaching with water and subsequently precipitating
silver with copper. In the Figure 8.4 shown below, the material leaving
the second separator was found to contain 90% silver and 10%
copper. What percentage excess copper was used? If the reaction goes
to 75% completion based on the limiting agent Ag2SO4, what is the
recycle stream in kg/tonne of product?
183
CuSO4
Cu
S1
Reactor
S2
90% Ag;
10% Cu
Ag2SO4
Recycle R Ag2SO4
Figure 8.4
Ag 2 SO 4 + Cu
312
63.5
2Ag + CuSO 4
(2 107.9)
159.5
900 t 312
= 1300 kg
2 t 107.9
CuSO4 formed =
1,300 t 159.5
= 665 kg
312
1,300 t 63.5
= 265 kg (for forming CuSO4)
312
Total copper supplied = 265 + 100 = 365 kg
Cu needed =
100
= 37.7%
265
We know the reaction is 75% complete. 25% of the limiting reactant
(Ag2SO4) was unconverted which goes in the recycle steam.
In the diagram shown in Figure 8.5, what fraction of dry air leaving is
recycled?
x g dry air
A
H1 = 0.0152 g
of wv/g
0.099 g H2O/g
dry solid
Figure 8.5
Basis: 1 g of dry solid.
Let x g of dry air be recycled.
D H = 0.0525 g
2
of wv/g DA
1.562 g H2O/g
dry solid
184
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
\ Fraction recycled =
8.5
40% A
Product P
A 5% and
B 95%
Recycle A only
x
Figure 8.6
Recycle 33.3
= 0.333
Feed
100
Material balance for A at = (100 + 33.3)0.4 = Aw + 33.3 + 0.05P
35 C 300 atm
Reactor
CO, 2H2
185
CH3OH
6,600 kg/h
Unreacted CO, H2
Figure 8.7
Basis: One hour of operation
Methanol produced =
6,600
= 206.25 kmoles
32
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
15% conversion of CO entering gives 206.25 kmoles of methanol
206.25
0.15
and H2 entering the reactor = 1,375 2
= 1,375 kmoles
= 2,750 kmoles
= 4,125 kmoles
= CO entering CO converted
= (1,375 206.25) = 1,168.75 kmoles
H2 unconverted (goes into recycle) = (2,750 0.85) = 2,337.50 kmoles
\ Total moles of feed unconverted = 3,506.25 kmoles
Fresh CO needed = 206.25 kmoles
Fresh H2 needed = 412.50 kmoles
\ Total moles of fresh feed = 618.75 kmoles
(a) Volume of feed gas = 618.75 22.414
308 1
273 300
= 52.16 m3
(b) Amount of gas leaving reactor = (3,506.25 + 206.25)
= 3,712.50 kmoles
Amount of gas recycled = 3,506.25 kmoles
\ Recycle ratio =
3,506.25
3,712.5
186
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
37, 400
44,000
Kiln
Air
Burner
Coke
Figure 8.8
Basis: 12 kg of coke
represent F kmole of flue gas (5% CO2)
K, kmole of kiln gas (8.65% CO2)
R, kmole of gas recycled (8.65% CO2)
P, kmole of product gas (8.65% CO2)
X, kmole of gas entering the kiln (7% CO2)
X
F
Figure 8.9
X = F + R (overall balance)
(a)
(b)
CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2
100
56
44
187
= 3.73
R 24.2
= 0.538
=
K
45
Sea water is desalinated by reverse osmosis using the scheme shown
in Figure 8.10D stream has 500 ppm salt = 0.05%
Find
(a) rate of B
(b) rate of D
(c) recycle R
R, Recycle
1,000 kg/h
3.1 salt %
sea water
4%
Figure 8.10
Basis: One hour
Overall balance, 1,000 = B + D
Salt balance = (1,000 3.1) = 5.25B + 0.050
Solving, B = 586.5 kg; D = 413.5 kg
R = 5.25%
188
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Fresh
Reactor
feed
NH3
Figure 8.11
Basis: 100 kmoles of feed
Given that H2 : N2 = 3 : 1
hydrogen: 75 kmoles and nitrogen: 25 kmoles
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Overall balance gives:
Feed
NH3
Reactor
NH3, N2 and H2
189
Cleaned
metal
G
Degreasing
B
15% Grease solvent Separator
A
40%
grease
with
solvent
1% grease R
Solvent Recycle
Figure 8.12
Grease removed/day = 1,00,000/100 = 1,000 kg
(i) Overall balance gives:
G
S
100%
100%
Process
40% Grease
60% Solvent
S + G = A (overall)
(1)
G = 0.4A = 1000 (grease balance) (2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) A = 2,500 kg; S = 1,500 kg; G = 1,000 kg.
S (100%
free from
grease)
Degreasing
B (15%)
R-1% (recycle)
(ii) B = S + G + R
B = 1,500 + 1,000 + R (overall)
0.15B = 0 + 1,000 + 0.01R (grease balance)
Solving, (4) and (5), B = 6,964.29 kg; R = 4,464.29 kg
Check B = A + R; 6,964.29 = 2500 + 4,464.29
(0.15 6,964.29) = 1,000 + (0.01 4,464.29)
1,044.6435 = 1,044.6429
(3)
(4)
(5)
190
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
8.11 A solution containing 10% NaCl, 3% KCl and water is fed to the process
shown in Figure 8.13 at the rate of 18,400 kg/h. The compositions of the
streams are as follows: Evaporator product PNaCl : 16.8%,
KCl : 21.6% and water. Recycle product RNaCl : 18.9% and water.
Calculate the flow rates in kg/h and compute the composition of feed to
the evaporator (F)
R
Fresh
feed
W
F
Evaporator
Crystallizer
NaCl only
KCl only
Figure 8.13
Basis: One hour
Water in feed = 18,400 0.87 = 16,008 kg/h
KCl in feed = 18,400 0.03 = 552 kg/h
NaCl in feed = 18,400 0.1 = 1,840 kg/h
Overall balance: water vapour
Feed, F
Process
KCl
NaCl
Crystallizer
KCl
191
Solving, R = 4,416 kg
and
P = 4,968 kg
Evaporator
NaCl
F = W + NaCl + P
F = 16,008 + 1,840 + 4,968
= 22,816 kg/h
Feed to evaporator = recycle + fresh feed
= 18,400 + 4,416 = 22,816 kg/h
Recycle, R
Fresh feed
192
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Separator
Ethylene
Air
Reactor
Gases
Figure 8.14
Basis: 1 kmole of ethylene.
Oxygen supplied: 10 kmoles
79
= 37.62 kmoles
21
C2H4 reacted: 1 0.23 = 0.23 kmole
Nitrogen entering: 10
Oxygen reacted =
(a)
mole
mole %
C2H4
O2
N2
1.0
10.0
37.62
2.056
20.560
77.384
Total
48.62
100.000
Inlet gases
0.77
= 0.0159
48.62
mole
mole %
C2H4O
O2
N2
0.230
9.885
37.620
0.48
20.71
78.81
Total
47.735
100.000
193
8.13 In the diagram shown in Figure 8.15 find E, P, A and B. Also, find the
composition of A.
The compositions are: F = 20% C2, 40% C3, 40% C4,
E = 95% C2, 4% C3, 1% C4,
P = 99% C3, 1% C4,
B = 8.4% C3, 91.6% C4.
Basis: 100 kg of feed
P
Feed, F
A
I Unit
II Unit
Figure 8.15
Let us assume that the compositions given are in weight %.
Overall balance: feed = 100 = E + P + B.
C2 balance: 20 = 0.95E. So, the value of E = 20/0.95 = 21.053 kg
C3 balance: 40 = (0.04 21.053) + 0.99P + 0.0084B
C4 balance: 40 = (0.01 21.053) + 0.01P + 0.916B
Solving the above, we find P = 35.9006 kg and B = 43.0464 kg
Since we know that F = E + A, we substitute the values of F and E,
and observe, 100 = 21.053 + A. Solving A is found to be 78.947 kg
Composition of A:
C3 balance: (0.99 35.9006) + (0.084 43.0464) = 39.1575
Weight % = 49.6.
C4 balance: (0.01 35.9006) + (0.916 43.0464) = 39.7895
Weight % = 50.4.
8.14 A contact sulphuric acid plant produces 98% acid. A
8% SO3 (rest inert) enters a SO3 absorption tower
28 kmoles/h 98.5% of SO3 is absorbed in this tower
introduced at the top and 95.9% acid is used as the
Compute tonne/day of
(a) make up acid required
(b) acid fed at the top of the tower and
(c) acid produced.
gas containing
at the rate of
by 97.3% acid
make up acid.
194
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
18
98
98
= 5,189.5 kg
80
18
= 953.17 kg
80
97.3%
SO3 Exit
r
y 95.9%
Absorption
tower
z
(Acid)
SO3 in 28 kmoles/h
98%
Figure 8.16
Let us label x, y, z and r as shown.
Overall balance gives: z = (r + 4,236.3)
Acid balance gives, 0.98z = (0.973r + 5,189.5)
Solving the above, we get r = 1,48,271.5 kg;
z = 1,52,507.7 kg (overall)
Another balance of stream gives, z + y = x + r
Acid balance in this stream gives: 0.98z + 0.959y = 0.98x + 0.973r
or, (0.98 1,52,507.7) + 0.959y = 0.98x + (0.973 1,48,271.5)
Solving the above, we get x = 53,661.5 kg; y = 49,425.05 kg
Check: H2O balance, 0.021r 953.17 = (0.02 z)
or, (0.027 1,48,271.5) 953.17 = (0.02 1,52,507.7)
4,003.33 953.17 = 3,050.16.
195
EXERCISES
8.1
8.2
Energy Balance
9.1 DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are frequently used since the study of energy
balance concerns conversion of our resources into energy effectively and
utilize the same properly. In order to understand the basic principles
pertaining to the generation, transformation and uses of energy, the
following terms need to be discussed first.
9.1.1
Standard State
196
ENERGY BALANCE
197
9.2
HESSS LAW
If a reaction proceeds in several steps, the heat of the overall reaction will
be the algebraic sum of the heats of the various stages, and this sum in turn
will be identical with the heat, the reaction would evolve or absorb if it were
to proceed in a single step.
198
9.3
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
KOPPS RULE
9.4
9.5
The temperature attained when a fuel is burnt in air or oxygen without loss
or gain of heat is called the Theoretical flame temperature.
WORKED EXAMPLES
9.1
9.2
ENERGY BALANCE
9.3
199
320.92
= 3885.5 kcal
2
9.4
200
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Solution:
DHrxn = (2,35,800) + (54,194) (15,000) (2 68,317.4)
The standard heat of reaction is 29,971.2 cal/mole
9.6
9.7
60
= 0.75 kmole
80
At 373.16 K,
Q = nCpSO3 dt
At 273.16 K
Q = [{34.33 (373.16 273.16)} + {(42.86 103/2)(373.162 273.162)}
+ {(13.21 106/3)(373.163 273.163)}]
Q = 3,509.25 kJ/kmole.
9.8
68,317
59,798
94,052
Desired reactions:
(a) C6H6 (l) + 7.5O2 6CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)
(b) C6H6 (l) C6H6 (g)
ENERGY BALANCE
201
(a) Equation (i) itself gives value, DHc = 7,80,980 cal/g mole.
(ii) C6H6 (g) + 7.5O2 6CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)
(iii) H2 (g) + O2 H2O (l)
(iv) H2 (g) + O2 H2O (g)
(v) C + O2 CO2 (g)
9.9
We can obtain the reaction (b) from the reaction (i) to (v) using
suitable multiplication factor for each step and adding or subtracting
the equations as shown below:
i.e. Steps for equation. (b) = (i) + 3(iv) (ii) 3(iii) l = 8,097 cal/g mole
Find the heat of formation of ZnSO4 from its elements and from these
data:
kcal/mole
(i) ZnS Zn + S
44
221.88
(ii) 2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO + 2SO2
(iii) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
46.88
55.1
(iv) ZnSO4 ZnO + SO3
Desired equation: Zn + S + 2O2 ZnSO4 kcal/mole
Steps: [(ii) + (iii) 2(i) 2(iv)] = 233.48 kcal/mole.
9.10 Steam that is used to heat a batch reaction vessel enters the steam
chest, which is segregated from the reactants, at 250 C, is saturated
and completely condensed. The reaction absorbs 1000 Btu/lb of
charge in the reactor. Heat loss from the steam chest to the
surroundings is 5000 Btu/h. The reactants are placed in the vessel at
70 F. At the end of the reaction, the materials are at 212 F. If the
charge contains 325 lb of material and the products and reactants have
an average Cp of 0.78 Btu/1b F, how many lb of steam are needed
per lb of charge. The charge remains for an hour in the vessel.
Basis: One hour: Datum 70 F
Btu
Reaction absorbs heat = 1000 325
= 3,25,000
Heat loss to surroundings
=
5,000
Heat in products: 325 0.78 (212 70) = 36,000
\ Q = total heat
= 3,66,000
202
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
DH = n
p dT
T1 = 303 K, T2 = 523 K
T1
n = 1 kmole
Or, DH = [2.83 {T2 T1} + (28.601 103/2) {T22 T12}
{87.26 107/3}{T23 T13}]
Heat added = 2,886.11 kcal
9.12 Calculate the amount of heat given off when 1 m3 of air at standard
conditions cools from 500 C to 100 C at constant pressure.
Cp air = 6.386 + 1.762 103 T 0.2656 106 T2, where
Cp is in kcal/kmole K and T in K.
1 m3 =
1
= 0.0446 kmole
22.414
173
Q = 0.0446
773
/2)(1732 7732)
Q = 191.345 kcal,
Hence, heat is given off
9.13 Air being compressed from 2 atm and 460 C (enthalpy 210.5 Btu/lb)
to 10 atm and 500 R (enthalpy 219 Btu/lb). The exit velocity of air is
200 ft/s. What is the horse power required for the compressor if the
load is 200 lb of air/hour?
Basis: One hour.
(Ws = shaft work, Btu/lb v: velocity, ft/s)
Ws = (219 210.5) = 8.5 Btu/lb.
'v 2
2 gc
(200)2
= 0.8 Btu/lb
(2 t 32.2 t 778)
200
= 0.73 HP
2545
[1 Btu = 778 ft. lbf; 1 HP = 2545 Btu/h]
ENERGY BALANCE
203
DHrxn,
298 K:
(a) DH = n
p dT
T1
204
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
O2 sent = 0.5 2 = 1.
N2 in air = 1 79/21 = 3.76 kmole.
SO3
SO2
O2
N2
Total
0.7
15.5
0.3
11.0
0.65
7.5
3.76
7.1
5.41
Heat out
SO2 = 1
11 400 = 4,400 kcal SO2
7.5 400= 3,000 kcal O2
O2 = 1
N2 = 3.76 7.1 400 = 10,676 kcal N2
SO3
Total
=
=
=
=
0.3
0.65
3.76
0.7
11
7.5
7.1
15.5
DHrxn
34,519.00 kcal
N2
3H2
2NH3
10.96
7.9 t 10 7 t 2983
0.0119 t 2982
3
2
ENERGY BALANCE
205
'C 2
T +
2
480C
'H 3
T
3
0.0119
(753)2
7.9 t 10 7
(753)3
= 3,606.56 kcal/kmole
9.18 Calculate the calorific value of a blast furnace gas analyzing 25% CO,
12.5% CO2 and 62.57% N2.
(a) C + O2 CO2; DHrxn: 94 kcal
(b) C + O2 CO; DHrxn: 26 kcal
Also, calculate the theoretical flame temperature for the combustion of
this gas assuming theoretical amount of air is used, the combustion
reaction is complete and reactants enter at 25 C.
Cp = a + bT + cT2, cal/kmole K
where a, b and c are all dimensional constants and available in literature
Gas
b 103
c 105
CO2
N2
10.55
6.66
2.16
1.02
2.04
C
I Combustion
Air
CO
CO2
O2
N2
II Combustion
CO2
N2
62.5 12.5 t
79
= 109.52 g moles
21
CO + O2 CO2
Reaction (a) (b) gives
DHrxn = 94 + 26 = 68 kcal/kmole
Calorific value: Heat given out = 68 25 = 1,700 kcal
Exit gases carry this heat away.
206
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
CO2
CH4
H2O
kcal/kmole
94,052
17,889
57,798 at 298 K
'C 2
T
2
'H 3
T
3
1.716 t 10 6
2982
2
2983
3
'C 2
T +
2
'H
3
T3
ENERGY BALANCE
207
11.047 t 10 3 t 7732
2
1.719 t 10 6 t 7733
3
= 43,943 kcal/kmole
\ 43,943 kcal of heat must be removed.
9.20 CO at 50 F is completely burnt at 2 atm pressures with 50% excess
air, which is at 1000 F. The products of combustion leave the
combustion chamber at 800 F. Calculate the heat evolved from
the combustion chamber in terms of Btu/lb of CO entering.
Basis: 1 lb mole of CO = 28 lb, O2 needed = 0.5 lb mole
CO + O2 CO2
O2 supplied = 0.5 1.5 = 0.75 lb mole (50% excess)
Air supplied = 3.57 lb mole and N2 = 2.82 lb moles
DHrxn = 1,21,745 Btu/lb mole
Q = DHrxn + DHproducts DHreactants
O2 remaining = 0.25 lb mole
CO2 : 1 lb mole, N2 : 2.82 lb moles
Datum: 32F
Data: DH (Btu/lb mole)
Temperature, F
CO
Air
O2
N2
CO2
50
125.2
77
313.3
312.7
315.1
312.2
392.2
800
5,690
5,443
8,026
1000
6,984
208
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
9.21 Pure CO is mixed with 100% excess air and completely burnt at
constant pressure. The reactants are originally at 200 F. Determine
the heat added or removed, if the product temperatures are 200 F,
500 F, 1000 F, 1500 F, 2000 F and 3000 F.
Basis: 1 lb mole of CO
CO + O2 CO2
O2 supplied = 1 lb mole, N2 = 3.76 lb moles
Exit: CO2 : 1 lb mole, O2 : 0.5 lb mole, N2 : 3.76 lb moles
Assuming a base temperature of 25 oC, (77 oF) and using mean heat
capacities,
DH = Hp HR; Q = DH
DH = SnCppr (77 200) + DHrxn77 F + SnCpR (t 77)
Cp
nC p
CO
O2
N2
1
1
3.76
6.95
7.10
6.95
6.95
7.10
26.13
Total
40.18
500 F
1000 F
Cp
nCp
Cp
nCp
CO2 1.0
9.15
9.15
9.9
9.9
O2
0.5
7.10
3.55
7.25
3.63
N2
3.76
6.95 26.13
7.0
26.32
39.85
SnCp
R
SnCp
(t77)
Q = DH
38.83
Cp
nCp
10.85 10.85
7.15
3.88
7.15 26.88
41.51
1500 F
2000 F
Cp
nCp
11.5
11.5
7.8
3.9
7.35
27.64
43.04
Cp
nCp
12.05 12.05
8.0
4.0
3000 F
Cp
nCp
12.75
12.75
8.3
4.15
7.55 28.39
7.88
29.42
46.32
44.44
4,776
16,857
38,314
61,246
83,758
1,35,810
21,911
1,09,830
88,373
65,441
41,229
+9,123
Cp of O2
ENERGY BALANCE
209
= 0.82 CpN2
for O2
= 0.073 CpO2
Cpnet
200
\ DH =
p net
dT
550
2.6164 t
10 3
(2002 5502)
2
10 7
(2003 5503) +
3
0.2815 t
10 10
(2004 5504)
4
mole
DT
Cpm
DH = nCpmDT
CO
1.0
(93.3 25)
6.981
476
Air
4.76
(93.3 25)
6.993
2,270
Total
2,746 cal
210
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
mole
DT
Cpm
DH
CO2
O2
N2
1.0
0.5
3.76
1775
1775
1775
12.94
8.35
7.92
23,000
7,400
52,900
This total of 83,300 cal is not matching with 70,382 cal, the value
calculated.
Let the Theoretical flame temperature be 1500 C, then DT = 1475 C
DH = (1 12.7 1475) + (0.5 8.31 1475) + (3.76 7.88 1475)
= 68,460 cal
Making linear interpolation for the theoretical flame temperature, we
have,
Theoretical flame temperature
70,382 68,460
= 1500 +
(1800 1500)
83,300 68,460
= 1500 + 39 = 1539 C 2798 F
80
= 1 = 4 g moles
20
79
21
Exit gas: CO2 : 1 g mole, O2 : 0.75 g mole, N2 : 8.7 g moles
Q = SHproducts + SHrxn SHreactants. (Datum 298 K)
SHreactants is zero, since air and gas are at 25 C.
DHrxn = DHCO2 DHCO
= 94,052 (26,412) = 67,640 cal/g mole.
Let the Theoretical Flame Temperature be T, K
67,640 = [1 12.1 (T 298)] + [8.7 7.55 (T 298)]
+ [0.75 7.9 (T 298)],
N2 in air
ENERGY BALANCE
211
CO2
O2
N2
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
45.4
47.6
49.4
50.8
52.0
53.2
31.6
32.3
33.0
33.6
34.0
34.4
30.3
30.6
31.2
31.8
32.3
32.7
212
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
SO2
O2
N2
Cpm
30 C
10
6.96
6.80
Cpm
425 C
11
7.32
7.12
15,000
22.414
= 669.2 g moles
we can then write the amount of each component
SO2 : 669.2 0.1 = 66.92 g moles
O2 : 669.2 0.12 = 80.30 g moles
N2 : 669.2 0.78 = 521.98 g moles
669.20 g moles
Reference temperature: 0 C
\ Q = 66.92 [(11 425) (10 30)] + 80.3 [(7.32 425) (6.96 30)]
+ 521.98 [(7.12 425) (6.8 30)] = 19,98,849.22 cal
9.27 Estimate the theoretical flame temperature of a gas containing 20%
CO and 80% N2 when burnt with 100% excess air. Both air and gas
are initially at 25 C.
Cp CO2 = 6.339 + 10.14 103 T 3.415 106 T2
Cp O2
Cp N2
ENERGY BALANCE
213
T 2 2982
2
3.415 106
T 298
T 3 2983
+ 6.117
2
3
+ 3.167 103
T 3 2983
T 2 2982
1.005 106
6
4
T 2 2982
2
T 3 2983
3
Solving for theoretical flame temperature = T = 1216 K = 943 C
9.28 Dry methane and dry air at 298 K and 1 bar pressure are burnt with
100% excess air. The standard heat of reaction is 802 kJ/g mole of
methane. Determine the final temperature attained by the gaseous
products if combustion is adiabatic and 20% of heat produced is lost
to the surroundings.
Data: Cpm values (J/g mole K) for the components are:
O2 : 31.9, N2 : 32.15, H2O : 40.19, CO2 : 51.79.
Basis: 1 g mole of methane.
Datum: 298 K
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
\ Oxygen supplied = 2 2 = 4 g moles
79
= 15.05 g moles
21
Gases leaving are: CO2 : 1, H2O : 2, O2 : 2, and N2 : 15.05 g moles.
N2 entering = 4
214
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
11O2
2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
479.4
352
319.4
512
177.9
88.2
296.9
= 0.666(0.85 x)
x = 0.04{(0.15) + 0.666(0.85 x) + x};
Solving the above, we find x = 0.029 kg
Solid waste = (0.15) + (0.029) + [0.666 (0.85 0.029)] = 0.725786 kg
kg
Weight %
Gangue
FeS2
Fe2O3
0.150
0.029
0.547
20.66
3.99
75.35
Total
0.726
100.00
ENERGY BALANCE
215
9.30 For the following reaction, estimate the heat of reaction at 298 K.
A+BC+D
Compound
A
B
C
D
269.8
195.2
337.3
29.05
1
1
1
3
H2 + Cl2 + C + O2 3HCl + CO2
2
2
2
2
216
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
T2
2
ENERGY BALANCE
217
DHf Cpm
CO2 = 393.137 kJ/g mole CO2 = 50.16 kJ/kg K
CO = 110.402 kJ/g mole O2 = 33.02 kJ/ kmole
H2 = 31.56 kJ/kmole K
Basis: 100 g moles of feed
CO = 20 g moles
1
CO + O2 CO2
2
1
O2 needed =
20 = 10 g moles
2
O2 supplied = 2.5 10 = 25 g moles
N2 supplied = 25 79/21 = 94.05 g moles
Gases leaving
CO2 = 20 g moles
O2 = 25 10 = 15 g moles
N2 = 94.05 + 80 = 174.05 g moles
Atmospheric temperature = 25 C
Heat in reactants + DHR = Heat in products
Standard heat of reaction,
DHfproducts DHfreactants = 393.137 [110.402 +
1
0]
2
EXERCISES
9.1
218
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
9.2
Temperature
2000 C
1800 C
CO2
13.1
12.95
H2O
10.4
10.25
O2
8.4
8.3
N2
8.0
7.9
Determine the heat of reaction at 720 K and 1 atm for the reaction
SO2 + 0.5O2 SO3
Mean molar specific heats of
SO2 : 51.5 kJ/kmole K
O2 : 45.67 kJ/kmole K
SO3 : 30.98 kJ/kmole K
Standard heat of formation for
SO2 : 2,97,000 kJ/kmole
SO3 : 3,95,000 kJ/kmole
9.3
9.4
B 103
C 106
1.702
1.131
9.081
19.225
2.164
5.561
ENERGY BALANCE
219
Data:
(a) Standard heat of formation at 25 C, J/g mole
HCl(g) : 92,307 J/g mole
H2O(g) : 2,41,818 J/g mole
(b) Mean heat capacities: (cal/g mole K)
HCl(g) : 7.06
O2(g) : 8.54
H2O : 7.52
Cl2(g) : 8.61
N2(g) : 7.16
9.5
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
8.2
10.5
25.0
23.0
14.0
10.0
In the reaction
4FeS2(s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
the conversion from FeS2 to Fe2O3 is only 80% complete.
If the standard heat of formation for the above is calculated to be
197.7 kcal/g mole, what DHreaction should be used in energy
balance per kg of FeS2 fed.
9.7
220
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
The heat capacities are 29.23 for CO, 29.28 for air, 54.18 for CO2,
34.5 for O2 and 33.1 for N2 in J/g mole K. Standard heat of reaction:
283.13 kJ/g mole.
9.8
9.9
9.10 Calculate the amount of heat given off when 1 m3 of air at standard
condition cools from 600 C to 100 C at constant pressure
Cp air = 6.386 + 1.762 103 T 0.2656 106 T2
Cp is in kcal/kmole K and T is in K.
9.11 CO is burnt under atmospheric pressure with dry air at 773 K with
20% excess air. The products leave at 1223 K. Calculate the heat
involved in the reaction chamber in kcal/kmole of CO burnt, assuming
complete combustion.
Data: DH298 K = 67,636 kcal
Mean specific heats are: 7.017 for CO, 7.225 for air, 11.92 for CO2,
7.941 for O2 and 7.507 for N2 in kcal/kmole K.
10
Problems on Unsteady
State Operations
The term unsteady state refers to chemical processes in which the operating
conditions generally fluctuate with time. Although unsteady-state processes
are difficult to formulate, the general formula used to represent the total
amount of material and energy in the process is given as
Rate of input + Rate of generation = Rate of output + Rate of accumulation
This is the guiding principle in solving problems on the unsteady state
operations.
WORKED EXAMPLES
10.1 A storage tank contains 10,000 kg of a solution containing 5% acetic
acid by weight. A fresh feed of 500 kg/min of pure water is entering
the tank and dilutes the solution in the tank. The mixture is stirred
well and the product leaves the tank at a rate of 500 kg/min. At what
instant of time the acid concentration in the tank will drop to 1%
acetic acid by weight? After one hour of operation, what will be the
concentration in the tank?
F iX i
M, X
F o, X o = X
221
222
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
(1)
dX
dM
X
= Fi X i F o X
dt
dt
dM
= 0 (Since inlet and outlet flow rates are the same)
dt
dX
Therefore, M
= FiXi Fo X(4)
dt
dX
Now substituting values, 10,000 = 500 0.0 500X
dt
(2)
(3)
Here,
(i.e.)
dX
= 0.05X
dt
(i.e.)
dX
= 0.05dt
X
(5)
Integrating, we get
X
Xo
t0
dX
X 0.05 dt
X
ln = 0.05(t 0)
Xo
= 0.05t
(6)
Therefore,
X
= e0.05t
Xo
223
(7)
i.e.
t = 32.19 minutes
M = 10 + 0.5t
Differentiating, we get
dM
= 0.5
dt
We know that
rate of input + rate of generation
= rate of output + rate of accumulation
Here, rate of generation is zero.
(1)
(2)
(3)
224
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
dM
= 0.5
dt
Therefore, by substituting values, we get
Here,
dX
+ 0.5X = 2 0.03 1.5X
dt
dX
= 0.06 2X
(10 + 0.5t)
dt
dX
dt
0.06 2 X 10 0.5t
(10 + 0.5t)
(i.e.)
or,
(4)
(5)
Integrating, we get
X
dX
0.06
Xo
also,
0.5
X o 0.02
2 X
dt
10 0.5t
t0
dX
dt
2
20 t
X 0.03
X 0.03
ln
0.02 0.03
X 0.03
0.01
or,
t0
(20 t )
4 ln
20
20
20 t
20
X = 0.03 0.01
20 t
(6)
(7)
4
(8)
0.01
0.03 X
dX
+ 0.5X = 2 0.03 1.5X
dt
dX
2
X
dt 10 0.5t
0.06
10 0.5t
(9)
dy
+ Py = Q
dx
Where, P and Q are either functions of x or constants
225
(10)
(11)
Using the same analogy we can solve Eq. (9) in the following manner
P=
2
10 0.5t
4
20 t
0.06
10 0.5t
0.12
20 t
and
X e
20 t dt
0.12 20 t dt
dt + constant
e
20 t
(12)
X 4 exp[ln(20 + t)]
=
X(20 + t)4 =
0.12
20 t
0.12
[20 t ]4
+ constant
4
X = 0.03 +
constant
(13)
(14)
(20 t )4
1600
(20 t )4
and
(15)
226
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
20
X = 0.03 0.01
(20 t )
(16)
Comparing Eq. (16) with Eq. (8) we find both are same and hence the
time taken to reach a concentration of 2.5% is 3.784 minutes
10.3 A tank contains 10 litre of a salt solution at a concentration of 2 g/litre
Another salt solution enters the tank at a rate of 1.5 litres/min at a
salt concentration of 1 g/litre. The contents are stirred well and the
mixture leaves the tank at a rate of 1.0 litre/min.
Estimate (a) the time at which the concentration in the tank will be
1.6 g/litre and (b) the contents in the tank will be 18 litres
Here, Inlet flow rate, Fi = 1.5 litres/min at a salt concentration of 1 g/litres
Outlet flow rate, Fo = 1.0 litre/min
Initial volume = 10 litres.
The total volume V, at any time
= Initial volume + (Inflow rate Out flow rate) (time)
= 10 + (1.5 1.0)t
or,
V = 10 + 0.5t
Differentiating, we get
dV
= 0.5
dt
We know that,
rate of input + rate of generation
= rate of output + rate of accumulation
(1)
i.e.
V
Here,
dV
= 0.5
dt
dC
dV
+C
= Fi C i F o C
dt
dt
(2)
(3)
227
(4)
(5)
dt
1 dC
1.5 1 C =
+
(10
0.5t )
C
t=0
1
1.5
dt
dC
C 1 = 2
(20
+ t)
t=0
=2
C - 1
20 + t
= - 3 ln
ln
2 -1
20
C - 1 20
=
1
20 + t
(6)
(7)
20
\ C=1+
20 + t
(8)
20 + t
solving, t = 3.71 minutes.
EXERCISES
10.1 A tank contains 500 kg of a 10% salt solution. A stream containing
salt at 20% concentration enters the tank at 10 kg/h and the mixture
leaves the tank after thorough mixing at a rate of 5 kg/h. Obtain an
expression for the salt concentration in the tank as a function of time
and the salt concentration in the tank after 3 hours.
228
PROCESS CALCULATIONS
Tables
Important Conversion Factors
TABLE I
Quantity
To convert
from
Length
Area
in ()
0.0254
ft ()
0.3048
cm
0.01
Angstrom ()
1010
microns (m)
106
in2
m2
6.452 104
ft2
m2
0.0929
cm
Volume
Density
ft3
104
m3
3
0.02832
106
litre
m3
103
Gallons (UK)
m3
4.546 103
Gallons (US)
m3
3.285 103
Pound (lb)
kg
0.4536
kg
103
lb/ft3
kg/m3
16.019
1.0
kg/m
1000
lbf
4.448
kgf
9.807
Pa
980.7
dyne
105
g/litre
g/cm
Force
cm
Mass
Multiply by
to
kg/m
(Contd.)
229
230
TABLES
TABLE I
Quantity
To convert
from
Pressure
lbf/ft2
N/m2 = Pa
lbf/in (psi)
in Hg
mm Hg
Enthalpy
6895
3386
249.1
133.3
N/m = Pa
N/m = Pa
N/m = Pa
atm
N/m = Pa
1.0133 105
torr
N/m2 = Pa
133.3
bar
N/m = Pa
105
kgf/cm2
N/m2 = Pa
9.807 104
Btu
J = N.m
1055
erg
J = N.m
107
cal
J = N.m
4.187
kcal
J = N.m
4187
kW.h
J = N.m
3.6 106
m3/s
0.02832
ft /h, ft /h
m3/s
7.867 106
cm3/s
m3/s
106
lit/h
m3/s
2.777 107
lb/ft2.h
kg/m2s
1.356 103
g/cm2s
kg/m2s
10
lb mole/ft2.h
kmole/m2s
1.356 103
g mole/cm2s
kmole g/m2s
10
Btu/lb
J/kg = N.m/kg
2326
cal/g = kcal/kg
J/kg = N.m/kg
4187
Btu/lb. F
N.m/kg K = J/kg K
4187
cal/g.C
N.m/kg K = J/kg K
4187
ft3/s
3
47.88
N/m = Pa
in water
Heat or energy
Multiply by
to
TABLES
TABLE II
231
Element
Symbol
Atomic Number
Atomic weight
Actinium
Ac
89
217.00
Aluminium
Al
13
26.98
Americium
Am
95
243.00
Antimony
Sb
51
121.76
Argon
18
39.94
Arsenic
As
33
74.91
Astatine
At
85
210.00
Barium
Ba
56
137.36
Berkelium
Bk
97
245.00
Beryllium
Be
9.01
Bismuth
Bi
83
209.00
Boron
10.82
Bromine
Br
35
79.92
Cadmium
Cd
48
112.41
Calcium
Ca
20
40.08
Californium
Cf
98
246.00
Carbon
12.01
Cerium
Ce
58
140.13
Cesium
Cs
55
132.91
Chlorine
Cl
17
35.46
Chromium
Cr
24
52.01
Cobalt
Co
27
58.94
Columbium
Nb
41
92.91
Copper
Cu
29
63.54
Curium
Cm
96
243.00
Dysprosium
Dy
66
162.46
Erbium
Er
68
167.20
Europium
Eu
63
152.00
Fluorine
19.00
Francium
Fr
87
223.00
Gadolinium
Gd
64
156.90
Gallium
Ga
31
69.72
Germanium
Ge
32
72.60
(Contd.)
232
TABLES
TABLE II
Element
Atomic Number
Atomic weight
Gold
Au
79
197.20
Hafnium
Hf
72
178.60
Helium
He
4.00
Holmium
Ho
67
164.94
Hydrogen
1.00
Indium
In
49
114.76
Iodine
53
126.91
Iridium
Ir
77
193.10
Iron
Fe
26
55.85
Krypton
Kr
36
83.80
Lanthanum
La
57
138.92
Lead
Pb
82
207.21
Lithium
Li
6.94
Lutetium
Lu
71
174.99
Magnesium
Mg
12
24.32
Manganese
Mn
25
54.93
Mercury
Hg
80
200.61
Molybdenum
Mo
42
95.95
Neodymium
Nd
60
144.27
Neptunium
Np
93
237.00
Neon
Ne
10
20.18
Nickel
Ni
28
58.69
Niobium
Nb
41
92.91
Nitrogen
14.01
Osmium
Os
76
190.20
Oxygen
16.00
Palladium
Pd
46
106.70
Phosphorus
15
30.98
Platinum
Pt
78
195.23
Plutonium
Pu
94
242.00
Polonium
Po
84
210.00
Potassium
19
39.10
Praseodymium
Pr
59
140.92
(Contd.)
TABLES
TABLE II
Element
233
Atomic Number
Atomic weight
Promethium
Pm
61
145.00
Protactinium
Pa
91
231.00
Radium
Ra
88
226.05
Radon
Rn
86
222.00
Rhenium
Re
75
186.31
Rhodium
Rh
45
102.91
Rubidium
Rb
37
85.48
Ruthenium
Ru
44
101.70
Samarium
Sm
62
150.43
Scandium
Sc
21
44.96
Selenium
Se
34
78.96
Silicon
Si
14
28.09
Silver
Ag
47
107.88
Sodium
Na
11
23.00
Strontium
Sr
38
87.63
Sulphur
16
32.07
Tantalum
Ta
73
180.88
Technetium
Tc
43
99.00
Tellurium
Te
52
127.61
Terbium
Tb
65
159.20
Thallium
Tl
81
204.39
Thorium
Th
90
232.12
Thulium
Tm
69
169.40
Tin
Sn
50
118.70
Titanium
Ti
22
47.90
Tungsten
74
183.92
Uranium
92
238.07
Vanadium
23
50.95
Xenon
Xe
54
131.30
Ytterbium
Yb
70
173.04
Yttrium
39
88.92
Zinc
Zn
30
65.38
Zirconium
Zr
40
91.22
234
TABLES
b 103
H2
N2
O2
CO
NO
H2O
CO2
SO2
SO3
HCl
C2H6
CH4
C2H4
Cl2
Air
NH3(*)
6.946
6.457
6.117
6.350
6.440
7.136
6.339
6.945
7.454
6.734
2.322
3.204
3.019
7.653
6.386
5.920
c 106
0.196
1.389
3.167
1.811
2.069
2.640
10.140
10.010
19.130
0.431
38.040
18.410
28.210
2.221
1.762
8.963
0.4757
0.069
1.005
0.2675
0.4206
0.0459
3.415
3.794
6.628
+0.3613
10.970
4.480
8.537
0.8733
0.2656
1.764
* Gas
b 103
c 106
Methane
Ethylene
Ethane
Propylene
Propane
n-Butane
i-Butane
Pentane
3.42
2.71
1.38
1.97
0.41
2.25
2.30
3.14
9.91
16.20
23.25
27.69
35.95
45.40
45.78
55.85
1.28
2.80
4.27
5.25
6.97
8.83
8.89
10.98
m
6.4 1012
8.13 1011
6.20 108
2.57 103
3.97 103
0.93 102
0.93 102
3.9 102
n
4.00
3.85
1.79
1.26
1.25
1.19
1.19
1.00
Answers to Exercises
CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
As long as consistent units are used, the equation remains the same.
CHAPTER 2
2.1
500 g moles
2.2
0.5455 kg of carbon
2.3
(a) 3.572 g of O2
(b) 12.77 g of KClO3
2.4
(a) 2.8%
(b) 0.088
(c) 5.378 g moles/kg of water
2.5
2.6
236
2.7
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Weight %: 39.02%
Volume %: 26%
2.8
Compound
Weight %
Volume %
mole %
NaCl
H2O
23.3
76.7
11
89
8.54
91.46
Total
100.00
100
100.00
Atomic %:
Na: 2.93%; Cl2: 2.93%; H2: 62.76%; and O2: 31.38%
Molality: 5.185 g moles/kg of solution
2.9
AVMWT: 65.02
Chlorine: 54.98%
Bromine: 10.15%
Nitrogen: 34.87%
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
237
Weight fraction
mole fraction
mole %
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5701
0.2758
0.1541
57.01
27.58
15.41
Total
1.0
1.0000
100.00
AVMWT: 66.138
3.2
70,748 g
3.3
37.63%
3.4
mole %
Weight %
Methane
80
68.45
Ethane
15
24.10
7.45
100
100.00
Nitrogen
Total
(c) AVMWT: 18.7
(d) Density: 0.0008 g/cc
3.5
3.6
3.7
1.169 g/litre
3.8
0.567 litre
238
3.9
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
10,719.7 K
3.10 C3H8
3.11 300.37 atm
3.12 (a) and (c)
Component
Volume %
N2
mole fraction
64.75
0.6475
CO2
9.52
0.0952
H2O
18.62
0.1862
O2
6.11
0.0611
CO
1.00
0.0100
100.00
1.0000
Total
Volume % = mole %
Chlorine
Bromine
Oxygen
68.59
12.67
18.74
Total
100.00
mole fraction
g mole/cc
Concentration,
mm Hg
Partial pressure
CH4
C2 H 6
H2
0.1
0.3
0.6
1.058 105
3.173 105
6.347 105
200
600
1,200
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
239
4.2
77.25 C
4.3
x
0.212
0.140
0.076 0.013 0
0.393
0.281
0.162 0.030 0
1.0
0.724
0.415
0.134
0.0
yA
1.0
0.819
0.548
0.205
0.0
4.6
240
4.7
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
4.8
4.9
Liquid phase
composition, x
Vapour phase
composition, y
Benzene
0.500
0.739
Toluene
0.377
0.233
Xylene
0.123
0.028
5.2
5.3
2961.6 m3/h
5.4
0.567 mole/mole
1.534 kg/kg
5.5
0.25 mole/mole
0.676 kg/kg
5.6
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
0.0351 kmole/kmole
0.00857 kmole/kmole
1.830 kg of water
49.858 m3
5.14 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
0.008 kg/kg
12 C
2.81 kg of water
7,405.2 kJ
32.5 C
29.45
781.24 mm
810.69 Hg
0.0377 mole/mole
241
242
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
5.21 5.7%
5.22 (a) 86%, (b) 1396.5 m3/h
CHAPTER 6
6.1
6.2
Feed: 83,078.34 kg
6.3
Crystals: 6,636 kg
6.4
Crystals: 479.2 kg
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
87.4%
6.9
7.2
(a) 56.96%;
7.3
50.62%
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
(b) 8.338;
(c) 21.81 kg
7.10 CO2: 4.9%, CO: 9.1% H2O: 17.51% and N2: 68.49%
7.11 CO2: 11.183%, O2: 3.956%, SO2: 0.158%, N2: 75.693%, and
H2O: 9.010%
7.14 Butane: 2.46%, Pentane: 42.25% and Hexane: 55.29%
7.15 (a) 6,600 kg, (b) 4,920 kg and (c) 2,165 kg
7.16 (a) Nitrogen; (b) 16.2% and (c) 60%
7.17 (a) 18,973.2 kg/hr and (b) 1,434.4 kg/h in each evaporator
7.19 (a) 1.25 m3 (b) 6.41 m3
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
243
(c)
Component
Condition (a)
Condition (b)
CO2
H2O
N2
O2
0.23
0.14
0.63
0.14
0.08
0.74
0.04
Total
1.00
1.00
28.8
7.55 m3/kg carbon burnt
50.285 m3/100 m3
CO2: 19.66%, O2: 1.28%, N2: 79.06%
244
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
(b) 70.3%
Volume %
17.7382
11.9749
O2
7.2088
6.69
N2
72.5086
76.92
H2O
2.4726
4.08
SO2
0.7167
0.3326
Composition
CO2
Weight (kg)
CO2
3.113
O2
0.6408
N2
12.8717
H2O
1.026
SO2
0.064
Weight (kg)
16.63
O2
1.2
H2O
8.032
N2
74.14
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2
CHAPTER 9
9.1
1760 C
9.2
1,16,295.8 kJ/kmole
9.7
1,874 C
245
Index
Hausbrand chart, 75
Heat, 196
Heat capacity of gases (empirical
constants), 234
Heat of
combustion, 197
formation (also standard), 196
mixing, 197
reaction, 197
from combustion data, 197
from enthalpy data, 197
Humid heat, 88
Humid volume, 88
Humidity, 87
absolute, 87
percentage absolute humidity, 88
relative, 88
Hydrated salt, 111
ClausiusClapeyron equation, 74
Composition of
liquid systems, 11
mixtures, 10
solutions, 10
Conservation of mass, 8
Conversion, 9
Conversion factors, 229230
Crystal, 111
Crystallization, 111
Law
Amagats, 37
Daltons, 37
Hesss, 197
Leducs, 37
Law of conservation of mass, 8
248
INDEX
Magma, 111
Mass balance, 122
Mass relations, 7
Mole fraction, 11
Mole percent, 11
Mother liquor, 111
Partial pressure, 36
Percentage saturation, 88
Process, 3
Property, 3
extensive, 3
intensive, 3
Psychrometry, 87
Pure component volume, 36
Purge, 180
Rate of
accumulation, 221
generation, 221
input, 221
output, 221
Reactant, 9
excess, 9
limiting, 9
Reaction
endothermic, 197
exothermic, 197
Recycle, 180
Saturated vapour, 89
Saturation, 89
partial, 89
percentage, 89
relative, 89
Specific gravity, 12
Standard
condition, 35
state, 196
Steam distillation, 75
System, 3
isolated, 3
Table of
atomic numbers, 231233
atomic weights, 231233
conversion factors, 229230
molal heat capacities, 234
Theoretical flame temperature, 198
Twaddell scale, 13
Vapour pressure, 74
Volume percent, 10
Weight percent, 10
Wet bulb temperature, 87
Yield, 9