Gat 1-Communication Systems

For
GATE PSUs IES

Also Useful for B.Tech. Students
(ECE, ETE, EEE & IN Branch)
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Ashish Dixit
Prashant Singh
M.Tech. (V.L.S.I. Design) C-DAC, Mohali

2-Times GATE Qualified & ISRO-2004 Qualified
Assitant Professor (ECE Department)
AMITY University, Lucknow
3-Times GATE Qualified

(Design Engineer
Taiwan Semiconductor
Manufacuring Company)
Te
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CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER NAME / TOPIC NAME
CHAPTER -1 : FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION TO BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
FREQUENCY RANGES OF VARIOUS SPECTRUM
SOME MOST WIDELY SPECTRUM WITH THEIR FREQUENCY RANGE
FOURIER SERIES
COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES
FOURIER TRANSFORM
PALEY-WIENER CRITERION
GATE FUNCTION / RECTANGULAR PULSE
SAMPLING / INTERPOLATING / SINC FUNCTION
POWER SPECTRUM
CROSS-CORRELATIONS FUNCTION
AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION
PROBLEMS BASED ON GATE/IES/PSUs
CHAPTER -2 : RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS
RANDOM SIGNALS
PROPERTIES OF RANDOM VARIABLE
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
CUMMULATIVE DISTRIBUTIVE FUNCTION
PROPERTIES OF P.D.F. fX (x)
MARGINAL PROBABILITY FUNCTION
TWO-DIMENSIONAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
EXPECTATION OF A RANDOM VARIABLE
COVARIANCE
SOME COMMONLY OCCURRING PDFS
MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE SUM OF RANDOM VARIABLES
SOLVED EXAMPLES
SPECIAL RANDOM PROCESS
CLASSIFICATION OF RANDOM PROCESSES
CORRELATION
TRANSMISSION OF RANDOM PROCESS THROUGH LINEAR SYSTEMS
SOLVED EXAMPLES
CHAPTER -3 : MODULATION
NEED OF MODULATION
DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
CONCEPT OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
GENERATION OF AM WAVE
DEMODULATION
CHAPTER - 4 : AMPLITUDE MODULATION
INTRODUCTION TO AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE AMPLITUDE MODULATOR
POWER CALCULATION OF AM WAVE
AM DEMODULATION
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS
ADVANTAGE OF A BALANCED MODULATOR OVER A SIMPLE NONLINEAR CIRCUIT
Page No.
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SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT POSSIBLE AMPLITUDE MODULATED SYSTEM
MIXER
DOUBLE-SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC) MODULATION
SINGLE-TONE MODULATION OF DSB-SC
GENERATION OF DSB-SC SIGNALS
DIODE-BRIDGE MODULATOR
RING MODULATOR OR CHOPPER TYPE BALANCED MODULATOR
SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT OR HOMODYNE DETECTION
EFFECT OF PHASE AND FREQUENCY ERRORS IN SYNCHRONOUS
DETECTION
SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) MODULATION
HILBERT TRANSFORM
PROPERTIES OF HILBERT TRANSFORM
CONCEPT OF PRE-ENVELOP OF ANALYTIC SIGNAL
GENERATION OF SSB SIGNALS
(I)
Frequency Discrimination Method
(II)
Phase Discrimination Method or Phasing Method
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VEB) MODULATION SYSTEMS
Generation and Detection of VSB Signal
SUMMARY: modulators and demodulators used by various AM systems.
CHAPTER - 5 : AM TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS
INTRODUCTION TO AM TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM-TRANSMITTER USING LOW-LEVEL
MODULATION
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AM-TRANSMITTER USING HIGH-LEVEL
MODULATION
MASTER OSCILLATOR (MO)
SOME FACTS REGARDING TO THE STABILITY OF MASTER OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY
AM RECEIVER
TYPE OF AM RECEIVER
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY RECEIVER (TRF)
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF RF AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY CONVERSION OR MIXING
SOME FACTS ABOUT CHOICE OF QUALITY FACTOR (Q) OF IF
AMPLIFIER
TRACKING OF A RECEIVER
TYPES OF AGC
CHAPTER - 6 : FREQUENCY MODULATION
INTRODUCTION TO ANGLE (FREQUENCY OR PHASE) MODULATION
IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AM AND FM/PM
SOLVED EXAMPLES
TYPES OF FM
INTERNATIONAL REGULATION FOR FREQUENCY MODULATION
Performance Comparison of FM and PM Systems
Performance Comparison of FM and AM System
FM GENERATION
PRACTICAL ARMSTRONG METHOD FOR FM GENERATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WBFM SIGNAL
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SOLVED EXAMPLES
FOSTER-SEELEY (CENTRE-TUNED) DISCRIMINATOR
CONCEPT OF PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
PRE-EMPHASIS
DE-EMPHASIS
CHAPTER - 7 : NOISE
INTRODUCTION TO NOISE
ERRACTIC NOISE
MAN MADE NOISE
POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM OF SHOT NOISE IN DIODE
WHITE NOISE
NOISE BANDWIDTH
NOISE-TEMPERATURE
NOISE-FIGURE
FIGURE OF MERIT
NOISE IN ANALOG MODULATION
NOISE IN FM
CHAPTER - 8 : SAMPLING THEOREM
SAMPLING THEOREM
SAMPLING OF BANDPASS SIGNALS
PROOF OF SAMPLING THEOREM
SOLVED EXAMPLES
RECONSTRUCTION FILTER (LOW-PASS FILTER)
CHAPTER - 9 : DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION OVER ANALOG
COMMUNICATION
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
QUANTIZER
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF QUANTIZER
BANDWIDTH OF THE PCM SYSTEM
DM (DELTA MODULATION)
COMPANDING
NOISE IN DM (DISADVANTAGES OF DM)
CONDITION TO AVOID SLOPE OVERLOAD NOISE
DIFFERENTIAL PULSE-CODE MODULATION (DPCM)
ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION (ADM)
S- ARY SYSTEM
SOLVED EXAMPLES
CHAPTER - 10 : DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
DIGITAL CARRIER MODULATION
PROBABILITY OF ERROR (PE)
CHAPTER - 11 : INFORMATION THEORY & CODING
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION
UNIT OF INFORMATION
ENTROPY H(X)
RATE OF INFORMATION OR INFORMATION RATE (R)
SHANNON - HARTLEY LAW
CODING
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CODING EFFICIENCY
SHANNON-FANO CODING
HUFFMAN CODING
PROBLEMS BASED ON GATE / PSUS / IES
CLASSROOM PRACTICE SHEET
PROBLEMS BASED ON RANDOM VARIABLES
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON RANDOM VARIABLES
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON AMPLITUDE MODULATION
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON FREQUENCY MODULATION
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON QUANTIZATION , PCM, DPCM
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON SAMPLING THEOREM, FILTERS, CHANNEL
CODING, PLL
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON MATCHED FILTER RECIEVER, BANDWIDTH,
PROBABILITY OF ERROR, TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, GSM
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES
ANSWER KEY
PROBLEMS BASED ON INFORMATION THEORY & NOISE
ANSWER KEY
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TECHGURU CLASSES for ENGINEERS (Your Dedication + Our Guidance = Sure Success)
CHAPTER-1 (BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

CHAPTER-1 : INTRODUCTION TO BASICS OF
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
,
Electronic communication involves the transmission of information

from one point to another point through a communication channel by
means of electronic signals.
Block diagram of electrical communication signal is shown below.
physical
message
(300-3.5 kHz)
Voice
signal) Trans(20-20 kHz) mitter
medium
Receiver
PERSONAL REMARK :
physical
message
(Audio signal)
Information Source
Voice/Speech : Bulk of communication
TV : Transmission of Pictures
Data : Between Computers
Kind of communications
system which we want to
design will depends upon
the type of information
source which we want to
transmit
A communication system has three basic components namely

(i)
Transmitter
(ii)
Transmission media, and
(iii)
Receiver
The function of a transmitter is to process the electrical signal from

different aspects. For example in radio broadcasting the electrical
signal obtained from sound signal is processed to restrict its range of
audio frequencies (20 Hz 20 kHz)
However in the long distance radio communication or broadcasting

signal amplification is necessary before modulation.
Inside a transmitter, signal processing such as
Restriction of range of audio frequencies
Restriction of range of video frequencies
Amplification
Modulation etc. are achieved.
Transmission media or communication channel means the medium

through which message travels from transmitter to receiver.
The main function of receiver is to reproduce the message signal in

electrical form, from the distorted received signal.
The reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process

known as the demodulation or detection.
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,
Normally used transmission media of communication channels are

twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable and free space.
Depending on the transmission media, communication is

divided into two groups
(i)
Line communication or Wireline Communication
(ii)
Radio communication or Wireless Communication
Line communication uses a pair of conductors called

transmission line. Each transmission line can normally convey
only one message at a time.
In radio communication a wireless message is transmitted through

open space by electro-magnetic waves called radiowave, and
communication is referred as radio communication.
PERSONAL REMARK :
The two primary communication resources are transmitted

power and channel bandwidth.
The transmitted power is the average power of the transmitted

signal while the channel bandwidth is defined as the band of
frequencies allocated for the transmission of the message signal.
The most important system design objectives is to use these

two resources as efficiently as possible. In most
communication channels one resource may be considered more
important than other. Because of this, we may classify
communication channels as power limited or band limited.
There are many reasons for distortion in the received signal.

The signal may be distorted mainly due to following reasons(i)
Insufficient channel bandwidth.
(ii)
Random variations in the channel characteristics,
(ii)
External interference, and
(iv)
Noise.
Communication systems, as a subject, covers the study of all

aspects of message transmission with particular emphasis on
the following (1)
Reliability of the system
(2)
Accurary (i.e. least error)
(3)
Speed of Transmission
(4)
Bandwidth requirement
(5)
Power requirement
(6)
Circuit complexity
(7)
Cost
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,
When the spectrum of a message signal extends down to zero or

low frequencies, we define the bandwidth of the signal as that upper
frequency above which the spectrum content of the signal is negligible
and therefore, unnecessary for transmitting information. The important
point is unavoidable presence of noise in a communication system.
Noise refers to unwanted waves that tend to disturb the transmission

and processing of message signals in a communication system. The
source of noise may be internal or external to the system.
A quantitative way to account for the effect of noise is to introduce

signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as a system parameter. We may define
the SNR at the receiver input as the ratio of the average signal
power to the average noise power, both being measured at the
same point.
PERSONAL REMARK :
S
Therefore, SNR = S/N. In dB, SNR = 10 log10 0
N0
Where, S = signal power, N = noise power
,
Table given below shows frequency ranges of various spectrum

S.No. Frequency Range
Band Designation
1.
3 Hz - 30 Hz
Ultra Low Frequency (ULF)
2.
30 Hz - 300 Hz
Extra Low Frequency (ELF)
3.
300 Hz - 3000 Hz
Voice Frequency (VF)
4.
3 kHz - 30 kHz
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
5.
30 kHz - 300 kHz
Low Frequency (LF)
6.
300 kHz - 3000 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF)
7.
3 MHz - 30 MHz
High Frequency (HF)
8.
30 MHz - 300 MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF)
9.
300 MHz -3000 MHz
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
10.
3 GHz - 30 GHz
Super High Frequency (SHF)
11.
30 GHz - 300 GHz
Extreme High Frequency (EHF)
12.
300 GHz - 900 THz
Infra Red Frequencies

Visible Spectrum
13.
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Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
Ultraviolet
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Table given below shows some most widely spectrum with

their frequency range
S. No.
Spectrum
Frequency Range
1.
Voice frequency
300 Hz to 3.5 kHz
2.
Audio spectrum
20 Hz to 20 kHz
3.
Radio spectrum
20 kHz to 20 MHz
4.
Video spectrum
0Hz to 6.5 MHz
5.
Long wave
150 kHz to 285 kHz
6.
Medium wave
350 kHz to 1500 kHz
7.
Short wave
6 MHz to 25 MHz
8.
AM Bandwidth
1100 kHz
9.
FM Bandwidth
20 MHz
10.
Bandwidth of
3 kHz
PERSONAL REMARK :
telephone channel
11.
Frequency band for
8 GHz to 16 GHz
Mobile communication
12.
Frequency band
800 MHz to 1800 MHz
for WLL
13.
Optical fiber
1012 Hz to 1016 Hz
communication
FOURIER SERIES
,
The analysis of signal and linear systems in frequency domain is

based on representation of signals in frequency variable and is done
through employing fourier series and fourier transform.
Fourier series is applied to periodic signals whereas the fourier

transform can be applied to periodic and non periodic signals.
Let the signal x(t) be a periodic signal with period T. If the following
contitions (Known as Dirichlet Conditions) are satisfied.
1.
x(t) is absolutely integrable over its period i.e.

T
| x(t) | dt
0
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2.
The number of maxima and minima of x(t) in each period is finite.
3.
The number of discountinuities of x(t) in each period is finite.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Then x(t) can be expanded into terms of various possible fourier

series
n
Fourier series of x(t) = a 0
(a n cosn 0 t b n sinn 0 t)
where , T =
, a0 =
t0
2
x(t) dt , an
T
t0 T
x(t) cos
t dt
t0
t0 T
& bn =
T
,
t0 T
x(t) sin n 0 t dt
t0
Trigonometric fourier series may also be represented by
C n cos (n 0 t n )
f(t) = C0 +
n 1
Where, C0 = a0 and Cn =
a 2n b 2n
1 b
and n tan n
an
The coefficient Cn are called spectral Amplitudes i.e. Cn is the

amplitudes of spectral components Cn cos (n 0t n) having a
frequency n f0 whereas n specifies the phase information of the
spectral components n f0.
COMPLEX EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES
As the exponential form of fourier series is simpler and more compact
it has extensive application in communication theory.
f(t) =
Fn e
jn 0 t
where,
1
Fn =
T0
t0 T
f(t) e
jn 0 t
dt
t0
Note : The trigonometric series and the complex exponential series

are two ways of representing the same series and one series can be
derived from the other.
The complex function e jn 0 t can be seen as a vector of unit length

and angle n t.
Similarly e jn 0t can be viewed as a vector of unit length and

angle n0t i.e. e jn 0 t = cosn 0t j sin n 0t
e jn
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0t
and
= cosn 0t + j sin n 0t
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FOURIER TRANSFORM
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
Fourier transform is the extension of the fourier series to the general
i2 f t
x(t)e
class of signals (periodic and non peroidic) X (f) =
dt
CONVOLUTION
,
Convolution is a mathematical operation and is useful for describing

the input/output relationship in a LTI system.
The convolution of two time functions f1(t) and f2(t) is defined by the
following integral. f(t) = f1(t) f2(t) =
f1( ) f2(t ) d
SPECTRAL ESTIMATION : INTRODUCTION

,
The signal processing methods which characterise the frequency

content of a signal corresponds to spectral analysis is called spectral
estimation.
Spectral analysis is useful in variety of disciplines like astronomy,

communication engineeering etc.
In communication engineering, spectral estimation is helpful in

detecting the signal component (carrier) which has the noise
component in it.
PALEY-WIENER CRITERION
The necessary and sufficient condition for the amplitude response
|H()| be realizable is
n | H() |
1 2
If H() does not satisfy this condition, it is unrealizable.

IMPULSE SIGNAL (DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION)
(t)
1
at t 0
(t) =
0 other wise
t 0
unit impulse signal (t) =
o other were
Properties of Impulse function

x(t) (t) = x (0) (t)
} Product property
x(t) (t ) = x() (t )
x(t) (t) dt x(0) t Shifting Property
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PERSONAL REMARK :
x(t) (t ) dt x()
(t) dt
Ex.1
Sol.
and (dt) =
(t) }scaling property

||
3t
dt is
2
(t) cos
(a)
[GATE-EC-2001]
(b)
(c)
(d)
Ex.2 Convolution of x (t + 5) with (t 7) is equal to

(a)
Sol.
x(t 12)
(b) x (t + 12)
(c) x (t 2) (d) x (t + 2)
x (t + 5) (t 7)
[GATE-EC-2002]
from convolution property we get (t) = x (t + 5 12) = x (t 7)

GATE FUNCTION / RECTANGULAR PULSE
,
Let us consider a rectangular pulse as shown in figure

x(t)
T
T
t
A for
x(t)
2
2
0
otherwise
T/2
+T/2
t
A rect
=
T
T
T
t
2
2
otherwise
for
SAMPLING / INTERPOLATING / SINC FUNCTION

,
The function
sin x
is the "sine over argument" function and it is
x
denoted by "sinc(x). It is also known as "filtering function"
3 2
Sinc (x)
or
sa(x)
2 3
Fourier transform of rectangular pulse
T
T
t
A for
F. T. of x(t) =
2
2
0 other were
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i.e.
X() =
x(t) e
Ae
dt
or X() =
PERSONAL REMARK :
T/2
j t
j t
dt
T/2
A j t
e
j
T/2
T/2
2A
e j T/2 e j T/2 2A
T
sin
2j
2
or X() = AT sinc
2
|X()|
AT
6
T
2
T
2
T
4
T
4
T
6
T
Energy Spectrum (for Non periodic signal) / Parseval's

theorem for Energy Signals
1
| X ()|2 d =
Ex =
2
,
|X (f)| df = 2 |X (f)| df =
0
| x (t) |
dt
This theorem states that energy of a signal x(t) may be obtained

with the help of its fourier transform i.e. without knowing its time
domain form.
x(t) is an energy signal if 0 < E < and P = 0
"Energy Spectral Density" or "Energy Density Spectrum" is the

energy contribution per unit Bandwidth of a signal. It is denoted by
ESD = () = |X ()|2
So, the total energy of signal may be obtained by integrating

over bandwidth of a signal i.e.
1
1
| X ()|2 d =
ESDT =
2
2
() d
POWER SPECTRUM (for Periodic Signal)

,
x(t) is a "power signal" if 0 < P < and E =

Note: Almost all the practical periodic signals are power signals.
The power of a periodic signal spectrum x(t) in time domain is defined
1
as , P =
T
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T/2
|x (t)| dt where , x(t) =
T/2
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,
Parseval's theorem for Power signals
1
T
,
T/2
PERSONAL REMARK :
|x (t)|2 dt
|Cn |2
T/2
Power Spectral Density (PSD) may be treated as average power

per unit Bandwidth. It is generally denoted by S() i.e. S() =
d p ()
d
CROSS-CORRELATIONS FUNCTION
,
The cross-correlation between two different waveforms or two signals

may be defined as the measure of match or similarity between one
signal and time delayed version of another signal.
This means that cross-correlation between two signals explains how

much one signal is related to the time delayed version of another
signal.
Cross correlation between two signals x1(t) and x2(t) is defined as

R12 ()
Lim
T
1
T
T/2
x1(t) x2 (t ) d
T/2
From the above expression it is clear that cross-correlation represent

the over lapping area between the two signals.
AUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION
Autocorrelation function gives the measure of similarity, match or

coherence between a signal and its delayed replica. This means that
autocorrelation function is a special form of crosscorrelation function.
R ( Lim
1
T
T/2
x(t) x (t ) d
T/2
The autocorrelation function is defined separately for energy signals

and for the power signals.
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PERSONAL REMARK :
Let x(t) be a real signal with the Fourier transform X(f). Let X*(f)
denote the complex conjugate of X(f). Then
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) X(f) = X*(f)
(b) X(f) = X(f)
(c) X(f) = X(f)
(d) X(f) = X*(f)
Sol.(a)
1.
Let the transfer function of a network be H(f) =|H(f)|ej(f)=2ej4f. If

a signal x(t) is applied to sush a network, the output Y(t) is given by
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) 2x(t)
(b) x(t2)
(c) 2x(t 2) (d) 2x (t 4)
Sol.(c)
2.
Power spectral density of a signal is

(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Complex, even and nonegative(b) Real, even and non negative
(c) Real, even and negative
(d) Complex, odd and negative
Sol.(b)
3.
4.
Match List I (Signal) with List II (Spectrum) and seletct the correct
answer using the code given below the lists:
(IES-EE-2005)
List I
List II
A.
1 .
B.
2.
C. Speech Signal
3.
D.
f=0
f=0
f=0
4.
f=0
Codes.
A
(a) 1
(c) 2
(b)
(d)
Sol.(c)
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CHAPTER-2:RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS
RANDOM SIGNALS
PERSONAL REMARK :
Conditional Probability
P(B/A) denotes the Probability of event B when it is known that
event A has already occurred.
i.e.
and
P(A/B) =
P(A B)
P(B)
.... (I)
and
P(A B)
P(A)
P(B/ A)
.... (II)
Bayes Rule
By using Bayes rule one conditional probability can be expressed in
terms of the reversed conditional probability.
P (A / B)
and
P (A )
. P (B / A )
Bayes, theorem
P (B )
P (A / B)
. P ( A / B )
P (A )
P (B )
Independent Events
If one coin is tossed and one dice is thrown, then these two events are
called independent events.
Two events are said to be independent when
conditional probability i.e.
P(A/B) = P (A) or P(B/A) = P (B)
Thus for two independent events, A and B
P(A B) P(A).P(B)
For two marginal probability, P(A/B) = P(B/A) = 1
An experiment whose outcome cannot be predicted exactly, is called a

random experiment (e.g. tossing of a coin, drawing of a card from a
deck of playing cards).
The collective outcomes of a random experiment form a sample space.

A particular outcome is called a sample point or sample collection
of outcomes is called an event.
A random variable is a real valued function defined over the sample

space of random experiment is known as stochastic variable or
random function.
RANDOM VARIABLE
From random variable we mean, a real number connected with the
outcome of random experiment.
Let W be the outcome of random experiment then X() is a real number
associated with the event W.
Let w be the event of tossing two coins. X() is the number of heads.
Outcome
Random
Variable
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A random variable is a function X() with domain s and range (, )
PERSONAL REMARK :
such that for every real number a, the event w : X() a B

S : Sample space
B : event of sample space
Properties of Random Variable
A function x(w) from S to R (, ) is a random variable if and only

if for real a, w : x ( w ) a B
If X1 and X2 are random variable and c is a constant then c x1, x1 + x2,

x1x2 are also random variable
If x is a random variable then
1
, Where
x
X + () = maximum
X () min imum 0, X()
1
(w ) , if X() = 0
x
0,
X() ,
X random variable
If X1 and X2 are random variable then max [x1, x2] and min [x1, x2] are
also random variable.
If X is a random variable and f ( X ) is a continous or/and increasing
function, then f(x) is a random variable.
Discrete Random Variable

A real valued function defined on a discrete sample space is called a
discrete random variable. Examples are marks obtained in a test,
telephone calls per unit time, number of successes in n trials.
Probability Mass Function
If X is a discrete random variable with distinct values x1, x2...xn... then
the function p(x) defined as:
p(x xi )
px (x)
0
if x xi
if x xi ;i 1, 2..
is called the probability mass function.

The set of ordered pairs x i , p( x i ) ; i 1, 2, 3,...n... or
x1 , p1 , x 2 , p 2 ,.....x n , p n ..... , specifies the probability distribution

of the random variable X.
Discrete Distribution Function
pi 0 ,
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i
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px1 px x i Fx1 Fx i 1 , where F is the distribution function

of X
Cummulative Distributive Function (cdf) for a discrete random

variable X can be defined as
Fx ( x ) P ( X x )
f (u ) ,
PERSONAL REMARK :
ux
If X can take on the values x1, x2, x3, ...... xn then the
distribution function is given by
x x1
0
x1 x x 2
f (x1)
Fx ( x )
f
(x
)
f
(x
)
x 2 x x3
2
1
f (x ) f (x ) f (x ) .....f (x ) x x
2
3
n
n
1
Domain of Fx(x) is , and its range is [0,1].

Properties of F(x)
Fx ( x ) 0
Fx () 1
Fx ( ) 0
FX(x) is a non-decreasing function, i.e.,
monotonically increasing function
FX ( x1 ) FX ( x 2 ) for x1 x 2
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
fx (x)dx
x+dx
Consider the small interval (x, x + dx) of length dx around the point x.
Let fx (x) be any continous function of x so that f(x) dx represents the
probability that X falls in the infinitesimal interval (x, x + dx).
Px x x dx f x x dx
or f x x lim
x 0
Px x x dx
x
The curve f(x) is called the probability density function for continous
distribution function
P a x b P a x b P a x b P a x b
P x c 0 c . which is not possible in discrete case.
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Probability Density Function (PDF) for a continuous random variable

is defined as
f X ( x)
d
FX ( x )
dx
The pdf [i.e. fX (x)] is the first derivative of the probability distribution
function FX(x). The first derivative of probability distribution may not
exist at all points because the probability distribution function may be
discontinous function for discrete random variables. Here we assume
that FX(x) is a continuous function
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex. A probability density function
is of the form p(x) = Ke-a|x|,
x ().The value of K is
(a) 0.5
(b) 1
(c) 0.5
(d)
DRDO-EC-2008)
FX ( x ) P X x
f X ( x ) dx
However, P X x
fX (x)dx
x2
( x ) dx Fx ( x 2 ) Fx ( x1 ) P ( x1 X x 2 )
x1
Properties of P.D.F. fX (x)
PDF is non-negative function
Area under the pdf curve is unity
f X ( x ) dx 1
The probability of X lying between a and b is given by

b
P (a x b )
X (x)
....(A)
dx
For a continuous case, the probability of x being equal to any

particular value is zero. Hence equation (A) can be written as
P( a x b ) P( a x b ) P( a x b ) P( a x b )
Let fx(x) or f(x) be the pdf of a random variable X, where X is defined

from a to b. Then
b
Arithmetic Mean =
x f (x ) dx
a
x f (x ) dx
Harmonic Mean =
Geometric Mean =
log x f (x) dx
a
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PERSONAL REMARK :
r (about origin ) =
f ( x ) dx
r (about the point x A)
x A f (x) dx
a
r (about mean )
x mean f ( x ) dx
a
Median : It is the point which divide the entire distribution into two
equal parts.
M
f x dx f x dx
1
2
Mean deviation
Mean deviation about mean
b
M.D = x mean f x dx
Mean deviation about any point A

b
M.D about A x A f x dx
1
i
Q
Quartilies : 1 f x dx , i 1, 2, 3, 4
4
a
Di
Deciles : D i f ( x ) dx
a
i
, i 1, 2..., 8, 9
10
Mode: It is the value of x for which f(x) is maximum.

Two-Dimensional Random Variables
Let X and Y be two random variables defined on the same sample
space then the function (x, y) that assigns a point in R 2 R R is
called two dimensional random variable.
MARGINAL PROBABILITY FUNCTION
m
p x x
p x , y
x, y
j1
p x y
p x , y
x, y
j1
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Two-dimensional distribution function
PERSONAL REMARK :
Fxy x,y P X x, Y y
Marginal Distribution Function

Fx x P X x, Y Fxy x, (in discrete case)
x
dx fXY x, y dy (in continous case)
FY y P X , Y y Fxy , y
y
dy fXY x, y dx
Marginal Density Function
fx x
p x, y for
XY
discrete case
f xy
f (X)
x
XY
dy(for continous case)
fy (y)
XY
(xy) fXY x, ydx
Condition for independence

Two random variables are independent if and only if
fXY x, yfX xfY y

FXY x, y FX xFY y
Two statistical averages that are most commonly used for characterizing
a random variable, X are its mean ( x ) and variance 2x .
Expectation of a Random Variable
It is the average value of a random phenemenon.For random variable
X, expectation is defined as
EX
x f (x)
(for discrete random variable)
EX x f (x ) dx (for continous random variable)
Expectation value of a random variable g(x) is defined as

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Eg x
g x f x
PERSONAL REMARK :
Eg x g ( x ) f ( x ) dx
Properties of Expectation
E (X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y)
E (X Y) = E(X) E(Y) [when X and Y are independent ]
E(a X + b) = a E (X) + b
E (b) b f ( x ) dx b f ( x ) dx b
If g(x) is non-linear
1
1
E X 2 E ( x ) 2
E 1 1 E ( x ),
x
Elog x log E( x ),
If X and Y are independent random variables, then
E X 2 E(x ) 2
E h x . k Y E h x E k Y
Variance: Variance of a random variable X with mean x is defined
as E X x 2 E X 2 x 2 2 x X
or E X 2 x 2 2 x 2 E X 2 2x
Properties of Variance
V aX b a 2 Vx
If b = 0, then V(ax) = a2V(x)
Variance depends on change of scale

If a = 0, then V (b) = 0
Variance of a constant is zero
If a = 1, then V (X + b) = V (X)
Variance is independent of change of origin.
V X1 X 2 V X1 V X 2 2 Cov X1 , X 2
If X1 and X 2 are independent

V X1 X 2 V X1 V X 2
Covariance
Covariance between random variable X and Y is defined as
Cov (X, Y) EX EX Y EY
Cov(X, Y) EX, Y EX EY
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For independent random variable. X and Y, E(X, Y) = E(X) E(Y)
Cov (X, Y) = 0
Important Points Regarding Covariance
Cov (aX, bY) = ab Cov(X, Y)
Cov (X + a, Y + b) = Cov (X, Y)
XX YY
1 Cov X, Y
Cov
,
x
y x y
Cov (X + Y, Z) = Cov (X, Z) + Cov (Y, Z)
The positive root of variance is called standard deviation ( x ) .
The variance or a standard deviation is a measure of the spread of

the value of random variable, X, from its mean ( x ) .
PERSONAL REMARK :
Some Commonly Occurring PDFS

(i)
Uniform pdf : fX ( x ) b a ,
x (a, b )
f x(x)
1
(b a )
(ii)
Gaussian or Normal pdf : A random variable X is called normal

or Gaussian pdf if its form like.
fx(x)
1
2x
f X x
1
2 . x
x x 2
,e
22 x
, x
where, x mean of random variable.

2x variance of random variable.
(iii)
Rayleigh pdf : Used for describing the peak values of random

process.
x
fX ( x )
e
x
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Gaussian or normal pdf occurs in so many application because of

remarkable phenomenon called CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM.
As we know that electrical noise in communication systems is often

due to cumulative effects of a large number of randomly moving charged
particles and hence the instantaneous value of noise will have a
Gaussian distribution.
In our studies on the effect of Gaussian noise on digital signal

transmission, we shall often be interested in probabilities such as
FX (x) P(x a)
or
1
e
2 x
( x x )2
2 2x
x x
FX (x) P(x a) 1 Q

x
or FX ( x ) P ( X x)
1
1
2 2 x
PERSONAL REMARK :
x x
Q
dx
( x x )2
1
2 x
.e
2 2x
.dx
( x x ) 2
2 2x
. dx
If we assume Z be the standarized random variable corresponding to

X. Thus if Z
Hence, f Z ( z)
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x
1
2
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. Then mean of Z is zero and its variance is 1.
z2
e 2
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CHAPTER-2 (RANDOM VARIABLES & RANDOM PROCESS) : COMMUNICATION

1.

The PDF of a Gaussian random variable X is given by
Px (x)
1
3 2
PERSONAL REMARK :
(x 4)2
e 18 .The probability of the event { X = 4} is
(GATE-EC-2001)
(a)
1
2
(b)
(c)
(d)
3 2
Sol.(c) pdf of the gaussian distribution function is given by
( x 4)
1
e 18
Px(x) =
3 2
1
4
Probability of the event at X = 4

P(X = 4) = P (X 4) P (X< 4)
or P (X = 4) = 1 P (X > 4) P (X< 4)
or P (X = 4) = 1 (P(X> 4) +P (X < 4))
or P (X = 4) = 1 1 = 0
2.
If the variance 2 x of d(n) = x(n)x(n1) is one-tenth the variance
2x of a stationary zero-mean discrete-time signal x(n), then the

normalized autocorrelation function R xx (k) | 2 x at k 1 is
(GATE-EC-2002)
(a) 0.95
(b) 0.90
(c) 0.10
(d) 0.05
Sol.(a) 2d =E[x2 (n)]=E[x[n] x(n 1)]2
2 d =E[x 2 (n)]+E[x 2 (n 1)] 2E[x(n)x(n 1)]

2 d = 2 x + 2 x 2R xx (1) or
19 2 x
or 2Rxx(1) =
10
or
2x
=2 2 x 2R xx (1)
10
R xx (1) 19
= =0.952
2 x
20
Common Data for Questions 3 and 4.

Let X be the Gaussian random variable obtained by sampling the
y2
1
)
e 2 dy .Autocorelation
process at t = ti and let Q()
2
0.2
1 and mean = 0
function R xx () 4 e
3.
The probability that x 1 is :
(a)
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1
1
(d) 1 Q
2 2
2 2
(b) Q(0.5) (c) Q
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Sol.(d) The pdf for Gaussian random variable is
p x (x)=
1
x 2
e (x x )
/ 2
For zero mean, p x ( x )
PERSONAL REMARK :
2
x
1
x
ex
/ 2 x2
2 x R xx (0) 8 or x 2 2 or P[x 1] 1 P(x 1)
P[x 1] 1 p x (x)dx or P[x 1] 1
or P[x 1] 1
1
2 2
or P[x 1] 1
4.
1
2
e
2
x 2 /16
dx , Put
1
2 2
1
x 2
x
2 2
e x
y or
/ 2 2x
dx
dx
2 2
dy
2
1
e y / 2 dy or P[x 1] 1 Q
2 2
Let Y and Z be the random variables obtained by sampling X(t) at

t = 2 and t = 4 respectively. Let W = Y Z. The variance of W is
(GATE-EC-2003)
(a) 13.36
(b) 9.36
(c) 2.64
(d) 8.00
Sol.(c) 2 W E[W 2 ] E[Y Z]2 or 2 W E[Y 2 ] E[Z2 ] 2E[YZ]
2 W 2 Y 2 z 2R YZ ( )
Here, t = 2, since Y sampled
at t = 2 and Z sampled at t = 4
2 W 8 8 2 4(e 0.4 1) or 2 W 2.64
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Mean and Variance of the Sum of Random Variables
PERSONAL REMARK :
Let X and Y be two random variables with means x and y .

Let Z = X + Y with mean Z given as
( x y)
f ( x , y) dx. dy
z x y
i.e., equal to the sum of the means.

Note : This result holds whether the variables X and Y are
independent or not.
Variance (or the second moment) of Z = X + Y is given as
2z ( x y) 2
(x y)
f(x, y) dx dy
x 2 f ( x ) dx . f ( y )dy
or
x y 2 x y
y. f ( y ) dy
f ( x ) dx
or
2z
2x
2y
f ( x )dx
x f ( x ) dx
2z
y 2 f ( y )dy
f( y) dy 1)
2 x y
Special Case : If either x or y or both are zero, then resultant

variance becomes , 2z 2x 2y
Probability density of Z = X + Y (i.e., sum of random variables)

Here we want to calculate the probability density f Z
(Z) of Z = X + Y in terms of joint density f (x, y). Assume an arbitrary
value of Z and call it z. Then the region Y Z X is shown as shaded
region.
Hence the probability that Z z is the same as the Probability that
y Z X independently of the value of X i.e. for x . This
probability is FZ ( z) P ( Z z ) P X , Y z X
Y
Region
where
Y ZX
Y=Z X
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PERSONAL REMARK :
zx
or FZ ( z )

dx
f x, y dy
.....(A)
and the probability density function of Z is given as
d
FZ (z) FZ (z) f (x, z x).dx
dz
.....(B)
When X and Y are independent, f ( x, y ) fx . fy and equation (B) may be
written FZ ( z )
f (x ). f ( z x ) dx
Theorem Based on Transformation of Random Variables
Theorem 1 :Let X and Y be continuous random variables whose joint

pdf fXY (x, y) is given, and given Z = g (X,Y) and W = h (X, Y). Then
fZ W (z,w) can be determined as,
n
FZ, W ( z, w )
xy ( xi, yi )
| Ji |
i1
where, Ji is the Jacobian of the transformation defined as.

xi
z
Ji =
Ji yi
z
xi
w
yi
w
Theorem 2 :To Determine fY (y) when f X ( x ) is given.Solve the

equation y = g ( x ), and find its real roots say x1, x2..... xk. we have
Y g(x1) g(x 2 ) ........... g(xk )
k
Then f Y ( y )
k 1
fX ( xk )
| g' ( x k ) |
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 : Given Y = 2 X + 3. If random variable X is uniformly
distributed over [ 1, 2] find fY( y ).
fX(x)
1/3
1 x 2
f
x
3
Solution : We have x
0 otherwise
y g ( x ) 2x 3
....(1)
and g' ( x ) 2
The range of y is
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y1 = 2 x (1) + 3 = 1 to y2 = 2 x 2 + 3 = 7.
PERSONAL REMARK :
y3
x1
2
Equation (1) has a single solution i.e.
1
y7
fY (y) 6
0 otherwise
f ( x ) 1/ 3 1
So f Y ( y ) X 1
or
| g' ( x 1 ) |
2
6
Example 2 : Let Y = sin x, where X is uniformly distributed with

1
0 x 2 , find fY (y)
fX (x) = 2
0 otherwise
Solution : y g(x) sin x
From equation (A) it is clear that for
| y | 1,
....(A)
the equation, y sin x has
no solution. Hence f Y ( y ) 0. If | y | 1 . Then y = sin x, has two solution

in the interval 0 x 2 .
y=sin x
x1
i.e., x1 sin 1 y
x2
and x2 x1 sin1 y
g' ( x1) cos x1 cos ( sin1 y ) 1 y 2

g' ( x 2 ) cos x 2 cos ( x1 ) cos x1 1 y 2
fY(y) =
fx(xK)
f (x)
f (x )
= x 1 + x 2 +.......
| g' (xK) | | g' (x1 ) | | g'(x2) |
1
2
or f Y (y)
1/ 2
+
2
1 y
1 y
1
1 y2
, | y | <1
Example 3 : Given, Y = X2, find fY (y) for x = N (0 : 1)

Solution : Y = g ( x ) = X2
....(A)
form equation (A) we conclude that if y < 0, then the equation Y = X2
has no real solution, hence fY (y) = 0. However if y > 0, then equation
y = x2 has two solution i.e. x y or x1 y , x 2 y
Since, X = N ( 0 : 1 ) given means 0 mean and 1- variance.
fX ( x )
Now
or
f Y (y)=
fY ( y ) =
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x2
2
i.e., f X ( x ) is an even function.
f x (x k )
f (x ) f (x )
= x 1 + x 2
g'(x k )
| g'(x1 ) | | g'(x 2 ) |
fx
y + f y
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PERSONAL REMARK :
y
y
1
e 2
e 2
2
or f Y ( y ) 2
2 y
2 y
1
y / 2
or
fY ( y )
.e
.u ( y )
2y
u ( y)
Example 4 : Consider X has a uniform probability density function

given
1
fX (x) = 2
0
0 x 2
otherwise
Determine x, E [ X2 ], x
2
Solution :
x.fX (x)dx
E [x ]
x.
x .f (x) dx
X
1
2
1 x2

2 2
1 x3
x .
.dx

2
2 3
2
4 2
( )2
3
x E [ x 2 ] 2x
.dx
1 4 2
.
2 2
4 2
Ans.
3
3
Example 5 : Given a random process X ( t ) = A

( t ) where
cos
is a random variable, and A and are deterministic.

1
Assume a uniform distribution f () = 2 [0,2], find x and 2x .
Solution: x E[X(t)]
x(t)fX (x)dx
A
2
A cos ( t ) . f ( ) d
cos ( t ) d
with as a random variable
A sin (t
A

sin ( t ) 02
2
1
2
A
sin ( 2 t ) sin ( 0 t ) A sin t sin t 0
2
2
2x E [X (t) x ]2 E [X2] 2x [ A cos (t ) ]2 f ( ) d 0.2
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A2
2
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2
2
cos
0
2
2
( t ) d A . 2 A
2 2
2
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RANDOM PROCESS
A probalistic description of a collection of function of time is called
random process.
Consider a random experiment having sample space S and
outcomes for each outcome S we assign a real valued
function of time X(t, ). This real valued function of time is called
Random Process.
PERSONAL REMARK :
For fixed say 1 , we have a function of time X(t, i ) x i (t)

called sample function.
Set of sample function is called ensemble
For fixed t say t j , X(t j , ) X j called a number
x1(t)
x1(t1)
t1 t2
x1(t2)
t 3 x1(t3)
2 2
2 3
x2 (t)
2
outcomes
2 1
t1 t 2
t3
t1
t2
t3
t
n 1
n 3
x1(t), x2(t) .........xn(t) are the sample function.

SPECIAL RANDOM PROCESS
A.
Gaussian Random Process

A gaussian process X(t) is completely specified by the set of
means i E[X(t i )]
& the set of autocorrelations
i = 1, .........n
R xx (t i , t j ) E[X(t i )X(t j )] i, j = 1 ......n
If the set of random variables X(ti) i = 1 , .....n is unocorrelated

i.e. Cij = 0 then X(ti) are independent.
If a gaussian process X(t) is WSS then X(t) is SSS.
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B.
If a gaussian process X(t) of a linear system is gaussian then the

output process Y(t) is also gaussian.
White Noise
S
XX
S xx ( )
(t)
2
Mean of white noise is zero.
Band-limited white noise
R xx ()
C.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sxx ( ) 2
0
| | B
| | B
R XX ( )
B sin B
1 B j
e d
2 B 2
2 B
Sxx ()
RXX
n
2
D.
Figure : Band Limited white noise

Narrowband Random Process
A WSS process x(t) with zero mean & its PSD Sxx() is non - zero
only in some narrow frequency if bandwidth 2W that is very small
compared to a center frequency c, as shown in fig. The process
X(t) is narrowband random process.
X(t)=V(t)cos[ct +(t)]
S XX
+c
V(t) = envelop function , (t) = Phase function

x(t) V(t)cos (t) cos c t V(t)sin (t)sin c t
= X c (t) cos c t X s (t) sin c t

Xc (t) V(t)cos (t) (in-phase component)
X s (t) V(t)sin (t)
(quadrature component)
X (t)
V(t) X 2c (t) X 2s (t), (t) tan 1 s
Xc (t)
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CHAPTER-2 (RANDOM VARIABLES ) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

CLASSIFICATION OF RANDOM PROCESSES
A random process X(t, S) represents an ensemble or a set of family of

time functions where t and s are variables. In place of x(t, s) and X(t, s)
the short notations x(t) and X(t) are often used.
Figure shows the classification of random process.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Random variable
wide sense stationary (WSS)
Strict Sense Stationary (SSS)
Ergodic
Fig. : Classification of random process.
The mean value of X(t) = E[X(t)] is known as ensemble average.
However if sample function say x(t) over the entire time scale, then
x( t ) Lim
1
2T
x ( t ) dt E [ x ( t ) ]
called time average, which is expected value of all mean values.
Ergodic Process
Ensemble averages is equal to time average i.e. when all statistical
ensemble properties are equal to statistical time properties, then the
process is known as ergodic process.
i.e.
X(t) x(t)
1
E x(t) = Lim
T T
T/2
x(t)dt x
T / 2
Note : An ergodic processes is necessary stationary processes, but

the reverse is not true.
Stationary or Strict Sense Stationary (SSS) Process

If all the statistical properties of a random process are independent of
time, then it is stationary processes or S.S.S. process.
i.e.
E X ( t1) E X ( t 2 ) ....... E X( t )
which indicates that if X(t) is S.S.S. process, the joint density of random
variable X(t) and X(t + ) is independent of actual time t1 and t2 and
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depends upon the time difference i.e. ( t 2 t1 ) only
i.e.
PERSONAL REMARK :
x (t) x Constant
2x (t) 2x Constant
Wide Sense Stationary (WSS) Process

A random process will be WSS if
(i)
Its mean is constant i.e. E X(t) x Constant , and
(ii)
Its autocorrelation depends only on the time difference,

i.e.
X (t)
. X (t )
Rxx () ....(A)
Special Case
(i)
(ii)
By setting 0, equation (A) becomes E[X2(t)] , thus the average

power of a WSS prosess is independent of time and equals to
Rxx(0).
Two process X(t) and Y(t) are called joint WSS if each is WSS
and their cross-correlation depends only on the time difference, .
i.e., RXY t,t ) E X(t)Y(t ) RXY ()
AUTO-CORRELATION
The correlation is similarity between one waveform and time delayed

version of the other waveform. An analogy case may be stated as
comparison of your present photograph and the photograph
taken 10 years back.
Autocorrelation function is given as

R xx ( ) E X ( t ) , X ( t ) Lim
1
T
T/2
x ( t ). x ( t ) dt
T / 2
Properties of R xx ()
R xx ( ) R xx ( ) for real signal
RXX(t ) = R*XX(-t ) for complex signal
| R xx ( ) R xx (0) i.e.Rxx(0) is the maximum value of R xx ( )
and
occurs at the origin.
R xx (0) E [ X2 ( t ) ]
AUTO-CORRELATION
For real signa (or non-periodic signal)Cross correlation function is given
as , RXY () = E X(t), Y(t + )
= Lim
Note :
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0522-6563566
LUCKNOW
1
T
+T / 2
x(t) * y(t ) dt
T /2
The conjugate symbol * is removed if the functions are real.
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If the correlation is defined for energy signal, then
RXY()
PERSONAL REMARK :
x(t).y(t )d
x(t ).y*(t)d
Properties of R xy ( )
RXY () RXX()
| RXY ()| RXX(0). RYY(0)
| RXY ()|
1
2
XX
(0) RYY(0)
Autocovariance, CXX () RXX() 2X
Cross covariance, CXY () R XY() X Y
Two process, X (t)and Y (t) are called orthogonal or incoherent

if, R xy ( ) 0
Two process, X (t)and Y (t) are uncorrelated if, CXY () 0

i.e., RXY() X Y i.e., cross correlation functions RXY () are
equal to the multiplication of mean values.
Power spectral density of a random process X(t) is a Fourier transform

of autocorrelation function for a periodic or aperiodic signal i.e.,
S xx ( )
xx ( ) . e
R xx ( ) from the given signal can be calculated as

T 2
1
x t .x t .dt
T T
T 2
R xx Lim
1
and R xx ( )
2
xx
(). e j . d
Properties of S xx ()
SXX () is real i.e. SXX () 0 for all .
SXX () SXX () i.e. Power spectral density of a random
process X(t) is an even function of frequency .
LUCKNOW
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LUCKNOW
SXY () SYX() S*YX ()

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Relation between input and output spectral densities
PERSONAL REMARK :
SYY () |H () | . SXX()
Energy Spectral Density

X () is a measure of density of the energy contained in random
process X (t) in joules per hertz.
Since the amplitude spectrum of a real-valued random process X(t) is
an even function of , the energy spectral density of such a system is
symmetrical about the vertical axis passing through the origin.
Total energy of the random process X(t) is defined as
1
X().d
2
Note: Autocorrelation function of a pulse type signal (i.e. energy signal)

gives energy density spectrum
X i.e. F RXX X
Power of correlated function

Let us consider a function f1(t) with power P1and another function f2(t)
with power P2. The normalized power (r.m.s. value). P1,2 of the
combined function is given by.
T 2
P1, 2
2
1
f1 t f 2 t dt
T T 2
T2
T2
1
1
2
2
2
f1 t dt
f 2 t dt
T T 2
T T 2
T
T 2
f t .f t dt
1
T 2
or P1, 2 P1 P2 2R 1, 2
....(A)
Following conclusion are drawn from equation (A)
The power of two correlated function is equal to the sum of

powers of each individual function plus twice the crosscorrelation between them.
If the functions f1 (t) and f2 (t) are uncorrelated, i.e.,
R1, 2 ( ) = 0, then the powers of the combined functions is equal
to the sum of the powers of each individual function, and
Functions correlated by dc components are considered as
uncorrelated.
Note : R XX ( ) some times can be written as RX (t )

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Transmission of Random Process through Linear Systems
A.
PERSONAL REMARK :
System Response : In the given figure X(t) is the input random

process and Y(t) is the output random process of a system having
impulse response h(t)
Y(t)
X(t)
LTI
System
Y(t) = X(t) * h(t) = h(t) *X(t) = h()X(t )d
B.
Mean and Autocorrelation of Output

E[Y(t)] E[h(t) * X(t)] E h()X(t )d

h()E[X(t )]d
h( )
(t )d h(t) * x (t)
For wide sense stationary random process, E[X(t )] x
E[Y(t)]
h() d h()d H(0)

x
Thus for WSS, Y(t) is constant H(0) is the frequency response of

filter at = 0
RYY(t1,t2) = E[Y(t1)Y(t2)]

E h()X(t 1 )h()X(t 2 )dd

h()h()E[X(t
)X(t 2 )]d d
h()h()R
XX
(t1 , t 2 )dd
XX
(t 2 t1 )dd
For WSS

R YY ( )
h( )h()R
C.
Power spectral Density of the output
SYY () | H() |2 SXX ()
R YY ( )
1
2
j
| H() | SXX ()e d
2
E[Y 2 (t)] R YY (0)

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1
2
| H() | SXX ()d
2
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SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1 X(t) = Acos(t + ), where A &are constants & is a uniform
random variable over [ ] show that X(t) is WSS.
PERSONAL REMARK :
1
, ,
f () 2
0
otherwise
Sol.
WSS expectation is constant
E[X(t)] =
A cos(t )f
()d
A
A
Acos(t )f ()d
sin(t )
2
2
A
A
sin(t ) sin(t ) [sin(t) sin t] 0
2
2
R XX
( ) E[X(t)X(t )]
A cos(t )Acos(t )f
()d
A2
cos(t )cos(t )d
2
A2
cos(2t 2 )d cos d
4
A2
A2
| sin(2t 2 | cos 2
cos
4
2
Ex.2 Consider a random process X(t) = Acos(t + ) where & are

constants & A is a random variable. Determine whether X(t) is WSS.
Sol.
E[X(t)] E[A cos(t )] cos(t )E[A]

A cos(t ) = constant
R XX ( ) E[A 2 cos(t )cos(t )]

A2
E
cos(2 t 2 ) cos
2
1
cos(2t 2) cos cos E[A2 ]
2
Comment : X(t) is not WSS.

Ex.3 X(t) A cos t Bsin t ,where is constant & A & B are random
variables.
(a) Show that the condition E[A] = E[B] = 0 is necessary for X(t) to
be stationary.
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(b) Show that X(t) is WSS if the random variables A&B are uncorrelated
with equal variable i.e.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sol. (a) X(t) to be stationary

E[X(t)] = constant
E[Acost + B sint] = constant
cos t E[A] + sin t E[B] = constant
For E[A] = E[B] = 0, E[X(t)] = 0 = constant
(b) R XX (t1 , t 2 ) E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]
= [(Acost1+Bsint1)(Acost2+Bsint2)]
2
=E[A cost1cost2+ABcost1sint2+ABsint1cost2+B2sint1sint2]
= cost1cost2E[A2]+cost1sint2E[AB] + sint1cost2 E[AB] + sint1
sint2E[B2 ]
If E[AB] = 0 and E[A2] = E[B2] = 2
RXX (t1,t2) = 2cost1cost2 +2sint1sint2
RXX(t1, t2) = 2 cos(t1 t2)
RXX(t1, t2) = 2cos = RXX()
Ex.4 A random process X(t) is said to be covariance stationary if the covariance
of X(t) depends only on the time difference Z = t1 t2 i.e.
CXX(t. t + ) = CXX()
For X(t) = (A+1)cost + Bsint, show that X(t) is not WSS but is covariance
stationary where A & B are independent random variables for which
E[X(t)] = E [(A+1)cost + B sint]
E[A] = E[B] = 0 & E [A2] = E [B2] = 1
Sol. E[X(t)] = costE [A + 1] + sin t E[B]
= cos t which is not constant
CXX(t, t + ) = E[X(t) X(t +)] E [X(t)] E[X(t + )]
= E[{(A+1)cost + B sint}{(A+1) cos(t + )+ B sin (t +)] E[(A + 1)
cost + B sint]E[(A+1)cos(t+) + B sin (t + )]
= E [(A+1)2 cos t cos (t +) + (A +1) B cost sin(t + ) + (A +1) B sin
t cos (t + ) + B2 sin (t +) sin t] cost cos (t + )
= cos t cos(t + )E[A2 +2A +1] + E (AB + B)cos t sin(t + +
E[AB+B]sin t cos(t ++ sin (t + ) sin t E [B2] cost cos (t + )
= 2 costcos(t +) + sin (t +) sint cos t cos (t + )
= cos (t + )cost + sin (t +) sin t = cos (t + t) = cos
Ex.5 Show that X(t) = Acos (t +) is ergodic in both the mean &
the autocorrelation
T/2
Sol. < X(t) Tlim
LUCKNOW
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1
A cos(t )dt
T T/ 2
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PERSONAL REMARK :
T/2
A sin(t )
lim
T T
T / 2
sin
sin

A 2
lim
T T
lim
A sin( ) sin( )
lim
A sin sin
0
T
T /2
< X(t) X(t +)> Tlim
1
A 2 cos(t )cos(t )dt
T T / 2
T /2
A2 T / 2
A2
lim
cos(2
)dt
cos dt
T 2T
2T T / 2
T / 2
A2
cos
2
We have proved already E[X(t)] = 0

RXX ()
A2
cos
2
Ex.6 If X(t) is WSS then

E[{ X(t + )] X(t)2}] = 2[RXX(0) RXX()]
where RXX() is the autocorrelation of X(t)

Sol.
E[X{(t + ) X(t)}2] = E[X2(t + ) 2 X(t +)X(t) + X2(t)]

= E[X2 (t + )] 2 E[X(t + )X(t)] + E[X2(t)]
= RXX (0) 2 RXX() + RXX(0)
= 2 [RXX(0) RXX ()]
Ex.7 For WSS |RXX ()| < RXX (0)

E [{X(t) + X(t + )2] > 0
Sol.
E[X2 (t)] + 2E [X(t) X(t + )]+ E[X2(t + )] > 0

RXX(0) + 2 RXX () + RXX (0) > 0
2 RXX () + 2RXX () > 0
RXX () + RXX () > 0
RXX(0) > |RXX()|
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Ex.8 Show that power spectrum of a real random process x(t) is real
SXX(-) = SXX ()
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sol.
SXX() =
XX
( )e j dt
or SXX()
XX
( )(cos jsin )d
or SXX ( )
R XX ( ) cos d j R XX ( )sin d
and SXX ( )
R XX ( ) cos d j R XX ( )sin d
or real random process
SXX ( )
XX
( ) cos d SXX ( )
Ex. 9 A class of modulated random signal Y(t) is defined by

Y(t) = AX(t) cos (ct + ) where X(t) is the random message signal
& A cos (ct + ) is the carrier. The random message signal X(t) is a
zero mean stationary random process with autocorelation RXX() &
power spectrum SXX(). The carrier amplitude A & frequency c are
constants & phase is a random variable uniformly dirtributed over [0,
2]. Assuming X(t) & are independent , find mean, autocorelation
&power spectrum of Y(t).
Sol. E[Y(t)] = E[AX(t) cos( ct +)]
= AE [X(t)]E[cos(ct + )]
E[X(t)] = 0, E [Y(t)] = 0
RYY (t1, t2) = E [Y(t1)Y(t2)]
= E[AX(t1)cos(ct1+) AX (t2) cos (ct2 +)]
= A2 E[X(t1)X(t2)cos(ct1+)cos (ct2 +)]
A2
E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]E[cos{ c (t1 t 2 ) 2}cos c (t 1 t 2 )]
2
A2
E[X(t1 )X(t 2 )]{E[cos{ c (t1 t 2 ) 2}] E[cos c ]}
2
A2
R XX ( ) cos c
2
2
E[cos c {(t1 t 2 ) 2}]
LUCKNOW
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1
cos{ c (t1 t 2 ) 2}d
2 0
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2
PERSONAL REMARK :
1 sin c (t1 t 2 ) 2
0
2
2
0
F.T.
SYY
RYY ()
SYY
A2
A2
j
R
(
)cos
e
d
F{R XX ( ) cos c )
c
2 XX
2
or SYY
A2
A2
F{R XX ( )e j }
F{R XX ( )e c }
22
22
or SYY
A2
[SXX ( c ) SXX ( c )
4
Ex.10Let X(t) & Y(t) be both zero-mean & WSS random process consider
the random process Z(t) defined by Z(t) = X(t) + Y(t)
(a) Determine autocorrelation & power spectrum of Z(t) if X(t) &
Y(t) are joint WSS.
(b) Repeat part (a) if X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal.
(c) Show that if X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal, then the mean square of
Z(t) is equal to the sum of the mean squares of X(t) & Y(t).
Sol. RZZ (t, t + ) = E [Z(t) Z(t + )]
= E [{X(t) + Y(t)}{X(t + ) + Y (t + )}]
= E [X(t)X(t + )] +E[X(t)Y(t + )] + E[Y(t)X(t +)] +E[Y(t)Y(t+)]
RZZ() = RXX () + RXY() + RYX () + RYY()
SZZ() = SXX() + SXY() + SYX() + SYY()
(b) If X(t) & Y(t) are orthogonal
E[X(t) Y (t + )] = E [Y(t)X(t + )] = 0
RZZ () = RXX () + RYY()
(c) E[Z2(t)] = E[X2(t) + 2X(t)Y(t) + Y2(t)]
= E[X2(t)] + 2E [X(t)Y(t)] + E[Y2(t)]

= E[X2(t)] + E [Y2(t)]
Ex.11Two random processes X(t) & Y(t) are given by
X(t) = A cos (t +), Y(t) = A sin (t + ) where A & are constants
& is a uniform random variable over [0, 2]. Find the cross-correlation
of X(t) & Y(t).
Sol. RXY(t1, t2) = E[X(t1) Y(t2)] = E[Acos(t1 + )] A sin (t2 + )]
= A2 E[cos (t1+)sin (t2 + )]
LUCKNOW
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0522-6563566
A2
E[sin(t1 t 2 2) sin(t 1 t 2 )]
2
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A2
A2
A2
E[sin(t1 t 2 2)
E[sin ]
sin
2
2
2
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex.12: Let X(t) = A cos t + Bsin t and Y(t) = B cost A sin t ,where
is constant & A & B are independent random variable both having
zero mean & variance 2.Find the crosscorrelation of X(t) & Y(t)
Sol. RXY (t, t + ) = E [X(t)Y (t + ]
= E[Acost + B sint) (Bcos (t +) A sin(t + )]
= E [AB cos tcos(t + ) A2 costsin (t + ) + B2 sint cos
(t + ) AB sin tsin(t +)]
= cos t cos(t + ) E[AB] cos t sin (t + ) E[A2] + sin cos (t
+ ) E[B2] sin t (t + ) E[AB]
sin t cos(t + ) cost sin (t +) = sin
Ex.13: A WSS random process X(t) is applied to the input of an LTI system
with impulse response h(t) = 3e 2tu(t).
Find the mean value of the output Y(t) of the system if E[X(t)] = 2

Sol. E[Y(t)] E[X(t) * h(t)] E h( )X(t )d
h()E[X(t )]d 2 3e u()d = 6 e2 d 6 e2

0
3
0
Ex.14Let X(t) & Y(t) be the WSS random input process & random output
process respectively of a quadrature phase - shifting filter.Show that
RXX() = RYY(), RXY() = RXX()
Sol. For Hilbert-transform, h(t)
1
, H( j) jsgn()
t
H ( ) 1
SYY () | H( ) |2 SXX () SXX ()

so, R YY () R XX ()
RXY() = h()* RXX() = RXX()
Ex.15A WSS random process X(t) with autocorrelation RXX() = Ae-a|| where
A & a are real positive constants is applied to an input of an LTI system
with impulse response h(t) = e-btu(t), where b is a positive constant.
Find the autocorrection of the output Y(t) of the system.
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Sol.
F.T.
SXX ()
RXX ()
SYY ( )
R YY ()
A2a
2 a 2
1
1
2
and | H() |
j b
b2
2
2aA
1
2 2
2
2
2
2
( a )( b ) b a
PERSONAL REMARK :
2aA
a 2 bA
2
2
2
2
( a ) ( b )
A |a| ae |b|
e
u(t)
(b 2 a 2 )
b
Ex.16 Consider a WSS process X(t) with autocorrelation RXX() and power
spectrum SXX(). Let X(t) = dx(t)/dt. Show that R XX' () d
2
and R X'X' () d
Sol.
X(t)
R XX ()
d
R XX ()
dt 2
Differentiation
j
Y(t)=dX(t) = X'(T)
dt
SXX () | H() | SXX () jSXX ()

R XX' () d
R XX ()
d
similarly, SX'X' () =| H(j)|2 SXX () =2SXX() =-(j)2SXX ()

so, RX'X' () d2
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PERSONAL REMARK :
In a communcation system, a process for which statistical averages

and time averages are equal, is called.
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Stationary (b) Ergodic (c) Gaussian (d) BIBO stable
Sol.(b)
1.
Consider the following statements :

(IES-EE-2009)
The thermal noise power generated by a resistor is proportional to
1. The value of the resistor
2.
The absolute temperature
3.
The bandwidth over which it is measured
4.
The Boltzmanns constant.
Which of the above statements is / are correct?
(a) 1,2 & 3
(b) 2 only (c) 2 & 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 & 4
Sol.(d)
2.
A random process obeys Poissons distribution. It is given that the

mean of the process is 5. Then the variance of the process is :
(IES-EC-2003)
(a) 5
(b) 0.5
(c)
25
(d) 0
Sol.(a) The mean and variance of Poissons distribution is same.
3.
Match List-I (Type of Random Process) with List-II (Property of

the Random Process) and select the correct answer using the code
given below the lists:
(IES-EC-2005)
List-I
A. Stationary process
B. Ergodic process
C. Wide sense stationary process D. Cyclostationary process
List-II
1. Statistical averages are periodic in time
2. Statistical averages are independent of time
3. Mean and autocorrelation are independent of time
4. Time averages equal corresponding ensemble average
Codes:
A
B
C
D
A
B C
D
(a)
3
1
2
4 (b) 2
4
3
1
(c)
3
4
2
1 (d) 2
1
3
4
Sol.(b)Stationary process - statistical averages are independent of time.
Ergodic process - Time averages equal corresponding ensemble
average.
Wide sense stationary process - mean and autocorrelation are
independent of time.
Cyclostationary process - statistical averages are periodic in time.
4.
5.
Match the List-I(Type) with List-II (Application) and select the

correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (IES-EC-2006)
List-I
A. Speech signal
B. Non-stationary
C. Random signal
D. Chaotic signal
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List-II
1. The received signal of a radar system monitoring variation in
prevalent weather condition
2. One dimensional signal where amplitude varies with time
3. Signals of coupled system of non-linear difference
4. Ensemble of unpredictable waveforms
Codes:
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
(a)
2
1
4
3
(b)
4
3
2
1
(c)
2
3
4
1
(d)
4
1
2
3
Sol.(c)
PERSONAL REMARK :
Source S1 produces 4 discrete symbols with equal probability.

Source S2 produces 6 discrete symbols with equal probability.
It H1 and H2 are the entropies of sources S1 and S2 respectively, then
which one of the following is correct?
(IES-EC-2008)
(a) H1 is always less than H2
(b) H1 is always greater than H2
(c) H1 is always equal to H2
(d) H2 is 1.5 times H1 only
Sol.(a) Entropy of a source S is given by H = log2n
where n = number of equiprobable symbols.
H1 = log2 4 = 2 and H2 = log26 = 2.59
6.
The outputs of two noise sources each producing uniformly distributed

noise over the range -a to +a are added. What is the p.d.f. of the
added noise?
(IES-EC-2008)
(a) Uniformly distributed over the range -2a to +2a
(b) Triangular over the range -2a to +2a
(c) Gaussian over the range to
(d) None of the above
Sol.(b) The random variable Z which is expressed as
Z = X + Y has pdf which is convolution of pdfs of individual random
variable X and Y. So, fz(z) = fx(x) * fY(y)
7.
8.
Let X and Y be two statistically independent random variables

uniformly distributed in the ranges (1,1) and (2,1) respectively.
Let Z = X + Y. Then the pobability that (z 2) is
(GATE-EC-2003)
(a)
zero
(b)
1
6
(c)
1
3
(d)
1
12
Sol.(d) The pdf of random variable X and Y are

fx(x) =
1
, 1< x < 1
2
and
fY(y) =
1
, 2 < y < 1
3
P(z 2)=P(X+Y 2)
The shaded region satisfies the condition,
x y 2, 1 x 1 and 2 y 1
0 2 x
P(z 2)=P(X+Y --2)=
-1 2
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12
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The distribution function Fx(x) of a random variable X is shown in
the figure. The probability that X = 1 is
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) zero
1.0
(b) 0.25
(c) 0.55
0.55
(d) 0.30
0.25
Sol.(d)From the given figure, the
probability at X = 1 is given by
9.
Fx (x) F x (x) = 0.55 0.25 = 0.30

10.
PERSONAL REMARK :
A random variable X with uniform density in the interval 0 to 1 is

quantized as follows:
(GATE-EC-2004)
If 0 X 0.3
xq = 0
If 0.3 X 1
xq= 0.7
where Xq is quantized value of X.
The root mean square value of the quantization noise is
(a) 0.573
(b) 0.198
(c)
2.205 (d) 0.266
Sol.(b) Noise - power
2
E[(x x q ) ] or x
2
(x x
) 2 p x (x)dx
The variable is distributed uniformly for interval 0 to 1

0.3
2
x dx
(x 0.7)
2
0 x 1 and x
p x (x) 1,
0.3
x 2 dx
2
x dx
0.49dx 1.4 xdx
0.3
dx
0.3
0.3
0.3
1
+0.343 0.567=0.39
3
RMS value of noise -power x 0.39=0.198
11.
An output of a communication channel is a random variable V with

the probability density function as shown in the figure. The mean
p(v)
square value of V is:
(GATE-EC-2005)
(a) 4
p(V)
(b) 6
k
(c) 8
(d) 9
0
Sol.(c)From given figure,
p(v)dv 1
1
0
4 k = 1
2
and
or
k=
1
2
or p(v) =
and p(v) = mv
k
.v
4
p(v) =
(m = slope =
k
4
1
v
8
4
1 v4
v
Now, mean square value = v p(v)dv = 0 v dv = 8
8 4 0
8
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Common Data for Questions 12 and 13
PERSONAL REMARK :
Asymmetric three-level midtread quantizer is to be designed assuming

equiprobable occurence of all quantization levels.
12.
If the probability density function is divided into three regions as shown

in the figure, the value of a in the figure is:
(GATE-EC-2005)
1
4
Region 1
1
8
Region 2
3
(a)
1/3
Region 3
(b)
+a
2/3
+1
+3
(c)
1/2
(d) 1/4
p(x)
Sol.(b) We know that
f (x)dx 1
-3
-1-a
+3
+a+1
Since given that the three regions are divided into equiprobable region
Therefore,
or
f (x)dx 3
a
2a
or
1 1
=
4
3
1
1
dx
4
3
or
a =
2
3
The quantization noise power for the quantization region between -a

and + a in the figure is
(GATE-EC-2005)
(a) 4/81
(b)
1/9
(c) 5/81
(d) 2/81
Sol.(a)Quantization noise power is given as
13.
x 3 a
1
2
2
= a f (x).x dx = a x dx =
3 a
4
a
3
1 a
4
1 2a 3
a3
=
=
= =
6 6 81
4 3
6
A zero-mean white Gaussian noise is passed through an ideal lowpass

filter of bandwidth 10kHz. The output is the uniformly sampled with
sampling period ts = 0.03m sec. The samples so obtained would be.
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a) correlated
(b)
statistically independent
(c) uncorrelated
(d)
orthogonal
Sol.(a) Since sampling frequency fs > 2fm
The samples obtained will be look alike so, samples are correlated
14.
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A uniformly distributed random variable X with probability density
function
15.
PERSONAL REMARK :
1
FX ( x ) (u ( x 5) u ( x 5))
2
where u(.) is the unit step function is passed through a transformation
given in the figure below. The probability density function of the
transformed random variable Y would be
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a)
1
FY ( y ) (u ( y 2.5) u ( y 2.5))
5
(b)
FY ( y ) 0.5 ( y ) 0.5 ( y 1)
(c)
FY ( y )0.25 ( y 2.5)0.5 ( y2.5)5 ( y )
(d)
FY ( y ) 0.25 ( y 2.5) 0.25 ( y 2.5)
1
10
(u ( y 2.5) u ( y 2.5))
Sol.(a)
If E denotes expectation, the variance of a random variable X is
given by
(GATE-EC-2007)
(a) E[X2] E2[X]
(b)
E[X2] + E2[X]
(c) E[X2 ]
(d)
E2[X]
Sol.(a) Variance of a random variable X is given by
E[(X )2] = E[X2 2X + 2] = E[X2] E[2X]+E []
E[(X )2] = E[X2] 2E[X] + 2
E[(X )2] = E[X2] 22 + 2
= E[X2] 2 = E[X2] {E[X]}2
16.
17.
If R ( ) is the autocorrelation function of a real, wide-sense stationary

random process, then which of the following is NOT true?
(a) R( ) = R ( )
R( ) = R( )
(c)
(b)
R( ) R(0) (GATE-EC-2007)
(d)
The mean square value of the

process is R (0)
Sol.(c)For real function f(t) autocorrelation is given by
1 T/ 2
1 T/ 2
f (t )f (t)dt and R( ) = T/ 2 f (t )f (t)dt
T/ 2
T
T
Let t = p or
dt = dp
R() =
which gives
R ( ) = R() i.e. even function.
From this result, we conclude that option (c) is wrong.
18. If S(0) is the power spectral density of a real, wide sense stationary
random process, then which of the following is ALWAYS true?
(GATE-EC-2007)
(a) S(0) >S(f) (b) S(f) 0
(c) S( f) = S(f) (d)
S(f )df 0
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PERSONAL REMARK :
| X( j) |2
Sol.(b) Power spectral density, S() = lim
Therefore, for wide-sense stationary random process, power

spectral density is greater than or equal to zero, i.e. S(f) 0.
Consider two independent random variables X and Y with identical
distributions. The variables X and Y take values 0,1 and 2 with
19.
1 1
1
, and
respectively. What is the conditional
2 4
4
probability P(X + Y = 2 | XY = 0)?
(GATE-EC-2009)
probabilities
(a)
(b)
(c)
16
(d)
Sol.(c) P(X Y 2 | X Y 0) P[X Y 2] (X Y 0)]

P(X Y 0)
P(1,1)
Since, X & Y are independent
P(0, 0) P(1,1) P(2, 2)
Required Probability
20.
P(1)P(1)
P(0)P(0) P(1)P(1) P(2)P(2)
1/ 4 1/ 4
1
6
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
2
4
4
4
4
A discrete random variable X takes values from 1 to 5 with probabilities

as shown in the table. A student calculates the mean X as 3.5 and
her teacher calculates the variance of X as 1.5. Which of the
following statements is true?
(GATE-EC-2009)
K
P(X=k)
0.1
0.2
0.4
(a) Both the student and the teacher are right

(b) Both the student and the teacher are wrong
(c) The student is wrong but the teacher is right
(d) The student is right but the teacher is wrong
Sol.(b)Also product of eigen values = det A.
k
k
k
k
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s = Mean calculated by student = 3.5
PERSONAL REMARK :
T = Variance calculated by teacher = 1.5

5
Now, mean =
k 0.1 0.4 1.2 0.8 0.5 = 3
k 1
Variance =
k 2 2
k 1
2
2 = (0.1 + 0.8 + 3.6 + 3.2 + 2.5) (3) = 10.2 9 = 1.2
Both students and teacher are wrong.

21.
X(t) is a stationary process with the power spectral density Sx(f) > 0
for all f. The process is passed through a system shown below-
d
dt
X(t)
Y(t)
Delay = 0.5 ms
Let SY(f) be the power spectral density of Y(t). Which one of the
following statements is correct?
(GATE-EC-2010)
(a)
SY(f) > 0 for all f
(b)
SY(f) = 0 for |f| > 1 kHz
(c)
SY(f) = 0 for f =n f0, f0 = 2 kHz, n any integer
(d)
SY(f) = 0 for (2n + 1) f0, f0 = 1 kHz, n any integer
Sol.(d)Given PSD input Sx(f)>0 f or = 0.5 ms
m(t) = x(t) +x(t ) or M(s) = X(s) [1 +e-s] or Y(s) = sM(s)
Y( j)
= j[1 + e-] or H(j) = j[1+cos jsin ]
X( j)
SY(f) = |H(j)|2 Sx(f) and at f = 0 H(f) = 0
Hence SY(f) 0 for all f
at f | > 1 kHz|H(f)|> 0 and SX(f) > 0
Hence
SY(f) 0
SY(f) = 2f |[1+cos 2f sin 2f]|
f = nf0 f0 = 2 103 kHz
SY(f) = 2n 2 103
| [1 + cos 2 n 2
1
1
j sin 2 2n ]|
2
2
SY(f) = 4n103|[1 + cos2n jsin2n]|

for n - integer cos2 n= 1 sin2n= 0
and hence SY(f) 0. and
SY(f) = 2(2n +1) f0
|[1+cos 2(2n + 1)
1
1
- j sin 2(2n+1) ]|
2
2
for every n cos(2n+1) = - sin2(2n+1) = 0.

Hence Sy(f) = 0 for every f.
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22. The power spectral density of a real process X(t) for positive frequencies
PERSONAL REMARK :
is shown below. The values of E[X (t)] and | E[X(t)]| , respectively,,

4
Sx ()
are
400 ( -10 )
(a) 6000/, 0
(GATE-EC-2012)
6
(b) 6400/, 0
(c) 6400/, 20/( 2 )
(d) 6000/, 20/( 2 )
3
10 11 (10 rad/s)
9
0
Sol.(b) Power spectral density is the Fourier Transform of autocorelation
function.
or R xx ( )
R xx ( )
S xx ( )
Also, Rxx(t ) = E [X(t)X (t + t )]
1
Sxx ()e j d
2
or Rxx (0) = E [X2(t)]
1
Sxx ()d
2
For real two-sided random process

R xx (0)
1
1
Sxx ( )d Sxx ( )d
2
0
xx
( )d is the area under the psd for positive frequency so,
xx
( )d =
S
0
R xx (0)
1
2 6 103 + 400 = 6400
2
6400
For most random process R xx ( ) 2 where is the mean or E

[x(t)] and 0 if the psd contain impulse at 0
Two independent random variables X and Y are uniformly distributed
in the interval [ 1, 1]. The probability that max[X,Y] is less than 1/
2 is
(GATE-EC-2012)
(a) 3/4
(b) 9/16
(c) 1/4
(d) 2/3
Sol.(b) The region of the xy plane such that max (x,y) z is the set of
points such that x z and y z.
23.
y
z
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1
2
The pdf of X and Y is px(x) =

1
2
pY(y) =
PERSONAL REMARK :
, 1<x<1
, otherwise
, 1<y<1
, otherwise
so, required probability

1
2
P[max(X, Y) 1 ]
2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1
1 1 2 2 dxdy 4
1/ 2
1
2
(x)p Y (y)dxdy
1/ 2
dx dy
1
1 3 3 9

4 2 2 16
24. F (s) = (1 esT)/s is the laplace transform of (GATE-IN-1997)

(a) a pulse of width T
(b) a square wave of period T
(c) a unit step delayed by T
(d) a ramp delayed by T
e sT
L1
4(t T)
s
1
Sol.(a) L1
4(t) or
s
1 e sT
L
4(t) 4(t T)
s
s
1
sT
1 1 e
4(t) 4(t T)
or,
s
Now,
u(t)
u(t T)
1
4(t) 4(t T) represented by a pulse of width T as shown.

u(t T)
1
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25. The discrete LTI system with the follwing impulse response is noncausal.
(GATE-IN-2001)
n
n2
n+2
(a) a u (n 2)
(b) a u (n) (c) a u (n) (d) an u ( n + 2)
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sol.(d) Advance sequence always results in non-causal system.

Hence option (d) is correct choice.
26. A real function f(t) has a Fourier transform F(). The Fourier transform of [f(t) f(t)] is
(GATE-IN-2003)
(a) zero
(b) real
(c) real and odd (d) imaginary
F
Sol.(d) The fourier transform of, f (t)
F( )
F
f *( t)
F*( )
..........(i)
F
f ( t)
F* ( )
or
( f * ( t) f ( t) .....(ii)
Add (i) and (ii) we get,
F
f (t) f ( t)
F( ) F* ( )
when F* ( ) is conjugate of F( )
So, that F( ) F* ( ) is must an imaginary..
sin c n
27. Given x[n] =
, the energy of the signal given by
n
| x[n] |
is
(GATE-IN-2003)
(a)
(b) c
(c) Infinite
(d) 2c
Sol.(a)The fourier transform of sinc function is a gate signal as shown

below :
X()
1
1 c
1
2
1.d 1 . c
Energy
|
X(
)
|
d
2 c
2
2
1
2 c c
. c ( c )
2
2
Energy
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28. If the Fourier transform of x[n] is X(ej), then the Fourier transform
n
of (1) x[n] is
PERSONAL REMARK :
(GATE-IN-2004)
(a) (j) X (ej) (b) (1) X (ej) (c) X(ej()) (d)
( e j 1)
Sol.(c) x[n] X(e j ) or ( 1) n x[n] (e j ) n x[n]
e jn x[n] X[e j( ) ]
d
(X(ej)
d
[shifting in frequency domain]
by using the property, e jn 0 x[n] X[e j( 0 ) ]
29. The continuous-time signal x(t) =
1
has the Fourier transform
a t2
2
exp [a||]. The signal x(t) cos bt has the Fourier transform
a
(a)
exp(a | b |) exp(a | b |)
2a
(b)
exp(a | |) exp(a | |)
2a
(c)
exp(a | |) cos b
a
(d)
exp(a | b |) exp(a | b |)
2a
Sol.(a) As cos bt
e jbt e jbt
2
then, x(t) cos bt
X( )
(GATE-IN-2005)
1
x(t).e jbt x(t)e jbt
2
exp( a | |)
a
By frequency shift property
using x(t).e j 0 t X( 0 )
.exp( a | b | exp( a( b)))
2 a
exp(a | b | exp(a( b)))

2a
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CHAPTER-3 (MODULATION) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

CHAPTER-3 : MODULATION
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
Modulation is defined as the process of varying the characteristics

of high frequency carrier wave in accordance to the message
signal or modulating signal, m(t).
In frequency domain, modulation is defined as the process of

translating the spectrum of a signal from low frequency region to
high frequency region. Thus, we can say that modulation is
frequency translation (i.e. shifting).
Modulator Converts
(i)
Low frequency signal to a high frequency signal.
(ii)
A wideband signal into narrow-band signal.
(iii)
A baseband signal into bandpass signal.
NEED OF MODULATION
To avoid the mixing of signals (i.e. interference)
To increase the range of Communication
To reduce the antenna height.
For narrow banding of signal since, usually for range 50

Hz-10 kHz we require antenna having the ratio of highest to
lowest frequency/ wavelength is 200, which is practically
impossible
Modulation converts a wideband signal into a narrow-band
signal whose ratio between highest frequency to lowest
frequency is approximately one and single antenna will be
sufficient to transmit the signal.
fH
for
1
wideband signal, and
fL
fH
fL
A
300 Hz
35 kHz
f
2 MHz +300 Hz 2 MHz+35 kHz
Fig. Spectrum is shifted by 2 MHz, using modulator
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PERSONAL REMARK :
fH
for
1
narrow band signal
fL
Therefore,
fH
1
fL
For multiplexing the signals.
To reduce noise and interference, since noise affects less

at higher frequency. Hence by using modulation the effect
of noise can be reduced.
The broad classification of modulation is shown below

Modulation
Pulse Modulation
(Here the carrier wave
is pulse type)
Continuous wave (CW)

or
Analog Modulation
FM
AM
PM
Here the carrier

wave is continuous
in nature (usually
sinusoidal)
PAM
Pulse Digital
Modulation
Pulse Analog
Modulation
Here Message signal
is in analog form
PWM
or
PTM
or
PDM
PPM
Here Message signal

is in digital form
PCM
DPCM
DM ADM
Baseband signals : Are those signals which transmit without using

modulation. The term baseband is used to designate the band of
frequencies of the signal delivered by the source or input transducer.
Passband signals : Are those signal which are transmited by using

modulation.
Baseband communication : Is the technique that does not use

modulation. Baseband signals are transmitted without modulation i.e.
without any shift in the range of frequencies of the signal.
As the baseband signals have low frequencies with low power,
therefore, they cannot be transmitted over long distance.
Carrier communication : Carrier is usually a sinusoidal signal of

high frequency. Carrier communication is the technique that uses
modulation to shift the frequency spectrum of baseband signal from
low to high frequency range.
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,
Regarding the mode of propagation, communication may be

divided into the following two forms.
(i)
Line Communication
(ii) Wireless or radio communication
In line communication, the transmitter and receiver are connected
through a wire or line.
In Wireless or radio communication a message is transmitted
through open space by electromagnetic waves called as radio
waves.
All the radio, TV and satellite broadcasting are wireless or radio
communication.
Fundamentals of Analog Signal Transmission
PERSONAL REMARK :
HC(f) is a transfer function of linear filter.

Here channel is a kind of filter that produces amplitude and
phase distortion.
n0(t) is a noise that cannot be eliminated.
DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION
No effect of noise
Attenuation and delay effect can be tolerated
Scaling is not tolerated
For distortionless transmission
y(t) = k x (t t0)
HC (f) = K ej2pf t 0 Ideal distortionless channel transfer function.
and
NOTE:It means for signal to be transmitted without distortion the ideal

channel would have flat amplitude transfer function and phase
function which is linearly dependent on frequency. So, that every
frequency component present in the signal undergoes same amount
of delay.
For distortionless channel it should have above

characteristics within the message bandwidth atleast.
HC(f) = Ke j2f
Where,
t0
,|f|<B
B = message bandwidth
K = Attenuation constant
t0 = Propagation delay
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,
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
PERSONAL REMARK :
LINEAR DISTORTIONS
,
Ex.
Amplitude Distortion
|HC(f)| k
Characteristics of filter is varying i.e. different frequency

components are not attenuated equally.
If variation of < 1dB, amplitude distortion is negligible.
A signal Vm sin(t ) is
applied to an amplifier whose

gain A is independent of
frequency. The amplifier will
preserve the form of the input
signal (though with a delay) if
the phase shift is :
(a) Constant
(b) Inversely proportional to
frequency
(c) Proportional to frequency
(d) Proportional to the square
of the frequency
(IES-EE-2013)
Sol.(a)
Phase Distortion / Delay Distortion

HC(f) j2f to m
Different components of frequency are delayed by different

amount.
Ear is insensitive to delay distortion so it has no severe effect

on speech signals
Picture, data transmission are highly sensitive to delay

distortion.
Remedy for Linear Distortion

Equalisation
The equaliser filter should be reciprocal of HC(f) and has constant

phase delay. HC( f ) Heq ( f ) = Ke j2 f
t0
|f|<B
Practical Constraints
We rarely know the transfer function of channel.
Noise is introduced at any moment. At some point, let the

channel provides deep attenuation. As we amplify the signal
the noise effect also get enhanced which distort the signal.
NON-LINEAR DISTORTIONS
Produces harmonics
Occurs due to non-linear transfer characteristics of amplifier,

mixers, etc.
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Ideally, amplifier should have linear characteristics
PERSONAL REMARK :
y(t) = A x(t)
Where A = amplification
factor
Due to saturation, the characteristics become non-linear for

higher value of x (t)
Types of Analog Modulation

,
Usually a carrier wave in analog modulation is sinusoidal and given

by V(t) A cos c t
This sinusoidal wave is expressed by three parameters
(i)
Amplitude (A)
(ii)
Frequency, c (angular frequency)
(iii)
Phase ( )
Any of the three parameters can be varied in accordance with the

baseband or modulating signal. This gives amplitude modulation,
frequency modulation or phase modulation respectively.
,
Since, c t Therefore, frequency and phase modulation

commonly refer as angle modulation.
The most fundamental function in electrical communications

is the sinusoidal signal because
(i)
The sinusoidal analysis of electrical networks is even more

simple and convenient.
(ii)
The response of a sine wave to linear time invariant system is

also sinusoidal i.e. if a sinusoidal signal is applied at the input
of linear system, the output waveform in also sinusoidal with
the same frequency as the input, except for a constant
transmission delay and gain/attenuation.
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CONCEPT OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
PERSONAL REMARK :
MODULATORS
,
The process of loading a modulating signal onto a carrier is done by

using modulation.Circuit which provide modulation is called
Modulators.
Modulation can be done using linear and non-linear devices.
Modulation using linear time-invariant devices are Linear Modulators.

LINEAR MODULATORS
(i) Multiplier Modulators : Here the modulation is achieved directly
by multiplying m(t) with cosCt using an analog multiplier whose
output is proportional to the product of two input signals.
(ii) Switching Modulators : Here a modulated signal can be
obtained by multiplying m(t) not only by a pure sinusoid but by any
periodic signal say c'(t) of the fundamental frequency C. The square
pulse train c'(t) is a periodic signal whose Fourier Series is given
by
c'(t) =
1 2
+
2
[cos ct 3 cos 3c t + 5 cos 5c t.......]
There are two types of switching modulators

(i) Diode-bridge modulator, and
(ii) Ring modulator
NON-LINEAR MODULATORS
Modulation can also be achieved by using non-linear devices such

as semiconductor diode or a transistor (BJT, FET or MOSFET).
The input-output characteristics of either of the non-linear elements
can be approximated by a power seriesy(t) = a x(t) + b x2 (t) + c x3 (t) + ..........
Where x(t), and y(t) are the input and the output respectively of nonlinear elements.
Bandwidth of Modulated Signal
Let m(t) = message signal or baseband signal or modulating
signal having spectrum shown below :
m(t) M(f)
Am
Figure. : Spectrum of modulating signal
Before modulation, bandwidth of the message signal is fm

Carrier wave c(t) = Ac cos c t
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or
PERSONAL REMARK :
F.T A
A c cos (2f c t) c [ ( f f c ) ( f f c )]
2
To modulate the message signal, the message signal is multiplied

with high frequency
F.T M ( f f c ) M ( f f c )
m (t) cos c t
2
Ac/2
Am
2
fc fm fc fc + fm
f
c fm fc
fc+ fm
After modulation, bandwidth is 2 fm

,
GENERATION OF AM WAVE
Generation of AM waves
Using non-linear circuits
Using linear time variant circuits
For example : switching or
using non linear charcteristics
chopper modulator, collector
devices such as transistors,
modulator, drain modulator.
diodes, FETs etc.
+
+
+
m(t)
vi (t)
AC cos ct
ideal
diode
L
C vo (t)
For example : square law

modulator, Balanced modulator
BPF
Figure : simple diode switching

modulator
For an input voltage vi (t) = AC

cos ct + m(t) where AC >> |m(t)|
non linear equation is given by

y (t) = ax(t) + b x2(t)
Where x(t) = input of non-linear
y (t) = output of non-linear
element
v i (t) for c(t) 0

Therefore v0(t) = 0
for c(t) 0
Tuned to f c
Nonlinear
Device
+
m(t)
Mathematically v0(t) can
vi (t)
be expressed as
A c cos c t
V1
R
L
C v(t)
o
vo(t) =[Ac cos ct + m(t)] gp(t)
BPF
Figure : square law modulator

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where gp(t) is a periodic pulse train
Square law modulator used for
of duty cycle 50% and period
T
fc
very small amplitude signal
gp(t) =
(1) n 1
2n 1
n 1
V1(t) = a Vi(t) + b V2i (t)
Now V0(t) = a [Accosct + m(t)]
2
cos (2 fc t)

Ac
+ b [Ac cosct + m (t) ]2

2b
or V0(t)= a Ac a m(t) cosct
+ odd harmonic terms.
Now, v0(t) =
where Vi(t) = m(t) + AC cosct
cos [2 fc (2n 1)t]

or gp(t) =
PERSONAL REMARK :
Acm(t)
cos 2 fc t + unwanted terms.
AM wave
a m(t) + b m2(t) + bA2c cos2(ct)
removed by means of BPF

unwanted terms
After passing through BPF
tuned to c
We get,
2b
V0(t) = a Ac
m(t) cosct
a
Note :
Diode modulator circuit does not provide amplification and

hence, it can be used for Low power application only
However amplifying devices like : BJT, FET etc. can

provide amplification. A very popular circuit used for this
purpose is called collector modulation uses class C amplifier
or drain modulator.
DEMODULATION
To demodulate a signal, the modulated signal is again multiplied with
the same carrier i.e.,
m ( t ) cos c t cos c t
1 cos c t
m ( t ) cos 2 c t m ( t )
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CHAPTER - 4 (AMPLITUDE MODULATION) : COMMUNICATION ENGG .

CHAPTER-4 : AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
The purpose of communication system is to transmit informationbearing signals through a communication channel seprating the
transmitter from the receiver. Information bearing signals are also
referred to as baseband signals.
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the high frequency carrier

wave is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating or base band signal keeping angle constant.
Consider a message signal m(t) = A m cos 2f mt = A m

cos mt. Where Am is the amplitude of massage signal and fm
is the frequency of the message signal/modulating signal/base
band signal, and
Consider a carrier signal c(t) = Ac cos 2fc t = Ac cos ct

where Ac is the amplitude of carrier signal and fc is the
frequency of the carrier signal (where fc >> fm)
fm
Note:
fc
50 Hz to 15 KHz
550 KHz to 1650 KHz (for AM)
88 MHz to 108 MHz (for FM)
Figure shows the AM signal produced by single tone (i.e. when

modulating signal or message signal contain only one frequency
component)
Carrier
wave
Modulating
Signal
Amplitude
Modulated signal
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The Block Diagram of the Amplitude Modulator
,
Figure given below shows the block diagram of amplitude

modulator.Conventional AM consists of a large carrier component
in addition to AM modulated signal.
modulating signal
Carrier Wave
Amplitude
Modulator
AM modulated signal
Am(max)
Envelop |AC+m(t)|
Am(min)
Experimentally
modulation index can be
expressed as
<1
A m ( max ) A m ( min )
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex. A given AM broadcast station

transmits an average carrier
power output of 40 kW and
uses a modulation index of
0.707 for sine wave
modulation. What is the
maximum (peak) amplitude of
the output if the antenna is
represented by a 50 W
resistive load?
[IES-EE-2005]
(a) 50 kV
(b) 50 V
(c) 3.414 kV (d) 28.28 kV
Sol.(c)Amlitude of carrier
Ac Pc 2R L 2 kV
Figure : Actual view of Amplitude modulated signal

The standard equation for sinusoidal amplitude modulated wave may
Amplitude of message signal
be expressed as , s(t) = m(t) cos c t + Ac cos c t
Am Ac 1.414 kV
s(t) = Ac [1 + m(t)] cos c t or
s(t) = E (t) cos c t
So, total amplitude is

Ac + Am = 3.414 kV
Where, s(t) = Ac [1 + m (t)], called the envelop of AM wave.

NOTE-1: Complex envelop s(t) is given by s(t) = s(t) + j sh(t) where
sh(t) is the hilbert transform of s(t). This is the desired condition for
conventional DSB AM that makes it easy to demodulate.
NOTE-2: When the modulation index of AM wave is less than
unity the output of the envelop detector is the envelop of AM
wave.However ,When the modulation index of AM wave is greater
than unity the output of the envelop detector is not the envelop but
mode (i.e. magnitude) of envelop of AM wave.
,
As long as |m(t)| 1 the amplitude Ac [1 + m(t)] is positive. This is

the desired condition for conventional DSB AM that makes it easy
to demodulate.
On the other hand if m(t) < 1 for some t, the AM signal is said to be
overmodulated and its detection is rendered more complex.
Since this envelop consist of baseband signal m(t). Hence the

modulating signal may be recovered from an AM wave
[i.e. modulated signal s(t)] by detecting the envelop.
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The amplitude modulated

waveform
s(t) =Ac [1 + Kam(t)] cos ct
is fed to an ideal envelope
detector. The maximum
magnitude of K a m(t) is
greater than 1. Which of the
following could be the detector
output?
[GATE-EC-2000]
(a) Acm(t)
(b) Ac2[1 + Kam(t)]2
(c) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]
(d) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]2
Sol.(c) The envelop detector detect
only the signal content in the
envelop.The envelop is
defined as the magnitude of
pre- envelop
Pre envelop of s(t)
M = s(t) + j sh(t)
= Ac[1 + Kam(t)] cos ct
+j Ac[1 + Kam(t)]sin c t
Ex.
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60

Ex.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Let m( t ) e t and carrier signal c ( t ) A C cos c t

Then modulated signal, s ( t ) m ( t ) c ( t ) e t A c cos c t
C(t)
m(t)
cos 2 fc t
t
Modulating signal
Carrier signal
-t
= Ac [1 + Kam(t)]ejct
|M| = A c[1 + K a m(t)] is the
envelop of signal S(t)]
Ex. For an AM wave, the
maximum voltage was found to
be 10 V and the minimum
voltage was found to be 5 V.
The modulation index of the
wave would be
(IES-EC-2001)
(a) 0.33
(b) 0.52
(c) 0.40
(d) 0.1
Sol.(a)Modulation index is given by
e cos ct
E max E min 10 5 5 1

E max E min 10 5 15 3
NOTE : Message signal m(t)
with nonzero offset : On rare

occusion ,the message signal m(t) will
envelop
have a nonzero offset such that its

Modulated signal with high frequency
maximum Amax. and its minimum
The time domain equation of AM wave is given by relation

s ( t ) A c 1 cos m t cos c t
Where, = Modulation index =
....(A)
| m(t) | max
A
m
carrier amplitude
Ac
Amax.=/ Amin. in this case , envelop

detection will would remain
distortionless if
A m = Modulating signal amplitude
A c = Carrier signal amplitude
Amin.are not symmetric i.e.
Emax Emin
2A Emax Emin
The amplitude variation in AM about an unmodulated carrier amplitude

is measured in terms of a factor called modulation index or depth
of modulation or degree of modulation.
When the message contains single frequency, then the modulation is

called single tone modulation. Equation (A) represents single tone
modulation.
Equation (A) may also written as
s(t) A c cos c t
A c .cos ( c m ) t A cos ( )t
c
c
m
2
Carrier
....(B)
Lower side band
upper side band
From equation (B), we conclude

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(i)
Beside the carrier there are two sidebands at

c m and c m
(ii)
The amplitude of sideband become half of amplitude of

modulating signal i.e.
PERSONAL REMARK :
Am
A
since
Ac m
2
2
2
S(
)
Ac
2
Am
LSB
USB
C m c C + m C m
2 m
(iii)
C C + m
2 m
The bandwidth requirement is 2 m .
From equation (A), frequency domain analysis can be written as
Ac
A
[ ( c ] ( c )] c
2
2
[M ( c) + M ( + c)]
s(t)
....(C)
Bandwidth of the A.M signal = 2 m = 2 message bandwidth

Bandwidth of USB = m and Bandwidth of LSB = m
AC
2
S()
AC
2
Ac .
4
Ac .
4
C m C C + m C m C C + m
2 m
2 m
Spectrum of modulated signal S( )
POWER CALCULATION OF AM WAVE

,
As we know that power is given by relation

P I2 R or
V2
R
Power in carrier wave, Pc A c
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Power in sideband, PLSB = PUSB
A c . /2
=
2
PERSONAL REMARK :
A c2 2
8R
1.
So, total power ( PT ) Pc PL S B PU S B
or
PT
A c2
2R
PT
or
2
1
2
1
Pc
Transmitted power
Carrier power
Show that the efficiency of

single tone AM is 33.3 % for
the modulation index to be
equal to unity.
[IES-EE-2001:10 Marks]
PC A c when, R 1
In terms of voltage, VTrms VCrms 1
In terms of current, ITrms = ICrms 1

,
and
Power in sideband
Modulation efficiency,
Total power
or
Ac
8R
Ac
8R
or
....(A)
2 2
max 33 % when 100% modulation is taking into account.
Note: The calculation of modulation efficiency as derived is applicable

for sinsoidal signals only.
Generally,
m 2 (t)
A c2 m 2 (t)
Where, m 2 (t) = power of message signal
If the modulating signal is square wave then

PT = PC ( 1 + 2) since for square wave rms value is equal to its
peak value
If the modulating signal is triangular wave then

2
since for triangular wave rms value is equal
PT = PC 1

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to
,
Vm
3
PERSONAL REMARK :
where Vm is the peak value
When the message contains more than one frequency, it is

called multi-tone modulation.
2
2 2
PT Pc 1 1 2 3 ........
2
2
2
Where, 1
A m1
Ac
, 2
A m2
Ac
, 3
A m3
Ac
....(i)
and so on
and equation (i) reduces to PT = PC (1 + effe.)

Where, effe. =
,
.......
Baseband communication is the communication that does not uses

modulation, while carrier communication uses modulation.
AM DEMODULATION
Detection of original signal i.e. message signal or modulating signal
from the modulated signal is called demodulation.
Square law Detectors or Non-linear Detectors
AM Demodulators
Envelop detectors or Linear Detectors
Square Law Detectors
used for low level amplitude modulated signals (say below 1V) so
that the operating region of device characteristics is restricted to
non-linear region. This circuit is similar to square law (non-linear)
modulator. The only difference is in filter circuits.
Diode, operating in non-linear region
AM
modulated
wave
V0=output
+
vd
L.P.F
The circuit arrangement of square law detector is shown.The diode,

is operating in non-linear region.The distorted diode current is given
by non-linear(square law) relation, i = a vi(t)+ b v2i(t) where vi(t) is
the input modulated wave voltage i.e.
vi(t) = AC [1+ coswmt]coswct
The d.c. source Vd is used to adjust the operating point. This portion
is limited to non-linear region due to which the lower half portion of
the current waveform is compressed. This causes envelop distortion.
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Envelop Detector or Linear Detector
In envelop detector diode is operating in linear region therefore it is
PERSONAL REMARK :
also called linear detector, as shown below.

Diode, operating in linear region
AM
modulated
wave
C V0=output
RL
Tuned transformer
When the modulated carrier at the input of the detector is 1V, the
operation takes place in the linear region of the diode characteristic.
The AM wave has a time varying amplitude called as the envelop

of the AM wave. The envelop consists of the baseband signal m(t).
Therefore, the baseband signal can be recovered from an AM wave
by detecting the envelop. By using the envelop detector, the
detection is less costly and simple.
Envelop detector is most popular in commercial receiver circuits

since it is very simple and cheaper.
NOTE : The baseband signal is preserved in the envelop only if 1

(i.e. modulation index is less than or equal to 1).
,
Assume that the Rs is the source resistance and rf is the forward

resistance of diode then charging time constant
i.e.
(RS + rf) <<
1
fc
....(A)
Assume (RS + rf) << RL Discharging time

RLC >>
and
1
fC
RL C <<
.... (i)
1
fm
....(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii) we get

,
In an envelop detector the RC time constant of the diode

should be greater than period of the carrier signal and less
than the period lowest modulating signal i.e.,
1
< RLC <
fc
fm
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Where, RL C = discharging time constant of diode
PERSONAL REMARK :
fm = highest frequency of modulating signal m(t)

c = 2fc
Where, fc = frequency of carrier wave
or in other words we can say charging time constant (RsC)
should be very-very low and discharging time constant (RLC)
should be very-very high for proper detection of the
modulating signal.
,
The ripple can be reduced by increasing the time constant RC so

that capacitor discharges very little between the positive peaks
1
i.e. R L C
Making RC too large, however would make it
c
impossible for the capacitor voltage to follow the envelop thus

producing diagonal clipping.
,
Distortion in Envelope Detector Caused by the Wrong time

Constant as shown
Vi(t)
Vi(t)
(a)
RL
V0(t)
(b)
V0(t)
V0(t)
Called Clipping
Distortion
(c) Correct RLC
(d) RLC too large
Spikes produced at
the output with low
time constant
V0(t)
(e) RLC too small

,
The required condition for the detector output is to follow

the envelop at all times is
1
c
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Where, RLC = time constant of diode
PERSONAL REMARK :
m = 2 fm
= modulation index
,
For 1 the envelop does not preserve the baseband signal, rather,,
the baseband signal recovered from the envelop is distorted. This
type of distortion is known as envelop distortion. An AM signal with
1 is known as over modulated signal.
NOTE : Envelop detection is an extremely simple and

inexpensive operation which does not require generation of
a local carrier for the demodulation.Square law detectors does
not require local carrier for the demodulation.
The envelop of AM has the information about m(t) only if the AM
signal AC [1 + m(t)] cos ct satisfies the condition Ac [1 + m(t)] > 0
for all t.
Am(max)
Envelop |AC+m(t)|
Am(min)
(a)
<1
(b)
=1
Over modulated
signal
>1
(c)
An over modulated signal cant be demodulated by a square law

demodutlator and envelope detector.
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Overmodulation (i.e., 1 ) is never applied in the case of envelop

detector method. However, an overmodulated signal can be recovered
using a costly as well as complex technique i.e., synchronous
detection.
Experimentally modulation index can be expressed as
PERSONAL REMARK :
Resulting depth of modulation i.e., degree of modulation after

transmitting through circuit.
Where,
0
1 4 Q2 2
0 = initial depth of modulation
Q = quality factor
fm
= f
c
GENERATION OF AM SIGNALS
,
The device which is used to generate an amplitude modulated (AM)

wave is known as Amplitude Modulator.
Low-Level AM
Methods of AM Generation
High-Level AM
Square law diode modulation and switching modulation are examples

of Low level modulation & high level modulation respectively.
(i)
Using linear time variant circuit, for example : switching or

chopper modulator, collector modulator, drain modulator etc.
(ii)
,
Using non-linear devices such as transistors, diodes, FETs.
Switching modulator can be obtained by a ring modulator used for

AM-SC (amplitude modulated suppress-carrier) generation.
The diode modulator circuit does not provide amplification, and hence
it can be used for low power application.
For high power amplification we need amplifying devices like

transistors,FET's etc. Each one of them can be used for generating
amplitude modulation by varying gain parameters ( h fe , gm , etc. ) in
accordance with modulating signal. The collector modulation method
is an example of High-Level modulation.
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Usually class-C amplifier configuration is used for amplification in
PERSONAL REMARK :
order to get high efficiency.

,
In brief, AM generation using non-linear circuits is given below :

m(t)
+
+
V1
nonlinear
device V2
BPF
AM signal
V0(t)
Ac cos ct
V1( t ) m( t ) A c cos c t
V2 ( t ) a V1( t ) b V12 ( t )
since non-linear
device have
voltage characteristics like
2
Vo (t) a V1 (t) b V 1 (t)
Note : Here modulation index, =

,
2b
A
a m
Advantage of a Balanced Modulator over a Simple non-linear

Circuit
In simple non-linear circuits, the undesired non-linear terms i.e.,
harmonics are eliminated by a BPF (bandpass filter). Hence in the
case of non-linear modulator circuit, bandpass filter must be carefully
designed. But in a balanced modulator, the undesired non-linear terms
are automatically balanced out, and at the output we get only the
desired term, so filter design is not too much complex.
Square law detectors are used for detecting low level modulated
signals (below 1 volt) so that operating region of device characteristic
is restricted to non-linear region.
The only difference between the modulator and demodulator is the

output filter. In the modulator, output is passed through a bandpass
filter tuned to fc, whereas in the demodulator the multiplier output is
passed through a LPF. Therefore, all the modulators can be used as
demodulators provided that the BPF at the output are replaced by
low-pass filter (LPF) of bandwidth B.
For demodulation, the receiver must generate a carrier in phase and

frequency synchronism with the incoming carrier. These modulators
are called synchronism or coherent or homodyne demodulators.
Usually Band Pass filter (BPF) is a parallel combination of R, L

and C.
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Costas receiver has two synchronous detector inphase coherent

detector or I-channel and quadrature phase coherent detector or Q-
PERSONAL REMARK :
channel.
,
Quadrature multiplexing is an effective method of transmitting two

message signals within the same bandwidth, and usually used in
colour television chrominance signals, which carry the information
about colours.
One important component of Costas receiver is a voltage controlled

oscillator (VCO) and its frequency can be adjusted by an error control
d.c. signal.
Ring modulator or chopper-type balanced modulator is referred to

as a double-balanced modulator as it is balanced with respect to the
baseband signal as well as the carrier.
Switching modulator is single balanced modulator as it is balanced

with respect to the carrier only.
Summary of Different Possible Amplitude Modulated System,

with 1 (i.e., 100 % modulation) is given below
System
Pt
(Transmitted
Power)
Ps
(Saved
Power)
(i) AM-DSB/FC
or
AM-FC
(ii) AM-DSB/SC
or
DSB-SC
(iii) AM-SSB/FC
or
SSB-FC
(iv) AM-SSB/SC
or
SSB-SC
PC
Pc
PC
PC
Where,
BW
Circuit
Complexity
%Saving power
PT Pt where, P = P
T
C
PT
0%
2m
Min,
PC
67%
2m
100%
Pc
PC
16%
33%
83%
Max,
33%
100%
Pt = Transmitted power
PT = Total power
A c2
Pc = Carrier power =
2R
Ps = Saved power
BW = Bandwidth
= Efficiency
Which of the following analog modulation scheme requires the
minimum transmitted power and minimum channel bandwidth?
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) VSB
(b) DSB-SC (c) SSB
(d)
AM
Sol.(c) SSB anlog modulation scheme requires minimum transmitted power
and minimum channel Bandwidth.
Ex.
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MIXER
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
Mixer is non-linear device which generates the sum and difference

frequencies or in other words mixer is a device which is used to
change the carrier frequency of a modulated signal to some
intermediate frequency which is usually less than the carrier
frequency.
V1
cos 2 f Lt
Oscillator
s (t) = m (t) cos 2 fct

V1(t) =
m(t)
[cos 2 (fC + fL) t + cos 2 (fC fL) t]
2
Where fL = fC fI , fI is intermediate frequency.

V1(t) =
m (t)
[cos 2 (2fC fI) t + cos 2 fI t]
2
After passing through BPF, tuned to fI
f
fI
2f C f I
2f C
2 fC + fI
(i)
When fL is fC + fI , the operation is called up-conversion
(ii)
When fL is fC fI then it is called down-conversion
Mixer is also called frequency converter or translator.
Usually a detector circuit consist of a half wave rectifier followed

by a Low Pass Filter (L.P.F.).
Ex.
Consider a system shown in the figure. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the
Fourier transforms of x(t) and y(t) respectively. The ideal HPF has
the cutoff frequency 10 kHz..
[GATE-EC-2004]
HPF
10 kHz
13 kHz
X(f)
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The positive frequencies where Y(f) has spectral peaks are
(a) 1 kHz and 24 kHz
(b) 2 kHz and 24 kHz
(c) 1 kHz and 14 kHz
(d) 2 kHz and 14 kHz
Sol.(b) Let the modulating signal, x(t) with frequency, fm
PERSONAL REMARK :
Output after balance modulator = 10 fm

Output after HPF with cut-off frequency, 10KHz = 10 + fm
Output after next balance modulator
= 13 (10 +fm) = 23 + fm and 3 fm
,
Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation

In AM the power required to transmit the carrier is very high when
compare to the sidebands. So the modulation efficiency is very less.
Always the power in the sideband should be as high as possible. To
increase the modulation efficiency the carrier is suppressed and only
the sidebands are transmitted.
s (t) = Ac m (t) cos 2fct + Ac cos 2fct
(time domain equation of AM)
s (t) = Ac m (t) cos 2fct
(time domain equation of DSB carrier is suppressed
i.e., DSB - SC)
s (t) = m (t) c (t)
s (f) =
Ac
[M (f fc) + M (f + fc)]
2
(frequency domain equation)
Ac S(f)
2
1 M(f)
fm
fm fc fm fc fc +fm
f c+ f m fc
fc+ f m
B.W. = 2w
= 2 (Highest frequency component of the message)
Power required to transmit a DSB wave is very less as
compared to AM but the bandwidth is same as AM.
Single-tone Modulation of DSB-SC
m(t) = Am cos 2fmt
ACA M
s(t) m(t) c(t)
fc fm fc+f m
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fcfm fc +fm
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or s(t) = Am Ac cos 2fc t cos 2fm t
s(t)
Ac Am
2
PUSB =
PERSONAL REMARK :
[cos2(fc fm) t + cos2(fc + fm)t]
A c2 A 2m
A2 A2
& Pt = c m
8
4
% Power saving
% Power saving
Power saved
100
Total power
Pc
2
100
Pc (1 2 / 2)
2 2
or % Power saving 1 AM
,
GENERATION OF DSB-SC SIGNALS

Two methods, which are most widely used are :
(i)
Balanced modulator (Non-linear device)
(ii)
Ring Modulator or Switching Modulator (Linear device)
Balanced Modulator
Figure shows the block diagram of balanced modulator
A relatively simple method for generating DSB-SC AM signal is to

use two conventional AM modulators.
m(t)
A C[1+m(t)] cos ct
AM
modulator
Carrier
m(t)
DSB = 2 A m(t) cos t

C
c
signal
AC cos ct
AM
modulator
AC[1 m(t)] cos ct
Figure: Block Diagram of Balanced Modulator

,
In a balanced modulator two non-linear devices (For example :

Diodes, BJT's ,FET's etc) are connected in the balanced mode so as
to suppress the carrier wave
The circuit arrangement of balanced modulator using two

diodes as non-linear elements is shown below D1
+
I1
m(t)
modulating
signal m(t)
cosct
C
V 0(t)
DSB-SC
wave
I2
+
m(t)
D2
BPF centred with ( c)
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From above figure
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex.
VA = m(t) + cosct
so
VB = m(t) + cosct
And the current I1 and I2 obtained as

I 1 = aVA + b VA2 = a [m(t) + cosct] + b [m(t) + cosct]2
and
and
What would be the value of

gain k in figure below to
yield the suppressed carried
DSB signal?
[IES-EE-2001:10 Marks]
+
I2 = aVB + b VB2 = a [m(t) + cosct] + b [m(t) + cosct]2
x(t)
aV
+
+
A cosc t
Vo
V0 = I1 R I2 R = R [I1 I2] = 2a m(t) + 4bR m(t) cos c t

+
The output of a BPF centred around c is given by output

V= 4bR m(t) cosct
or
V0 = K m(t) cosct
(which is desired DSB-SC wave)
bV22
Sol. From the given figure we

observe that the signals V1
and v2 are expressed
Diode-Bridge Modulator
V1 k[x(t) A cos c t] and
The DSB-SC wave can be obtained by multiplying the message signal
V 2 [ x ( t ) A co s c t ]
m(t) with any periodic signal f(t) of the fundamental frequency fC.
The fourier series expression is
V 0 = aV12 bV 22
= ak 2 [x(t) + Acos c t] 2
f(t) =
b[x(t) Acos c t] 2
C n cos (n ct + n)
n0
Hence, m(t) f(t) =
C n m(t) cos (n t + )
c
n0
The spectrum of the product m(t)f(t) is
the spectrum M() shifted to c,

c, c ...... If this signal is passed
D1
D3
through a bandpass filter of band width

2B Hz and tuned to c, the desired
modulated signal C1 m(t) cos (ct +1) is
c
D4
D2
obtained.
The figure shown below is of a electronic
switch, the diode-bridge modulator,
Diode-bridge
electronic switch
driven by a sinusoid A cos c t to produce
or V0= ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2 ct

+ 2Ax(t)cos ct] b[x2(t) +
2
A cos2 c t 2Ax(t)cos ct]
or V0 = ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2 ct +
2A x(t) cos ct] b[x2(t) +
A2 cos2 ct 2Ax(t)cos ct]
or V0 = (ak2 b)x2(t) +A2
(ak2 b) A2 cos2 ct +
2A x(t) cos ct(K2+b)
For DSB SC (Double
Sideband Suppressed
Carrier System) to
generate the first two term
should be zero.
i.e. ak2 b = 0
or k
b
a
Ans.
the switching action.
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During positive half cycle of the carrier, the terminal c is positive
PERSONAL REMARK :
than d, all the diodes are ON closing the terminals a & b. During
next half cycle, terminal d is positive with respect to c and all four
diodes are open, opening the termminals a and b.
,
The input to BPF is m(t) during positive half cycle and is zero during
negative half cycle. The switching on and off of m(t) repeats for
each cycle of the carrier, resulting in the switched signal m(t) f(t).
The fourier series for the square pulse train is given by

c(t) =
(cos ct
cos 3ct +
cos 5ct ......... )

m (t) f(t) =
m(t) + [m(t) cos ct

m(t) cos ct +
m(t)
cos 5ct ...... ]
After passing through BPF, Y(t) =
2
m(t) cos ct
Ring modulator or Chopper type Balanced Modulator
Ring modulator uses square wave as a carrier.
Since 4 diodes are connected in the form of ring that's why switching
modulator is called ring modulator.
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Figure shows the circuit arrangement of ring modulator

D1
c
+
D4
m(t)
PERSONAL REMARK :
D2
D3
A cos
The diodes are used as a switching device. The carrier signal is such
that its amplitude is Ac > |m(t)|max and c > m
During Positive half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 conduct

and, D2 and D4 are open. Hence, terminal a is connected to c, and
terminal b is connected to d.
During negative half cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 are open,
and D2 and D4 are conducting, thus connecting terminal a to d and
terminal b to c.
The output is proportional to m(t) during the positive half cycle and
to m(t) during the negative half cycle.
m(t)
t (modulating signal)
c(t)
t (carrier signal)
s(t)
t (modulated signal)
m(t) is multiplied by a square pulse train c(t). The fourier series for
c(t) is given by
c (t)
( 1)n1
cos 2 f c t (2n 1)
2n 1
n 1
s (t) m (t) c (t)
or s (t)
4
m(t)
n 1
( 1)n1
2n 1
cos [2fc t (2n 1)]
So, frequency component fm fc (2n 1) will be present where

n = 1, 2, 3, ......
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or
s(t) = (4/) m(t) [cos 2f c t (1/3) cos 6f c t + (1/5) cos

2 (5fc) t ......]
By passing the output of ring modulator through a BPF with centre
frequency fc and bandwidth 2, we get DSB signal.
s(t) =
m(t) cos2 fc t
or
,
s(t) = K m(t) cos2 fc t which is required DSB-SC wave
This circuit is referred to as a double balanced modulator as it is

balanced with respect to the baseband signal as well as the carrier.
SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT OR HOMODYNE
DETECTION
PERSONAL REMARK :
Ex. Which one of the following is

used for the detection of AMDSB-SC signal ?
(a) Ratio detector
(b) Foster-Seeley discriminator
(c) Product demodulator
(d) Balanced-slope detector
(DRDO-EC-2007)
Sol.(c) Product demodulator is used
for the detection of AMDSB-SC signal
Local oscillator signal must be exactly coherent or synchronized with

the carrier wave at the transmitter both in phase and frequency.
Synchronization Techniques
Pilot Carrier
Costa's Receiver
(For synchronous Detection
of DSB-SC or AM-SC wave)
This system has two synchronous detectors
(i) I-phase or inphase coherent detector
(which is inphase with transmitted carriers)
(ii) Q-phase (Quadrative phase coherent detector)
(which is in phase quadrature with the carrier.
Here the two detectors constitute a negative
feedback system which synchronizes the
local carrier with the transmitted carrier
Product
Modulator
LPF
A small amount of carrier signal

known as pilot carrier is transferred
along with the modulated signal
from the transmitter
This pilot carrier is a separated at the
receiver by an appropriate filter, is
amplified and is used to phase
lock the locally generated carrier
at the receiver
1
2 m(t)cos
I-channel
Cos (ct+ )
90phase
shifter
Sin(ct+ )
Product
Modulator
Demodulated
output
phase
discriminator
VCO
m(t) cosct
Q-channel
LPF
m(t)sin c
Phase discriminator provides a dc control signal which may be used

to correct local oscillator phase error. The local oscillator is a VCO
whose frequency can be adjusted by an error control dc signal.
Limitation : The costa's receiver ceases no phase control when
there is no modulation i.e. m(t) = 0
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DEMODULATION OF DSB SIGNALS
PERSONAL REMARK :
Most widely used methods are Synchronous detection or coherent

detection
Receving
Antenna
s'(t)= m(t)cos2 ct
DSB-SC
m(t)cosct
m(t)
LPF
modulating
signal
cosct
(locally generated carrier)
(t) c o
s c t .
s'(t) = m
D S B .S C .
or S'(t) =
and S'() =
Locally generated
carrier signal
m(t)
m(t)
m(t) [1 + cos2c t] =
+
cos 2 c t
2
2
M() +
M ( + 2c ) + M ( c)
S'(
After passing through LPF.

or s'(t) =
cos c t
m(t)
2
M(0)
M(0)
M(0)
2c
2c
m
Spectrum of S'()
LPF
Effect of phase and frequency Errors in Synchronous detection

One thing should be always kept in mind that the frequency and
phase of the locally generated carrier signal and the carrier signal at
the transmitter must be identical. This means that the local oscillator
signal must be exactly synchronized with the carrier signal at the
transmitter both in frequency and phase otherwise the detected signal
would get distorted and /or attenuated
Receiver
DSBSC Product
m(t)cosct Demodulator
s'(t)
modulating
signal
LPF
cos{(c+ ) t+ } locally generated carrier
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s'(t) = m(t) cosct. cos [(c ) t )]
s'(t) =
PERSONAL REMARK :
m(t) [cos{t } cos c ) t }]
After LPF s'(t) =
m(t) cos [ t + ]
This part distort th e signal
Now, Let us consider the three cases

(i)
when and = 0
Here, s'(t) =
m(t)
No distortion
When = 0 but 0
(ii)
so, s'(t) =
m(t) cos
No distortion, only attenuation
when = 90 s'(t) = 0
This is known as quadrature
null effect Because the output
signal is zero when the local
carrier is in phase quadrature with
the carrier
(iii)
When = 0 and 0
s'(t) =
m(t) cos ( )t is time dependent and produce distortion
(iv)
When 0 and 0
Here we get an attenuated and distorted signal
SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) MODULATION

SSB-SC wave with single tone modulating signal
Let m(t) = cos mt
cos (c m) t = cos mt cos ct + sin mt sin ct
cos (c +m) t = cos mt cos ct sin mt sin ct
....(A)
....(B)
(A) and (B) can be expressed as

s(t)SSB = cos mt cos ct sin mt sin ct
Note: + sign represents the lower side band
sign represents the upper side band
....(C)
we can write sin mt = cos m t

2
Now equation (C) can be written as

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s(t)SSB = m(t) cos ct mh (t) sin ct
PERSONAL REMARK :
Note : Where mh(t) is a signal obtained by shifting the phase

of every component present in m(t) by .
2
HILBERT TRANSFORM
,
Here the name "Transform is some what misleading because there

is no change of domain is involved (as in the case of Fourier, Laplace
and Z-transform)
Hilbert transform of m(t) is obtained by phase shifting the every

frequency component present in m(t) by
.
2
A delay of /2 at all frequencies at negative frequencies the

spectrum of signal multiplied by + j and at positive frequencies
the spectrum of signal is multiplied by j.
This is equivalent to spectrum of signal is multiplied by j sgn(f)
F.T.
i.e. If m(t) M(f)
F.T.
then mh(t) j sgn (f) M(f)
,
Thus the operation of Hilbert transform is equivalent to

convolution integral i.e. filtering. In fact Hilbert transform is
a simple filter. This filter is called a quadrature filter,
emphasizing it role in providing a 90 phase shift.
Hilbert transform of m(t) can be defined as :

mh(t) =
1
m(t) *
m(t)
or
M(f)
or
mh(t) =
m()
d
t
mh(t)
or
Mh(f)
( phase shifter)
and the inverse Hilbert transform is defined as

m(t) =
m h () d
t
j sgn (f)
t
Time domain of sgn (t) is given by
The transfer function of Hilbert transform H (f) = j sgn f
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Where, sgn f =
,
at f 0
for f 0
Hilbert transform may be viewed as a linear filter with impulse

response h(t) =
PERSONAL REMARK :
for f 0
1
and frequency respone H(f) = j sgn f
t
Figure shows magnitude and phase spectrum of H(f) = j sgn f

H(f)
sgn(f )
f
1
Magnitude Spectrum
Phase Spectrum
The transfer function is expressed as - H(f) = |H (f)| ej (f)
(f)
for f 0 (i.e. for negative frequency)

2
for f 0 (i.e. for positive frequency)

2
1
and H (f) = F
t
j ,
e 2 f 0
f 0
= j sgn (f) = 0
j ,
e 2 f 0
f 0
j,
j ,
or H (f) = 0 f 0
= e 2 sgn (f )
j, f 0
The response Mh() of the system with transfer function H() is
related to input M() as

Mh() = H() M()
Where m(t) M() and mh(t) Mh()
Applications of Hilbert Transform
(i)
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(ii)
Design of minimum phase type filters
(iii)
Representation of Band pass signals
PERSONAL REMARK :
Properties of Hilbert Transform

(i)
A signal m(t) and its hilbert transform mh(t) have the same
energy density spectrum
Energy spectra of m(t) =
| M () |
| j sgn M () | d =
Energy spectra of mh(t) =
| M h () |
| j sgn |
| M () | d
(ii)
A signal m(t) and its Hilbert transform mh(t) have the same
autocorrelation function
(iii)
A signal m(t) and mh(t) are mutually orthogonal
m(t) m h (t) dt 0
i.e.
By parseval theorem
m (t) m h (t) dt
M (f) M h (f) df
M (f) j sgn(f) M
sgn f | M (f)|
(f) df = j
df 0
Since, sgn (f) is an odd function so integral is zero.

(iv)
If mh(t) the Hilbert transform of m(t), then the Hilbert

transform of mh(t) is m(t)
(v)
For non-overlapping spectra mh(t) ch(t) = m(t) ch(t) e.g. Hilbert

transform of m(t) cos ct is m(t) sin ct
(vi)
Hilbert transform of sin 2 f0t = cos 2 f0t
(vii)
H. T. of e j2 t 0t is = j sgn (2 f0) e j2 t 0t
(viii) Mh(f) = (j sgn f) M(f), |Mh(f)| = |M(f)|
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Concept of Pre-Envelop of Analytic Signal
PERSONAL REMARK :
Pre-envelop of signal m(t) called complex values signal is

mp(t) = m(t) + jmh(t) where, m(t) is called the real part and
mh(t) is called the imaginary part. Envelop of the signal m(t) is the
magnitude of its pre-envelop. i.e. |mp(t)| = Envelop of m(t).
Thus, the envelop is the trace of the positive peaks of carrier (i.e. in
modulated signal)
In order to reduce the bandwidth requirement to transmit the signal
SSB modulation is used. In this technique only one sideband is
transmitted (either USB or LSB). So the bandwidth and power
requirement to transmit the signal is reduced.
S(t) = m (t) Ac cos 2fc t = Am Ac cos 2fm t cos 2 fct

S(t) =
S(t) =
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Ac Am
Ac Am
cos 2(fc + fm) t +
cos 2 (fc fm) t
2
2
Ac Am
cos 2(fc + fm) t
2
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Ac Am
cos 2(fc fm) t
2
S(t) =
Ac Am
cos 2(fc fm) t
2
or S(t) =
(If LSB is transmitted)
Ac Am
[cos2fct cos 2fmt sin 2 fc t sin 2 fmt]
2
The generalized equation of AM-SSB signal

S(t) =
Ac
[m(t) cos 2fc t mh (t) sin 2 fc t]
2
Transmitted Power, Pt
, Power saving, Ps =
Pc PUSB
Pt
or Ps = 1
,
PERSONAL REMARK :
S(t) =
2
A c2 A m
8
Pc
2
4 = 4 2
=
2(2 )
Pc (1 2 /2)
Pc 2
AM
2
GENERATION OF SSB SIGNALS

Most widely used methods are :
(i)
Frequency Discrimination Method / Selective Filtering Method
(ii)
Phase Discrimination Method
(i)
Frequency Discrimination Method
The output of a bandpass filter is a DSB signal. If the DSB signal is

passed through a
bandpass filter, the
upper sideband or
lower sideband is
suppressed.
A c cos 2 fC t
If the passband is
from fC to fC + W, we will get the USB.
,
In filter or frequency discrimination method we need a sharp cut-off

bandpass filter which is practically impossible to be realized. Such
filter which separate the desired (usually USB) sideband from the
lower one (i.e. LSB) because the USB and LSB have very small
frequency difference. (because fm is very small)
Filter method is used for speech communication where lowest spectral

component is 70Hz, and it can be taken as 300 Hz without affecting
the intelligibility of the speech.
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,
Filter method is not useful for video communication where baseband
PERSONAL REMARK :
starts from as low as d.c.

,
Need High degree of selectivity (quality factor, Q range lying

between 1000 to 2000)
(ii) Phase Discrimination Method or Phasing Method
In this method, the time domain description of SSB-SC is used.
A lower sideband SSB-SC signal is given by expression

SSB(t) = m(t) cosct mh(t) sinct as shown by using block
diagram
Basic Requirements of Phase Discrimination or Phasing

method
Each baseband modulator need to be carefully balanced in

order to suppress the carrier
Phase shifting is possible by using Hilbert transform of m(t).
Each modulator should have equal sensitivity to the baseband

signal
The carrier phase shifting network must provide an exact 90

phase shift at the carrier frequency.
Demodulation of SSB Signals
Demodulation of SSB Signals
Coherent / Synchronous
Detection
Carrier Reinsertion Method
(1)
Coherent / Synchronous (Homodyne Detection)
V1
V2
Accos 2 f c t
s (t)
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Ac
A
m ( t ) cos 2 fc t c mh( t ) sin 2 fc t
2
2
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V1(t)
V2 (t)
A 2c
4
1 cos4 f t
c
m(t)
Ac
mh (t) sin
4
PERSONAL REMARK :
4fct
Detection of SSB Signals

with a Carrier (SSB + C)
2
c
A
m(t)
4
We now consider SSB singals
Consider the locally generated signals as A c cos ( 2 fc t )

V2 (t )
with an additional carrier

(SSB + C). Such a signal can
be expressed as
2
C
A
(cos m(t) m h (t) sin )
4
= 0 0 , V 2 (t) =
S(SSB + C)(t) = Acos ct + [m (t)

cos c t + mh(t) sinct]
A c2
m (t) i.e. Perfect replica of message
4
and m(t) can be recovered by

synchronous
detection
[multiplying S (SSB + C)(t) by
cos C t] if the carrier
component A cos ct can be
extracted (by narrowband
filtering of)
S (SSB + C) (t)
alternatively, if the carrier
amplitude A is large enough,
m(t)
can
also
be
(approximately) recovered
from S(SSB + C)(t) by envelope
or rectifier detection. This can
be shown be rewriting as
we get highly distorted signal

90 0 , V2 ( t )
A c2
mh( t )
4
Note :Quadrature null effect in the case of SSB, is a major

advantage over DSB.
(ii) Carrier Reinsertion Method
The major advantage of the SSB-SC modulation is that it reduces
the bandwidth requirement to half as compared to DSB-SC
modulation.
But, SSB-SC signal are relatively difficult to generate due to difficulty

in isolating the desired sidebands. The required filter must have a
very sharp cut-off characteristic, particularly when the baseband
signal contains extremly low frequencies (i.e. used in television
S(SSB + C)(t) = [A + m(t)]cos ct + mh(t)

sinct = E(t)cos (ct + )
and telegraphic signals). Under such circumstances, it becomes
where, E(t) is the envelope of
very difficult to isolate one sideband from the other. Hence SSB
S(SSB + C)(t) is given by
scheme becomes unsuitable for handling such types of signals.Refer
E(t) {[A m(t)]2 m h2 (t)}1/ 2
right hand side for detailed discussion.
2m(t) m 2 (t) m 2h (t) 1/ 2
A 1
A
A2
A 2
This difficulty overcome by scheme known as Vestigial Sideband

(VSB) Modulation.
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND (VEB) MODULATION SYSTEMS
,
In VSB modulation the desired sideband is allowed to pass completely,

whereas just a small portion (called trace or vestige) of the
undesired sideband is also allowed.
Generation of VSB modulation signals is easier than conventional.
Am, DSB-SC and SSB signals. The bandwidth requirement in VSB
modulation signal is slightly higher (approximately 25%) the SSB
signals but considerable less than DSB-SC signals.
VSB is used in television for transmission of picture signals i.e.
VSB is used for video signal transmission in commercial television
broadcasting.
VSB is a compromise between DSB-SC and SSB-SC signals.
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If A >> |m(t)|, then in general

A >> |mh(t)|, and the terms
m2(t)/A2 and m2h(t)/A2 can be
ignored.
2m(t) 1/ 2
Thus, E(t) A 1
Using Taylor series expansion

and discarding hiher order
terms [because m(t)/A <<1],
we get
m(t)
E(t) A 1
A m(t)
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,
Figure shows the frequency spectrum of VSB signal
PERSONAL REMARK :
It is evident that for a large carrier,

the SSB + C can be demodulated by
an envelope detector.
VSB
In AM, envelope detection requires

the condition A > |m(t)|, whereas for
SSB + C, the condition is A >> |m(t)|.
Bandwidth of the VSB signal BW = fc + fv fc + fm = fm + fv

where, fm = Bandwidth of the message fv = width of the VSB
Filter method
,
VSB Generation
Phase-Discrimination method
(i)
Generation and Detection of VSB Signal

Filiter Method : A VSB-SC signal can be genereated by passing
DSB-SC signal through an appropriate filter as in figure 1(a). The
system is similar to DSB-SC except that the filter characteristic should
be appropriate. The filter characteristic desired for VSB can be
derived by analysing the demodulation technique of the VSB-SC
signal which is nothing but the synchronous dectection shown in fig.
1(b)
Characteristic sof the filter with a transfer function H( ) shown in
figure 2(a) that may generate a VSB-SC signal from a DSB-SC
signal. A DSB-SC signal has a spectrum given by.
1
1
F( c ) F( c )
2
2
The output of the filter H( ) will be given by
SDSB ( )
SVSBSC ( )
f (t)
1
H( )[F( c ) F( c )]
2
cos
c t
VSB-SC
signal
H( )
filter
Product
modulator
Product
modulator
....(i)
VSB-SC
signal
(a)
y(t)
LPF
y0 (t) = f (t)
(b)
cos
c t
Figure : 1(a) VSB-SC Modulator (filter method)
1(b) VSB-SC Demodulator Synchronous
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This signal is passed through a product modulator for synchronous
detection as shown in figure 1(b). The output of this product modulator
denoted by ed(t) will be given as
PERSONAL REMARK :
1
y d (t) S VSB SC (t) cos c t = [SDSB SC (c )SDSBSC (c )]
2
substituting the value of SVSB SC () from (1) we get
1
y d (t) [{F( 2 c ) F( c ) F( )}H ( c )
4
{F( ) F( ) F( 2 c )}H ( c )]
The signal ed(t) is passed through alow pass and and, hence, the
components centered around 2 c are filtered out. Thus, the
output of LPF of the synchronius detector will be gives as
y o (t)
1
F( ){H( c ) H( c )}
4
....(ii)
For getting a distortionless reception, the output e0(t) should be

given as, y 0 (t) C1F( )
where,C1is a constant
....(iii)
when comparing equation (iii) with equation (ii) we get the following
condition for a frequency range | | < m (since the baseband is
limited to m)
H( c ) H( 0 ) C(cons tant ) | | < m ....(iv)

The terms H( + c) and H( c) represent H( ) shifted by c and + c, respectively, as frequency range | |< m as shown
in figure 2. It is obvious from figure 2 that H( + c) + H( c)
will be constant over | |< m only if the cut-off characteristic of
filter H( ) has a complementary symmetry (odd symmetry) around
the carrier frequency.
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,
Table given below shows the modulators and demodulators

used by various AM systems.
S.No.
System
1.
DSB-SC
2.
DSB+FC
or AM
3.
SSB-SC
4.
VSB-SC
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PERSONAL REMARK :
(Very Important)
Modulators
Demodulators
(i) Multiplier Modulator
(ii) Non-linear Modulator
(i) Synchronous Detection
(iii) Switching Modulator
(ii) Switching demodulator
(a) Diode Bridge Modulator
(iii) Ring demodulator
(b) Ring Modulator
(iv) Balanced Modulator
(i) Rectifier detector or
(i) Switching Modulator
Square Law detector
(ii) Balanced Modulator
(ii) Envelope detector or
Linear detector
(i) Frequency discriminator
(i) Synchronous detection
(ii) Phase discriminator
(ii) Envelope detection
(iii) Weaver's method
(i) Filter Method
(i) Synchronous detection
(ii) Phase discriminator
(ii) Envelope detection
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PERSONAL REMARK :
In an amplitude modulated system, if the total power is 600 W and

the power in carrier is 400 W, then the modulation index is :
(IES-EC-2000)
(a) 0.5
(b)
0.75 (c)
0.9
(d) 1
Sol.(d) Total transmitted power is given by
1.
PT
2
PT Pc 1
So, 1 1
2
Pc
2.
If the radiated power of AM transmitter is 10 kW, the power in the

carrier for modulation index of 0.6 is nearly :
(IES-EC-2001)
(a) 8.24 kW
(b) 8.47 kW (c)
9.26 kW
(d) 9.6 kW
Sol.(b)The transmitted power is given by, PT Pc 1
2
2
Where, Pc = carrier power

= modulation index
So, Pc
PT
10 kW
8.47 kW
2
1 0.18
1
2
For an AM wave, the maximum voltage was found to be 10 V and

the minimum voltage was found to be 5 V. The modulation index of
the wave would be
(IES-EC-2001)
(a) 0.33
(b)
0.52
(c) 0.40
(d) 0.1
Sol.(a)Modulation index is given by
3.
4.
E max E min 10 5 5 1

E max E min 10 5 15 3
A 10 kW carrier is sinusoidally modulated by two modulating signal

corresponding to a modulation index of 30% and 40% respectively.
The total radiated power is :
(IES-EC-1999)
(a) 11.25 kW
(b) 12.5 kW (c) 15 kW
(d) 17 kW
Sol.(a)The effective modulation index is given by, eff

Here 1 = 0.3, 2 = 0.4
12 2 2
So, eff = 0.5
Transmitted power is given by
2
PT Pc 1 eff
2
Pc = carrier power
So, PT = 10 kW [1 + 0.125] = 11.25 kW
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Consider the following types of modulation :
(IES-EC-2002)
1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Pulse modulation
4. Phase modulation
Which of the above modulation are used for telecasting TV
programmes?
(a) 3 and 4
(b)
2 and 3 (c)
1 and 2 (d) 1 and 4
Sol.(c) The video signal is transmitted using Vestigial side-band amplitude
modulation and audio signal is transmitted using frequency modulation.
5.
6.
PERSONAL REMARK :
The modulation index of an AM wave is changed from 0 to 1. The

transmitted power is :
(IES-EC-2003)
(a) Unchanged
(b) Halved
(c) Increased by 50%
(d) Quadrupled
2
Sol.(c) Transmitted power is given by PT Pc 1
2
when = 0, PT = Pc
and
when = 1 PT
So, Change in transmitted power PT ' PT
3
Pc
2
1
Pc
2
Transmitted power is increased by 50%.

Consider the following:
(IES-EC-2003)
1. Filter system
2. Phase-shift method
3. Third method
4. Balanced modulator
Which of these can be used to remove unwanted side-bands in SSB?
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Sol.(b)Balanced modulator is used to suppress the carrier
7.
In an SSB transmitter one is most likely to find

(IES-EC-2003)
(a) Class-C audio amplifier
(b) Tuned modulator
(c) Class-B RF amplifier
(d) Class-AB power amplifier
Sol.(c) Since in SSB only one side band is present and class - B amplifiers
amplify only half cycle of the signal.
8.
9.
A public broadcast system using amplitude modulation with double

sideband should invariable have which one of the following features
at the transmitter?
(IES-EC-2003)
(a) Band limit the signal to 5 kHz
(b) Use a high frequency carrier oscillator
(c) Use a stable crystal oscillator
(d) Use an all-around radiating transmitting antenna
Sol.(b) High frequency carrier oscillator is used to keep the demodulation

circuitry simple like enelop detection.
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Which one of the following statements regarding the threshold effect
in demodulators is correct ?
(IES-EC-2000)
(a) It is exhibited by all demodulators when the input signal to noise
ratio is low
(b) It is the rapid fall in output signal to noise ratio when the input
signal to noise ratio falls below a particular value
(c) It is the property exhibited by all AM suppressed carrier coherent
demodulators
(d) It is the property exhibited by correlation receivers
Sol.(b)In high recevied signal-to-noise ratios, the non - linear demodulation
process can be well approximated by a linear equivalent and signal
and noise at the demodulator output will be additive. At high noise
levels, threshold effect results in signal mutilation. Due to this the
output SNR degraded fast there exits a specific signal-to- noise ratio
at the input of the demodulator known as threshold SNR, beyond
which signal mutilation occurs.
10.
11.
PERSONAL REMARK :
In a broadcast transmitter, the RF output is represented as

e(t) = 50[1+0.89 cos 5000 t+0.30 sin 9000 t]cos(6 1010t) volt.
What are the sidebands of the signals in radians?(IES-EC-2004)
(a) 5 103 and 9 103
(b) 5.991 106, 5.995 106, 6.005 106 and 6.009 106
(c) 4 103, 1.4 104
(d) 1 106, 1.1 107, 3 106 and 1.5 107
Sol.(b) There are two message signals having frequency components fm1
and fm2. In AM the sidebands are present at fc + fm1 and fc + fm2.
12. A composite signal xc(t) is expressed as:
(IES-EC-2005)
xc(t) = Ac cos c t Am cos (c m)t + Am cos (c + m)t
Which of the following methods can be employed to retrieve the sinusoidal component at m from xc(t)?
(a) An envelop detector, square law detector
(b) Only a discriminator
(c) Only a square law detector
(d) Only an envelop detector
Sol.(a) Given, x c (t) A c cos c t A m cos( c m )t
A m cos( c m )t
or, x c (t) A c cos c t 2A m sin c t sin m t
The detection of NBFM is similar to AM.
FT
Signal
FM to AM
Converter
Output
AM
Signal Demodulator Signal
AM
A general FM demodulator.
13. A circuit produces an output y(t) = a + bx2(t) where x(t) is its input.
This circuit can produce which one of the following?(IES-EC-2005)
(a) Rectified output
(b) Pulse modulation
(c) Amplitude modulation
(d) Frequency modulation
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Sol.(c) Let x(t) = m(t) + cosct
Then, y(t) = a + bx2(t) = a + bm2(t) + b cos2ct + 2bm(t) cosct
After passing y(t) to band pass filter centered at c and having
bandwidth twice the message bandwidth, final output is
y0(t) = 2b m(t)cosct which is DSB wave.
PERSONAL REMARK :
14. An amplitude modulated signal occupies a frequency range from 395

kHz to 405 kHz. It can be demodulated by which of the following?
(a) Using an envelope detector and filter
(IES-EC-2009)
(b) Multiplying with a 395 kHz local signal
(c) Multiplying with a 405 kHz local signal
(d) Low pass filtering with cut off at 400 kHz
Sol.(a) The advantage of AM is that it is detected using envelop detector
thereby decreasing the receiver cost.
Assertion (A): In amplitude modulation systems the value of
modulation index should be around 1
Reason (R) : The power carried in the intelligence carrying sidebands
increases with the modulation index.
(IES-EC-2010)
Codes:
(a) Both A and R are individually true but R is the correct explanation
of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Sol.(d)For faithfull detection of AM signal the value of modulation index
should be less than 1
15.
2
Power in the sideband is given by, Pside-band
Pc
2
Where, Pc = carrier power

The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 7.5 A, when only the
carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.65 A, when the carrier is sinusoidally
modulated. Find the percentage modulation. Determine the antenna
current when the depth of modulation is 0.75.
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 8.49 A
(b) 4.49 A
(c) 18.49 A
(d) 6.32 A
16.(a)Given antenna current, It = 8.65 A and carrier current, Ic = 7.5 A
modulation index , = 0.75
16.
I
2
we know that , I I 1 a or 2 t 1
Ic
2
2
t
or
2
C
8.65 2
1 81.2% or 0.812
7.5
For the second part we have,

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PERSONAL REMARK :
(0.75) 2
2
7.5
1
8.489 A
I t Ic 1
2
2
17.
What would be the value of gain k in figure below to yield the

suppressed carried DSB signal?
V
(a)
(b)
(c)
b
a
aV
x(t)
A cos
c t
+
a
b
aV22
1 b
k
2 a
k 2
(d)
Vo
b
a
17.(a)From the given figure we observe that the signals V1 and v2 are
expressed V1 k[x(t) A cos c t] and V2 [x (t) A cos c t]
V0 = aV12 bV22 = ak 2 [x(t) + Acosc t]2 - b[x(t) - Acos c t]2

or V0= ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2 ct + 2Ax(t)cos ct] b[x2(t) +
A2 cos2 c t 2Ax(t)cos ct]
or V0 = ak2[x2(t) + A2 cos2 ct + 2A x(t) cos ct] b[x2(t) +
A2 cos2 ct 2Ax(t)cos ct]
or V0 = (ak2 b)x2(t) +A2 (ak2 b) A2 cos2 ct +
2A x(t) cos ct(K2+b)
For DSB SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier System) to
generate the first two term should be zero.
i.e. ak2 b = 0
or k
b
a
Ans.
18. In commercial TV transmission in India, picture and speech signal

are modulated respectively as :
(GATE-EC-1990)
Picture
Speech
(a) VSB
and
VSB
(b) VSB
and
SSB
(c) VSB
and
FM
(d) FM
and
VSB
Sol.(b)In commercial TV transmission in India picture signals are modulated
using VSB and speech signals are modulated using SSB modulation
technique.
19. The maximum power efficiency of an AM modulator is
(GATE-EC-1992)
(a) 25 %
(b) 50 %
(c) 75 %
(d) 100 %
P
Sol.(b) % = sideband 100 =
Ptransmitted
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2
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2
100
Where ,Pc = carrier power. Now, efficiency, % =
2 2
PERSONAL REMARK :
1
100 = 33.33%
3
For sinusoidal message signal
When message signal is a square wave having Am = Ac
When , = 1 then max =
Psideband = 2A2C/2 and Pcarrier =
A2c
2
2 A2c / 2
100
2
2 2
2
100
% = A c A c
= 2
1
2
2
For = 1 , max = 50%

20. Which of the following demodulator (s) can be used for demodulating
the signal
(GATE-EC-1993)
x(t) = 5 (1 + 2 cos 2000 t) cos 2000 t
(a) envelope demodulator
(b) square-law demodulator
(c) synchronous demodulator
(d) none of these
Sol.(c) x(t) = Ac (1+ cos mt ) cos ct
We get = 2 and As >1 (overmodulation)
The demodulator used is synchronous demodulator.
21. Single side band
(GATE-EC-1994)
(a) Envelope detector
(b) Integrate and dump
(c) Hilbert transform
(d) Ratio detector
Sol.(c)SSB wave is given by, SSB(t) = f(t) cos ct fh(t)sin ct
where, fh(t) is the hilbert transform of f(t)
22. AM system:
(GATE-EC-1995)
(a) Coherent detection
(b) Envelope detection
(c) Correlation detection
(d) PLL
Sol.(b)The AM-system contains envelop of modulating signal which is best
detected by envelop detector.
XAM(t) = Acos ct + m (t) cos ct or XAM(t) = [A + m(t)]cos ct
23. A DSB-SC signal is generated using the carrier cos c t and
modulating signal x (t). The envelope of the DSB-SC signal is :
(a) x(t)
(b) |x(t)|
(GATE-EC-1998)
(c) only positive portion of x (t) (d) d(t) cos
Sol.(b) f (t) = x (t) cos( ct + ) or
fh(t) = xh(t) sin ( ct + )
Pre-envelop , f(t) +jfh(t) = x(t) cos ( ct + ) +jxh(t)sin( ct + )
Envelop = |Pre-envelop|
= f 2 (t) f 2 h (t) = x 2 (t) cos 2 ( c t ) x 2 h (t) sin 2 ( c t ) = |x(t)|
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24. A modulated signal is given by, s(t) = m1 (t) cos (2 fct) + m2 (t) sin
(2 fct) where the baseband signal m1(t) and m2(t) have bandwidths
of 10 kHz and 15 kHz, respectively. The bandwidth of the modulated
signal, in kHz, is :
(GATE-EC-1999)
(a) 10
(b) 15
(c) 25
(d) 30
Sol.(d) Bandwidth = 2(highest frequency component)
= 2fm = 30 kHz
25. A modulated signal is given by
s(t) = eat cos[c+)t]u(t), where a, c and are positive constants
and c. The complex envelop of s(t) is given by
(a) exp(at) exp[j(c+)t]u(t) (b) exp(at) exp[jt]u(t)
(c) exp(jt)u(t)
(d) exp[(jc+)t]
Sol.(a)The complex envelop of s(t) is given by, s(t) + jsh(t)
where sh(t) is the Hilbert Transform of sh(t)
s(t) + jsh (t) = e at cos( c+ )tu(t) + je at cos
( c+
PERSONAL REMARK :
) u(t) = e at [cos( c+ )t + j sin ( c + )t]u(t)

2
= e at ej( c + )t
The amplitude modulated wave form s(t) =Ac [1 + Kam(t)] cos ct is

fed to an ideal envelope detector. The maximum magnitude of Kam(t)
is greater than 1. Which of the following could be the detector output?
(GATE-EC-2000)
2
(a) Acm(t)
(b) Ac [1 + Kam(t)]2
(c) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]
(d) Ac[1 + Kam(t)]2
Sol.(c)The envelop detector detect only the signal content in the envelop.
The envelop is defined as the magnitude of pre-envelop
Pre envelop of s(t)
M = s(t) + j sh(t) = Ac[1 + Kam(t)] cos ct +j Ac[1 + Kam(t)] sin c
t = Ac [1 + Kam(t)]ejct
|M| = Ac[1 + Ka m(t)] is the envelop of signal s(t)]
26.
27.
A message m(t) bandlimited to the frequency fm has a power of Pm.

The power of the output signal in the figure is. (GATE-EC-2000)
(Multiply)
m(t)cos0t
cos(0 t + )
Ideal low pass filter

cut off f = fm
passband
gain = 1
Pm sin 2
4
Sol.(d)The output of the multiplier is given by
(a)
Pm cos
2
(b)
Pm
4
(c)
x(t) = m(t) cos 0 t cos( 0t+ ) or x(t) =
Output
signal
(0 > 2fm)
(d)
m(t)
[cos(2 0 t + )+ cos ]
2
As the low pass filter is bandlimited to fm. Output of filter y(t) =

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PERSONAL REMARK :
1 2
The power of signal y(t) = y2 (t)dt
T T
1
=
T
T
2
T
2
m2 (t) cos 2
cos 2
dt =
4
4
1 T/2 2
P cos 2
m (t)dt = m
4
T T /2
The Hilbert transform of cos1t + sin2t is.

(GATE-EC-2000)
(a) sin1t cos2t
(b)
sin1t + cos2t
(c) cos1t sin2t
(d) sin1t + sin2t
Sol.(a)Hilbert transform of cos 1t + sin 2 t is given by
28.
)+ sin ( 2t ) or sin 1t cos 2t

2
2
NOTE : Hilbert transform is a negative 900 phase shifter.
cos( 1t
A 1 MHz sinusoidal carrier is amplitude modulated by a symmetrical

square wave of period 100 sec. Which of the following frequencies
will NOT be present in the modulated signal? (GATE-EC-2002)
(a) 990 KHz (b) 1010 KHz (c) 1020 KHz (d) 1030 KHz
Sol.(c) For a symmetrical square wave signal with period T, the Fourier
series expansion is
29.
m(t) =
cos3 m t cos5 m t
4
[cos m t
3
5
The bands of AM signal will be, f c f m , f c 3 f m , f c 5 f m and so on.

Clearly 1020 KHz is not present in the AM band.
The input to a coherent detector is DSB-SC signal plus noise. The
noise at the detector output is:
(GATE-EC-2003)
(a) the in-phase component (b) the quadrature-component
(c) zero
(d) the envelope
Sol.(a) The input to the coherent detector is
x(t) = m (t) cos ct +ni(t) cos ct+nq(t)sin ct
where ni(t) = in - phase noise component
Output of the detector y(t) = m(t) cos2 ct + ni(t)cos2 ct + nq(t) sin
ct cos ct
30.
m(t) n i (t)
+
2
2
A DSB-SC signal is to be generated with a carrier frequency
f c= 1 MHz using a non-linear device with the input-output
characteristic V0=a0vi + a1vi3 where a0 and a1 are constants. The
output of the non-linear device can be filtered by an appropriate
band-pass filter.Let Vi = Aci cos(2fcit) + m(t) where m(t) is the
message signal. Then the value of fci (in MHz) is:(GATE-EC-2003)
(a) 1.0
(b) 0.333
(c)
0.5
(d)
3.0
output from the LPF , yLPF(t) =
31.
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Sol.(c)The output of non linear device
y(t) = a0[Accos2 fcit + m(t)] + a1[Accos2 fcit + m(t)]3
y(t) = a0Accos2 fcit + a0 m(t) + a1[A3ccos32 fcit+m3(t) +
3m(t)A2ccos22 fcit+3Acm2(t) cos2 fcit]
The square & cube of cos ine terms contains higher frequency
components which are supressed by BPF
The DSB equation is 3 m(t) cos 4fct
PERSONAL REMARK :
fc
0.5 MHz
2
Common Data for Qustions 32 and 33.
Let m(t) = cos[(4 103)t] be the message signal & c(t) = 5 cos[(2
x 106)t] be the carrier
c(t) and m(t) are used to generate an AM signal. The modulation
index of the generated AM signal is 0.5. Then the quantity
i
i
So, 2 fc fc or f c
32.
Total sideband power
si:
Carrier power
(a) 1/2
(b) 1/4
(GATE-EC-2003)
(c)
1/3
(d)
1/8
1
Psid e b a n d
2 0.25
=
=
=
8
2
2
P tran sm itted
Sol.(d)
An AM signal is detected using an envelop detector. The carrier

frequency and modulating signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 kHz
respectively. An appropriate value for the time constant of the envelop
detector is
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) 500 sec (b) 20 sec (c) 0.2 sec (d) 1 sec
Sol.(b) The required condution for time constant
33.
1
1
1
i.e. Time constant, RC
<< RC<<
fc
fm
fc
1
1 MHz
or
1
or
2 103
or 1s
and
1
fm
500 s
An AM signal and a narrow-band FM signal with identical carriers,

modulating signals and modulation indices of 0.1 are added together.
The resultant signal can be closely approximated by
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) Broadband FM
(b) SSB with carrier
(c) DSB-SC
(d) SSB without carrier
Sol.(b)The expression for AM signal is, yAM(t) = Acosct + m(t) cosct
The expression for NB FM signal is
yFM(t) = Acosct Ackfg(t) sinct or y(t) = yAM(t) + yFM(t)
= 2A cosct + m(t)cosct Ackfg(t)sinct
Here, AM = FM = 0.1,
Let m(t) = Am cosmt
yAM(t) = Acosct + 0.1Acosct cosmt
yFM(t) = Acosct 0.1 Asinctsinmt
34.
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FM = 0.1 =
Am k f
m
,g(t) A m cos m t
PERSONAL REMARK :
Am
sin m t
m
Therefore, y(t) = 2Acosct + 0.1 A [cosctcosmt sinctsinmt]

The expression of SSB with carrier.
Two sinusoidal signals of same amplitude and frequencies 10 kHz
and 10.1 kHz are added together. The combined signal is given to an
ideal frequency detector. The output of the detector is
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) 0.1 kHz sinusoid
(b) 20.1 kHz sinusoid
(c) a linear function of time (d) a constant
Sol.(a) s(t) = cos1t + cos2t
The frequency detector will detect only the common frequency.
The time-period of s(t)
35.
LCM of numerator(T1 ,T2 )

100 99 9900 s
HCF of deno min ator(T1 ,T2 )
Fundamental frequency = 0.1 kHz

Which of the following analog modulation scheme requires the
minimum transmitted power and minimum channel bandwidth?
(GATE-EC-2004)
(a) VSB
(b) DSB-SC (c) SSB
(d)
AM
Sol.(c) SSB anlog modulation scheme requires minimum transmitted power
and minimum channel Bandwidth.
36.
37.
The diagonal clipping in Amplitude Demodulation (using envelop

detector) can be avoided if RC time-constant of the envelope detector
satisfies the following condition, (here W is message bandwidth and
is carrier frequency both in rad/sec)
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a)
RC
(b) RC
W
Sol.(a)The condition is given by
1
1
<RC<
c
m
1 2
2
1
W
(c) RC
(d) RC
1
1
<< RC <<
fc
fm
or in general
A message signal with bandwidth 10 kHz is Lower-Side Band SSB

modulated with carrier frequency fc1=106 Hz. The resulting signal is
then passed through a Narrow-Band Frequency Modulator with
carrier frequency fc2=109Hz. The bandwidth of the output would be
(GATE-IN-2006)
(a) 4 x 104 Hz (b) 2 x 106 Hz (c) 2 x 109 Hz (d) 2 x 1010 Hz
Sol.(b) The LSB signal look as
38.
When this signal is FM modulated

BWFM = 2fc = 2 106 Hz
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Common Data for Questions 39 & 40
Consider the following Amplitude Modulated signal, where fm < B
xAM(t) = 10(1 + 0.5sin2fmt)cos2fct
39. The average side-band power for the AM signal given above is
(GATE-EC-2006)
(a) 25
(b) 12.5
(c) 6.25
(d)
3.125
Sol.(c)Compare the given equation with standard equation of AM signal
XAM (t) = Ac[1 + cos mt] cos ct and Ac = 10 = 0.5
Pc =
40.
PERSONAL REMARK :
0.25 50
A 2c
2 Pc
= 50 Watt and Psideband =
=
= 6.25 Watt
att
2
2
2
The AM signal gets added to a noise with Power Spectral density

Sn(f) given in the figure below. The ratio of average sideband power
to mean noise power would be:
(GATE-EC-2006)
S0(f)
N0/2
feB
fe
25
(a)
8N 0 B
fe+B
feB
25
(b)
4N 0 B
fe
fe+B
25
(c)
25
2N 0 B
(d)
N0B
Sol.(b)Sideband Power Ps = 25/4 Watts.

Noise Power (baseband band width)
41.
25
N0
2B N 0 B , Ratio
4N 0 B
2
A Hilbert transformer is a :
(a). non-linear system
(c). time-varying system
Sol.(a) h(t) =
(b)
(d)
(GATE-EC-2007)
non-causal system
low-pass system
1
t
A hilbert transform is a kind of hyberbolic function which is a non linear function

42.
Consider
the
amplitude
modulated(AM)
signal
Accosct + 2 cosm t cosct. For demodulating the signal using envelop
detector, the minimum value of Ac should be
(GATE-EC-2008)
(a) 2
(b) 1
(c) 0.5
(d) 0
2
Sol.(a) XAM(t) = Ac 1
cos m t cos c t
Ac
for envelop detection
1 or
Ac 1
or Ac 2
Ac = 2 (100% modulation)
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43. The signal cos c t 0.5 cos m t sin c t is
(GATE-EC-2008)
(a) FM only
(b) AM only
(c) both AM & FM
(d) neither AM nor FM
Sol.(c)The given equation represents a DSB-SC wave with sin ct as a
carrier in which partial carrier cos ct is present. Equation also
represents NBFM
PERSONAL REMARK :
For a message signal m(t) = cos(2fmt) and carrier of frequency fc,

which of the following represents a single side-band (SSB) signal?
(a) cos(2fmt)cos(2fct)
(b) cos(2fct) (GATE-EC-2009)
(c) cos[2(fc +fm)t]
(d) [1+cos(2fmt)] cos(2fct)
Sol.(c)The sinusoidal message signal equation of SSB for uppersideband
cos ( c+ m)t = cos ct cos mt sinct sinmt for lower sideband
cos ( c m)t = cos ctcos mt + sin c t sin mt
44.
45.
A message signal given by
(GATE-EC-2009)
1
1
m(t) cos t sin t is amplitude-modulated with a
1 2
2
2
carrier of frequency c to generate s(t) = { 1 + m(t)] cos ct
What is the power efficiency achieved by this modulation scheme?
(a) 8.33 % (b) 11.11% (c)
20%
(d)
25 %
Sol.(c) For amplitude modulation
XAM (t) = Ac cos ct + m(t) cos ct
XAM (t) = Ac cos ct + (1/2 cos 1t 1/2 sin 2t) cos ct
1
1
XAM= Ac cos ct 1
cos1 t
sin 2 t
2A c
2A c
Pc =
A2c
,
2
Psideband =
21 2 2 =
Here Ac = 1
46.
1
2A c
1
2 Pc
Ac2
1
=
=
2
8
2
2 2
2A c
2
Ptransmitted = Pc 1
2
% =
1
1
2
4A c 4A c 2
and
2
Ac2
1
2
2
Ptransmitted =
1 5 5
=
2 4 8
1/ 8
Psideband
100 = 20 %
100 =
5/8
Ptransmitted
Suppose that the modulating signal is m(t) = 2 cos(2fmt) and the

carrier signal is xc(t) = AC cos(2fct). Which one of the following is
a conventional AM signal without over modulation?
(a) x(t) = ACm(t) cos (2fct)
(GATE-EC-2010)
(b) x(t) = AC[1+m(t)] cos (2fct)
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AC
m(t) cos (2fct)
4
(d) x(t) = AC cos (2fmt) cos (2fct) +AC sin (2fmt) sin (2fct)
Sol.(c)The expression in option (c) can be written as
(c)
x(t) = AC cos (2fct) +
PERSONAL REMARK :
m(t)
x(t) A c 1
cos 2 f c t
4
To avoid overmodulation |kam(t)| < 1 which is satisfied in the

expression.
47.
A message signal m (t) = cos 2000 t + 4 cos 4000 t modulates

the carrier c (t) = cos 2 fc t where fc = 1 MHz to produce an
AM signal. For demodulating the generated AM signal using an
envelope detector, the time constant RC of the detector circuit
should satisfy
(GATE-EC-2011)
1s RC 0.5 ms
(a) 0.5 ms < RC < 1 ms
(b)
(c) RC << 1s
(d)
RC >> 0.5 ms
Sol.(b)In the given signal m(t), fm = Largest frequency component = 2KHz
Carrier frequency, fc = 1MHz
As,
1
1
,
RC
fc
fm
So, 1s << RC << 0.5 ms
48. The Column-1 lists the attributes and the Column-2 lists the modulation
systems. Match the attribute to the modulation system that best meets it.
Column-1
Column-2
P. Power efficient transmission of signals
I. Conventional AM
Q. Most bandwith efficient transmission of
II. FM
voice signals
R. Simplest receiver structure
III. VSB
S. Bandwidth efficient transmission of signals IV. SSB-SC
with significant dc component
(GATE-EC-2011)
(a) P-IV, Q-II, R-I, S-III
(b) P-II, Q-IV, R-I, S-III
(c) P-III, Q-II, R-I, S-IV
(d) P-II, Q-IV, R-III, S-I
Sol.(b)The only advantage of AM is that the receiver section is very cheap.
The bandwidth of conventional AM is 2fm whereas the bandwidth of
SSB-SC is fm as only single sideband is transmitted.
VSB is a kind of SSB with a little dc component.
49.
A 100 MHz carrier of 1 V amplitude and a 1 MHz modulating signal

of 1 V amplitude are fed to a balanced modulator. The output of the
modulator is passed through an ideal high-pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 100 MHz. The output of the filter is added with 100
MHz signal of 1 V amplitude and 900 phase shift as shown in the
figure. The envelope of the resultant signal is [GATE-EC-2004]
1 MHz,1V Balanced
Modulator
HPF
100MHz
+
+
100MHz 1V.900
100 MHz,1V
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(a)
constant
5 / 4 - sin(2 x106 t)
(c)
(b)
1 sin(2 x 106 t)
(d)
5/4 cos(2 x 106 t)
PERSONAL REMARK :
Sol.(c) Given, fc = 100 MHz = 100 106 Hz

Ac = 1 V, fm = 1 MHz = 1 106Hz, Am = 1 V
High pass filter with cut-off frequency = 100 MHz
The output of the balanced modulator
s(t) = m(t). c(t) = 1.cos (2106t)1.cos(2.100 106t)
=
1
{cos[2(108+106)t} + cos [2(108 106)t]}
2
Output after high pass filter with cut-off frequency , 100 MHz .
Let output of the HPF is , r(t) =
1
cos [2(108+106)t]
2
After adding another signal at the output, we have

y(t) =
1
cos[2(108 + 106)t] + sin [2 108t]
2
1
or y(t) [cos(2 100 106 t)cos(2106 t) sin(2
2
100 106 t)sin(2 106 t) sin(2 100 106 )]
or
1
y(t) [cos(2 100 106 t)[cos(2 106 t)
2
1
sin 2 100 106 t[z sin 2 106 t)]
2
L e t
y ( t ) c o s B s in
2 sin 2 106 t
1
where, A cos 2 106 t and B
2
2
and 2 100 106 t
Therefore envelop of y(t) will be y(t) A 2 B2
1 2
1
cos 2 106 t [4 sin 2 2 106 t 2 2 sin 2 106 t]
or y(t) 4
4
or y ( t )
1
1
c o s 2 2 1 0 6 t s i n 2 2 1 0 6 t 1 s in 2 1 0 6 t
4
4
or y(t)
1
1 sin 2 106 t
4
Envelop of y(t) =
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50.
Consider a system shown in the figure. Let X(f) and Y(f) denote the
Fourier transforms of x(t) and y(t) respectively. The ideal HPF has
the cutoff frequency 10 kHz..
[GATE-EC-2004]
PERSONAL REMARK :
HPF
10 kHz
13 kHz
X(f)
The positive frequencies where Y(f) has spectral peaks are

(a) 1 kHz and 24 kHz
(b) 2 kHz and 24 kHz
(c) 1 kHz and 14 kHz
(d) 2 kHz and 14 kHz
Sol.(b) Let the modulating signal, x(t) with frequency, fm
Output after balance modulator = 10 fm
Output after HPF with cut-off frequency, 10KHz = 10 + fm
Output after next balance modulator
= 13 (10 +fm) = 23 + fm and 3 fm
This condition is fulfilled by options given in alternative (b) only.
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CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CONTENT: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

CHAPTER-1 (BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

Electronic communication involves the transmission of information

Block diagram of electrical communication signal is shown below.

A communication system has three basic components namely

Transmission media, and

The function of a transmitter is to process the electrical signal from

However in the long distance radio communication or broadcasting

Inside a transmitter, signal processing such as

Restriction of range of audio frequencies

Restriction of range of video frequencies

Modulation etc. are achieved.

Transmission media or communication channel means the medium

The main function of receiver is to reproduce the message signal in

The reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process

CHAPTER-1 (BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

Normally used transmission media of communication channels are

Depending on the transmission media, communication is

Line communication or Wireline Communication

Radio communication or Wireless Communication

Line communication uses a pair of conductors called

In radio communication a wireless message is transmitted through

The two primary communication resources are transmitted

The transmitted power is the average power of the transmitted

The most important system design objectives is to use these

There are many reasons for distortion in the received signal.

Insufficient channel bandwidth.

Random variations in the channel characteristics,

External interference, and

Communication systems, as a subject, covers the study of all

Reliability of the system

Accurary (i.e. least error)

CHAPTER-1 (BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS) : COMMUNICATION ENGG.

When the spectrum of a message signal extends down to zero or

Noise refers to unwanted waves that tend to disturb the transmission

A quantitative way to account for the effect of noise is to introduce

Table given below shows frequency ranges of various spectrum

Ultra Low Frequency (ULF)

Extra Low Frequency (ELF)

Voice Frequency (VF)

Very Low Frequency (VLF)

30 kHz - 300 kHz

Low Frequency (LF)

300 kHz - 3000 kHz